CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the writer discusses contrastive analysis, error analysis, and

writing. Contrastive analysis consists of the meaning of contrastive analysis and the

hypothesis of contrastive analysis. Error analysis consists of the meaning of error

analysis, the sources of error, the types/kinds of errors, the practical uses of error

analysis, and the methodology of error analysis. Writing consists of the definition

of writing, the purpose of writing, and teaching writing.

A. Contrastive Analysis

1. The Meaning of Contrastive Analysis

Richards and Schmidt (2010: 129) states that contrastive analysis is

the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the

sound system or the grammatical system. According to Wilkins (in Spolsky,

1999: 8) contrastive analysis is a full-scale comparison of the two languages

was advocated as a preliminary step in the preparation of a language course

for students with a common language background. Contrastive analysis which

examines similarities and differences between the mother tongue of the

learner and the language being taught, with the aim of predicting difficulties

that learners may encounter in the process of mastering a particular language

(Spolsky, 1999: 26).

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The main aim of contrastive analysis is to compare phonological

systems, morphological systems, syntax and lexical meanings of two or more

languages. The development of contrastive analysis is the result of the need

to teach L2 in the most effective way. The term of contrastive analysis is often

compared the same contrastive linguistics both of them are different.

Based on the explanation above, contrastive analysis is a method that

can be used for helping people who learn other language in finding some

differences and similarities in grammatical or linguistic, between source

language and target language that usually led to some difficulties in learning

process encountered by the learner.

2. The Hypothesis of Contrastive Analysis

According to Sujoko (1989: 1), the contrastive analysis hypothesis is

the interfering effect of the first language on the second language learning

and claimed, in its strong form, that second language is primarily, if not

exclusively, a process of acquiring whatever items are different from the first

language. There are two versions of contrastive analysis hypothesis. They are

‘strong form’ and ‘weak form’. Strong form hypothesis states that the L2

errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between L1 and L2

which are learned by the learners. The weak form hypothesis states that

contrastive analysis has diagnostic characteristics. Therefore, contrastive

analysis and error analysis must be mutually complete.

Error analysis identifies the errors done by the learners while

contrastive analysis determines which the errors by the differences of both

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languages. Lee (1968:186; Fisiak [ed], 1985: 211) as quoted by Tarigan and

Tarigan (2011: 21) states that the strong form hypothesis of contrastive

analysis are as follows:

a. That the prime cause or single cause of difficulty and error in foreign

language learning is interference coming from the learner’s native

language.

b. The difficulty is caused by the differences between L1 and L2.

c. The greater the differences between L1 and L2 are the more difficult the

learning foreign language is.

d. The results of comparison between two languages are needed to predict

the difficulties and errors in learning of foreign language.

e. Teaching material can be determined exactly by comparing both

languages.

B. Error Analysis

1. The Meaning of Error Analysis

According to Sujoko (1989: 6), error analysis is the fact that learners

do make errors and that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified

to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge

of study of learners’ errors. Richards and Schmidt (2010: 201) states that error

analysis is the study of errors made by the second and foreign language

learners. Error analysis may be carried out in order to:

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a. Identify strategies which learners use in language learning

b. Try to identify the causes of learner errors

c. Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid

in teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials

From the two definitions above, it clarifies that error analysis is an

activity to identify, classify, and interpreted or describe the errors made by

someone in learning other language and it is carried out to obtain information

on common difficulties faced by someone.

2. The Sources of Error

In the field of error analysis, it has been understood that the nature of

errors implicates the existence of other reasons for errors to occur. The

sources of errors are categorized within four domains: interlingual transfer,

intralingual transfer, context of learning, and communication strategies

(Brown, 2000: 224-247).

a. Interlingual Transfer

Interlingual transfer is a significant source of error. In these early

stages, before the system of the second language is familiar, the native

language is the only linguistic system in previous experience upon which the

learner can draw. This opinion is also supported by Richards and Schmidt

(2010: 294) defines interlingual transfer as an error which results from

language transfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s native language.
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b. Intralingual Transfer

Intralingual transfer (the transfer within the target language itself).

Richards and Schmidt (2010: 294) defines an intralingual error is one which

results from faulty or partial learning of the target language1, rather than

from language transfer. Intralingual errors may be caused by the influence of

one target language item upon another. For example a learner may produce

He is comes, based on a blend of the English structures He is coming, He

comes. According to Richards (1973: 174-181), there are four types of

intralingual or developmental errors, they are:

1) Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization is defined as the use of the previously available

strategies in a new situation. Learners make a new deviant structure on

the basis on their experience of their structures in target language. They

make errors, as the want to reduce their linguistic burden in using the

language. The kinds of errors occur when the learners are given different

kind of sentence patterns and rules but sometimes she or he uses them in

different situation, in which particular generalization does not apply.

