Microwave and RF Fundamentals

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Electromagnetic Wave

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Frequency - is the number of cycles per second of a wave.

Wavelength - Is the distance that a wave travels in the time of one

cycle.

Wave Velocity - Is the speed of the wave depending on the type and
nature of the propagation of the medium.
• It travels fastest on FREE SPACE

λ= c/f
Where: c= 3x108 m/s
c=186000 statute mi/s

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Principle of Reciprocity
 The characteristics of
antennas, such as
impedance and radiation
pattern are identical
regardless of use for
reception or transmission

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Attenuation
 Decrease in signal
Strength with respect
to the distance
travelled
 Electromagnetic waves
are attenuated as they
travel outward from
their source and this
attenuation is
proportional to the
square of the distance
travelled.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Reflection
 The bouncing of
waves as it strikes a
conductive surface

Reflection Coefficient (ρ) ρ= Eref / Einc

Defined as the ratio of the electric ρ= 1 for perfect reflector

field intensity of the reflected waves ρ< 1 for practical conducting
to that of the incident waves surfaces

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Refraction
 The bending of waves as
it passes the boundary of
two media having
different density

Snell’s Law
Note: If medium A is less dense than B,
the refracted wave move towards the
normal; if the medium B is less dense than
A, the refracted wave moves away from
the normal

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Diffraction
 Scattering of
waves as it
enter a small
slot or sharp
edge obstacles

Francisco Grimaldi’s
Huygens’ Principle
Discovery

No matter how small was Every point on a given spherical

made in an opaque plane, wavefront may be regarded as a
light on the side opposite the source of waves from which further
source would spread out in waves are radiated outward
all directions.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Interference
 Occurs when two waves combine in such a way that the system
performance was degraded (collision)
 This happens very often in high-frequency sky-wave
propagation and microwave space-wave propagation

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 General Classification of Radio Waves

Ground Waves

Space Waves

Sky Waves

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Ground Waves Field Strength at a distance

E= 120πIht / λd
 Travel around the curvature of the earth,
sometimes right around the globe Voltage at the Receiving Antenna
 Utilizes frequencies below HF range, and
losses with increasing frequency V= Ehr= 120πIhrht / λd
 Progress along the surface of the earth
and must be vertically polarized to Where:
prevent short circuiting the electric 120π = characteristic impedance of
component. free space
ht = height of the transmitting
 Wave induces current to the ground; some
antenna
of its energy is lost due to absorption. hr = height of the receiving antenna
 As one moves away from the transmitter, I = antenna current
the ground wave eventually disappear due d = distance from the transmitting
to tilting antenna
λ = wavelength

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Space Waves
 Travel in the troposphere; the portion of
the atmosphere closest to the ground.
 Depend mostly on line-of-sight conditions,
a space wave is limited in propagation by
the curvature of the earth.
 Utilizes frequencies above HF range
 Energy travelling directly between the
antennas is attenuated to about the same
degrees as in free space.
 Caused by the varying density of the
atmosphere due to diffraction around the
curvature of the earth

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Sky Waves
 The wave strikes the ionosphere and is refracted back to the ground.
 Utilizes frequencies in the HF range and sometimes frequencies just
above or below it.
 Ionosphere is a region in the earth’s atmosphere where the air
pressure is so low that the free electrons and ions can move about for
some time without getting close enough to recombine into neutral
atoms. It absorbs large qualities of radiant energy from the sun,
becoming heated and ionized. Ionization is the result of the
bombardment of the sun’s rays by a variety of wave from heat and
light to cosmic rays. Most important ionizing agents are ultraviolet,
alpha, beta and gamma rays coming from the sun, cosmic rays and
meteors.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Critical Angle (θc)
•The highest angle of radiation
that will return the wave to
the earth at a given density of
ionization in the layer for the
frequency or wavelength
under consideration
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
•The highest frequency that will be
returned down to the earth at a given
distance when beamed at a specific angle
other than the normal

Critical Frequency (fc)

•The highest frequency that will be
returned down to earth by a certain
layer after having been beamed
vertically upward

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Optimum Working Frequency (OWF) Skip Distance & Skip Zone

Skip Distance – The shortest

•Frequency chosen by practical to avoid distance from a transmitter,
the irregularities of the ionosphere. It is measured along the surface of the
about 15% lower than MUF earth, at which a sky wave of fixed
frequency will be returned to earth

Skip Zone – The area where no

signal can be heard

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Waveguides
Modes
 The configuration in which the energy propagates thru a waveguide.
 Depends on the operating frequency and the physical dimensions of the waveguides.