2) Ignorance of the rule restrictions

Ignorance of rule restriction related to generalization. Learners make

errors because they fail to observe the restriction of existing structures.

They apply the rules in a new situation where if should not be applied.
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3) Incomplete application of rules

Learners make errors because they are more interested in

communication, so they think that there is no need for mastering the rules

of the language.

4) False concepts hypothesized

The errors are caused by the poor gradation of the teaching items. It is

derived from a faulty comprehension or distinction in the target language.

c. Context of Learning

Sujoko (1989: 18) states that students often make errors because of a

misleading explanation from their teacher, faulty presentation of a structure

or word in a textbook or even because of pattern that was rottenly memorized

in drill but not properly contextualized.

Example: She has three childs. Instead of She has three children.

In the sentence above, a learner puts a word chids to explain that the

child is more than one. Childs is not proper to explain the plural noun. The

correct one is three children.

d. Communication Strategy

According to Sujoko (1989: 24), communication strategy is the

conscious employment of verbal or non-verbal mechanisms for

communicating and idea when precise linguistics forms are for reason not

readily available to the learner at a point in communication.

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3. The Types of Error

Each student has different types in making errors when they write

paragraphs. According to Dullay, Burt and Krashen (1982: 154), there are

four types of errors based on the surface strategy taxonomy, omission,

addition, misformation and misordering.

a. Omission (Ø)

Omission errors are characterized by absence of an item that must

appear in a well-formed utterence. Omission can occur morphology. Learner

often omit the third person singular morpheme –s, the progressive –ing, the

plural marker –s and the past tense inflection –ed. A learner could say, for

example: ―A strange happen to me yesterday. In syntax, learners may omit

certain elements, which are obligatory, for example: ―Must say also the

names? instead of ―Must we also say the names?”

b. Addition

Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which

must not appear in a well-formed utterence. There are three types of addition

where errors have been observed in the speech of L1 and L2, namely double

markings, regularization, and simple addition.

1) Double markings

Double markings are two items rather than one that is marked for the

same feature. Dulay said that ― This error is the defined as the failure to

delete certain items which are required in some linguistic constructions

but not in others. In most English sentence, there is only one rule that is
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used in a sentence. For example: the rule of simple past tense in English

is change the verb of a sentence to the past form, but if the sentence is

negative, the rule is not used. For example: ―she did invited me in her

birthday party yesterday.” in this sentence, there are two markers for the

past sentence, this error is called double marking error. The true sentence

is ―she did not invite me in her birthday party yesterday”.

2) Regularization

A rule typically applies to a class item, such as the class of main verbs or

the class of noun. There are both regular and irregular forms and

constructions in a language, learners apply the rules used to produce the

regular one to those that are irregular. For example: “I getted the blue

jacket from my sister yesterday”. The verb get is irregular verb, so the

true is got. In this case, the learners made error in this type because they

apply the rule of regular verb.

3) Simple addition

If an addition error is not a regularization and not a double marking, it is

called a simple addition. There is no significance chracteristic of this

error. The example of this error are: ―That a cat is mine, it is the simple

addition error in using article a. And ―My computer do not work

properly, this is the example of simple addition error in using auxiliary

do for does.
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c. Misformation

Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of

the morpheme or structure. It classified into three parts:

1) Regularization

Regularization errors occur when the learners apply the rules of regular

to irregular form. For example: runned for run, speaked for spoke,

teached for tought, toot for teeth, etc.

2) Archi-form

Archi-form is the selection of one member of a class of forms to represent

others in the class. For example in the sentence: ―I’ve many questions

to ask him.

3) Alternating form

As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of archi-forms

often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of various

members of a class with each other.

d. Misordering

Misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of

morpheme or group of morpheme in an utterence. For example: ―what daddy

is doing? the correct one is ―What is daddy doing?”.

4. The Practical Uses of Error Analysis

According to Sujoko (1989: 48), the practical uses of error analysis to

the teacher is as follows:

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a. Errors provide feedback; they tell the teacher something about the

effectiveness of his teaching materials and his teaching techniques.

b. They show him what parts of the syllabus he has been following have

been inadequately learned or taught and need further attention.

c. They enable him to decide whether he must devote more time to the

item he has been working on. This is the day-to-day- value of errors.

In term of broader planning and with new group of learners.

d. They provide the information for designing a remedial syllabus or a

program of re-teaching.

As mentioned above, the practical use of error analysis is very

significant both to the teacher and the learner. The significance of the practical

uses of error analysis is to the teacher. It means that he analyses the learner’s

error and corrects the error made by the learners. For the learners, the practical

uses of error analysis can facilitate them in improving the English mastery.

5. The Methodology of Error Analysis

Richards and Schmidt (2010: 363) defines methodology as the study

of the practices and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs

that underlie them. Methodology includes:

a. The study of the nature of language skills (e.g. reading, writing, speaking,

listening) and procedures for teaching them.

b. The study of the preparation of lesson plans, materials, and textbooks for

teaching language skills.

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c. The evaluation and comparison of language teaching method (e.g. the

audiolingual method).

The methodology of error analysis according to Tarigan and Tarigan

(2011: 63-64) is as follows:

a) Mengumpulkan data: berupa kesalahan berbahasa yang dilakukan oleh

siswa, misalnya hasil ulangan, karangan, atau percakapan.

b) Mengidentifikasi dan mengklasifikasi kesalahan: mengenali dan

memilah-milah kesalahan berdasarkan kategori kebahasaan, misalnya

kesalahan-kesalahan pelafalan, pembentukan kata penggabungan kata,

penyusunan kalimat.

c) Memperingkat kesalahan: mengurutkan letak kesalahan, penyebab

kesalahan, dan memberikan contoh yang benar.

d) Menjelaskan kesalahan: menggambarkan letak kesalahan, penyebab

kesalahan, dan memberikan contoh yang benar.

e) Memprakirakan atau memprediksi daerah atau hal kebahasaan yang

rawan: meramalkan tataran bahasa yang dipelajari yang potensial

mendatangkan kesalahan.

f) Mengoreksi kesalahan: memperbaiki dan bila dapat menghilangkan

kesalahan kesalahan melalui penyusunan bahan yang tepat, buku

pegangan yang baik, teknik pengajaran yang serasi.

Based on the explanation above, the writer concluded that

methodology of error analysis are collecting the work of the students which

contains errors, identifying and classifying the errors, analyzing the sentences
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and classifying the types of error in that sentence, then describing them to

make clarification, predicting the area of difficulties, and corecting errors.

C. Writing

1. The Definition of Writing

There are several opinions about the definition of writing by the

experts. Writing is a visual representation of spoken language (Torrance,

2007: 1). According to Sokolik (in Nunan 2003: 88), writing is the mental of

work of inventing ideas, thinking about how to express them, and organizing

them into statements and paragraphs that will be clear to a reader.

In addition, Harmer (2004: 4-5) suggests the writing process into four

stages:

a. Planning

Experienced writers plan what they are going to write. Before starting

to write or type, they try and decide what it is they are going to say. When

planning, writers have to think about three main issues: purpose, audience,

and content structure of the piece.

b. Drafting

We can refer to the first version of a piece of writing as a draft. This

first ‘go’ at a text is often done on the assumption that it will be amended

later.
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c. Editing (reflecting and revising)

Reflecting and revising are often helped by other readers (or editors)

who comment and make suggestions. Another reader’s reaction to a piece of

writing will help the author to make appropriate revisions.

d. Final draft

After the writers have edited the draft, they produce the final version.

It is different from both the original plan and the first draft, because things

have changed in the editing process.

From the statements above, it can be concluded that writing is a skill

which can be learnt by anyone who want to express their thought, ideas,

feeling into textual medium by following the linguistic rules.

2. The Purpose of Writing

According to Hyland (2003: 9), writing is a way of sharing personal

meanings and writing courses emphasize the power of the individual to

construct his or her own views on a topic. The purpose of writing, in

principle, is the expression of ideas, the conveying of messages to the

reader. So the ideas themselves should arguably be seen as the most

important aspect of the writing (Ur, 1996: 163).

The purpose of writing is not only to teach someone to convey idea

to the readers but also to reinforce all aspect of languages that have been

learnt by students. Writing can inform, persuade, and entertain the readers.

Writing is to reveal feelings and opinions, usually recalling experience.

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3. Teaching Writing

According to Harmer (2004: 31) states that writing encourages

students to focus on accurate language use and, because they think as they

write, it may well provoke language development as they resolve problems

which the writing puts into their minds. Teaching writing should focus from

product into process which promising the students to be more competent in

writing because it focuses on developing the ideas to produce optimal writing.

Shih (1986, in Brown 2001: 335), the process approaches do most of

the following:

a. Focus on the process of writing that leads to the final written product.

b. Help students writer to understand their own composing process.

c. Help them to build repertoires of strategies for prewriting, drafting, and

rewriting.

d. Give students time to write and rewrite.

e. Place central importance in the process of revision.

f. Lets students discover what they want to say as they write.

g. Give students feedback throughout the composing process (not just on the

final product) as they attempt to bring their expression closer and closer

and closer to intention.

h. Encourage feedback from both the instructor and peers.

i. Include individual conferences betwen teacher and student during the

process of composition.