Two Modes in Waveguides

Transverse Electric Transverse Magnetic

 The electric field is always  The magnetic field is always

perpendicular to the direction of perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. propagation.
 No component of the electric field  No component of the magnetic field
in the direction of propagation. in the direction of propagation.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Types of Modes
Dominant Mode
 The simplest or lowest order
mode in a waveguide the
particular mode in each class is
designated.
 TE10 (for rectangular waveguide)
 TE11 (for circular waveguide)
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
Transverse Magnetic
 TE11, TE20, TE22
 TM11, TM20, TM22... Etc.
 Higher order modes are not used in
practice because of their high cut of
frequencies.
 Cut-off Frequency Cut-off Wavelength

 The lowest frequency that will 2

propagate thru a waveguide λc =
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
while operating in a particular ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) )
( ) (
mode. A waveguide is a high-
pass filter.
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
fc = 1.5x108 ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) )
( ) ( The various modes are designated
by subscripts m and n. In the
dominant mode, TE10 (m = 1 and n
= 0).

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Cut-off Frequency Cut-off Wavelength

 The lowest frequency that will 2

propagate thru a waveguide λc =
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
while operating in a particular ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) )
( ) (
mode. A waveguide is a high-
pass filter.
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
fc = 1.5x108 ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) )
( ) ( The various modes are designated
by subscripts m and n. In the
dominant mode, TE10 (m = 1 and n
= 0).

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Group Velocity Phase Velocity

Group Velocity (Vg) Phase Velocity (Vp)

 Velocity of the waves as they  Velocity with which the wave
propagate through the changes phase.
waveguide. 𝑐
Vp =
λ 2 λ 2
( − λ𝑐 ) )
1 (
Vg = c x (1 − (λ ) )
𝑐

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Guide Wavelength

Guide Wavelength (λg)

 The wavelength of the
travelling wave which
propagates down the
waveguide.
λ
λg =
λ 2
( − λ𝑐 ) )
1 (

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Characteristic Impedance of the Waveguide

TE MODE TM MODE

For the TE mode: For the TM mode:

λ 2
Zo = 120π x (1 − (λ ) )
120π 𝑐
Zo =
λ 2
(1 − (λ 𝑐 ) )

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Values of Kr for principal modes in circular
Circular Waveguide’s Cut- waveguides
off wavelength
Transverse Electric Transverse Magnetic
2𝜋𝑟 Mode kr Mode kr
λ𝑐 =
𝑘𝑟
TE01 3.83 TM01 2.4

TE11 1.84 TM11 3.83

TE21 3.05 TM21 5.14

TE02 7.02 TM02 5.52

TE12 5.33 TM12 7.02

TE22 6.71 TM22 8.42

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Methods of Exciting Waveguides
 Antennas – probe or loop
 Slot coupling – hole or slot
 Direct coupling to coaxial cables

Waveguide Coupling
 Flanges for rectangular waveguides
 Rotating couplings for circular and elliptical waveguides.

Waveguide Sections
 Taper - used to couple a circular to a rectangular waveguide.
 Twists - used to change the signal polarization.
 Tee - used to combine two or more signals.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Communication
 Signals with a frequency greater than 1 GHz.
 The microwave region is generally considered to extend to 300 GHz.
 Point-to-point communications.
 Utilize the line of sight path, which means the two antennas (for
transmitter and receiver) should see each other (no obstructions).

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Radio Frequency Assignments

Band Frequency (GHz) Application

L 1–2
S 2–4 Marine radar
C 4–8 Commercial Use.
Satellites

X 8 – 12 Military
Ku 12 – 18 Commercial Use.
Satellites

K 18 – 27 Commercial Use.
Satellites

Ka 27 – 40 Military
U 60 – 80
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
W 80 - 100
 Line of Sight (LOS) Path

 No obstruction exists and antennas could see each

other.

Grazing Path

 The microwave beam barely touches the obstruction; zero

clearance.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Obstructed Path
 The microwave beam is hindered by an obstruction.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Factors affecting Microwave Energy
 Ducting and Thermal • Earth Bulge - Earth’s curvature
Inversion - Trapped waves presents LOS obstruction and
bounce back and forth in a must be compensated using
duct caused by temperature 4/3 earth radius for
and humidity inversion. atmospheric bending of waves.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Transmission Calculations

1. Height of a microwave system

( 𝑑1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑚𝑖 )
ℎ 𝑇 (𝑓𝑡) =
2

2. Transmitter Output (dB)

𝑃𝑇
𝑃𝑇 (𝑑𝐵𝜇) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 𝜇𝑊
𝑃𝑇
𝑃𝑇 (𝑑𝐵𝑊) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1𝑊
𝑃𝑇
𝑃 𝑇 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE 1 𝑚𝑊
 Microwave Transmission Calculations

3. Waveguide loss

𝑑𝐵
𝑊𝐿 = , 𝑓𝑡 𝑥 𝑚, 𝑓𝑡
𝑚

4. Gain of Parabolic Antenna

𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐵𝑓𝑡 + 7.5

𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐵𝑚 + 17.8
𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐵𝑓𝑡 − 52.5

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Transmission Calculations

5. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

𝐸𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑊𝐿 + 𝐺

6. Free Space Loss (FSL)

𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐷𝑚𝑖 + 96.6

𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐷𝑘𝑚 + 92.4
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐷𝑘𝑚 + 32.4

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Transmission Calculations

7. Net Path Loss (NPL)

𝑁𝑃𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠

8. Received Signal Level (RSL)

𝑅𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝑇𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 𝑁𝑃𝐿𝑑𝐵

RSL = Transmitter Output – Waveguide Loss (Tx) +Antenna

Gain (Tx) – FSL + Antenna Gain (Rx) – Waveguide Loss (Rx)

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Transmission Calculations

9. Noise (or Detection, or Absolute) Threshold (NT)

 Sensitivity Threshold of a Receiver− the least or the

weakest signal the receiver could accept to be
considered satisfactory.

NT dBm = − 114 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

10. FM Improvement (or Practical) Threshold (IT)

IT dBm = -104 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Transmission Calculations

11. Fade Margin - A margin for fading; an

allowance (or reservation) in dB, in case the RSL
(Received Signal Level) encounters fading.

FM dB = RSL dBm - IT dBm

12. System Gain (SG) - The difference between

the nominal output power of a transmitter and the
minimum input power required by a receiver.

SG = PT(dBm) - IT dBm
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
 Microwave Transmission Calculations

13. System Reliability

Rayleigh Reliability a. Unavailability (U)
Table
Fade Reliability
U = MTTR / (MTBF + MTTR)
Margin (%)
U = Downtime / Total Time
8 90
18 99 b. Reliability or Availability
28 99.9
38 99.99 R = (1 – U) x 100%
48 99.999

58 99.9999

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Fresnel Zones
Are concentric circular zones about the direct path of a microwave signal
forming a three-dimensional imaginary solid called an ellipsoid.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

Radius of the 1st Fresnel Zone (Hn)
𝑑1 𝑑2
𝐻𝑁 = 17.3
𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝐷

Radius of the nth Zone

𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻𝑛 𝑥 √𝑁

Fresnel Ratio (F)

𝐻
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐹 =
𝐻𝑛

Where:
H = Fresnel Clearance
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
Hn = Fresnel Zone
 Frequency Diversity
 Signal is transmitted on two (2) different frequencies
(properly spaced), over the same path.
 Two waves at different frequency travel the same path in
a multipath fade.

Cross Band Diversity – variation of frequency diversity.

Frequency separation are entirely of different band
allocations.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Space Diversity
 Signal is transmitted over two different paths (vertically
spaced several wavelengths apart), on the same
frequency.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Space Diversity
 Signal is transmitted over two different paths (vertically
spaced several wavelengths apart), on the same
frequency.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Polarization Diversity
 Using dual polarization (vertically and horizontally).
Applied to microwave system beyond L-O-S path, (or
obstructed path).
 It requires feed horn reorientation and is applied to paths
beyond LOS as in troposcatter systems.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Hybrid Diversity
 A special combination of frequency and space
diversity.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Angle Diversity
 It Is the transmission of information at two or more
slightly different angles resulting to two or more oaths
based on illuminating different scatter volumes in
troposcatter systems.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Quadrature Diversity
 The condition where four signals carrying the same
information (whose system employs the combination of
space or polarization or frequency diversity technique) are
available in the receiver, combination of frequency, space
and polarization diversity.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Antennas
Consist of parabolic antenna with
parabolic dish, illuminated by a
feed horn at its focus.
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
Similar to the common parabola,
except that they include a
cylindrical shield to improve the
front-to-back ratio and the wide
angle radiation discrimination.
Gain efficiency is lower than
ordinary parabolic antennas.
 Microwave Antennas

B. Radome
It is a metal wrapped around the It is a non-metallic (canvass)
antenna aperture to eliminate side covering in a parabolic antenna
lobes which may cause interference for protection against strong wind
to nearby microwave stations. velocity. In cold places, ice
accumulation is prevented by the
use of heated Radome.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE

 Microwave Antennas
3. Cross Band Parabolic
 Permits operation into two widely
separate bands. Very complex and
critical feed assemblies, have
lower gains and poorer VSWR
than single band antennas.
Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE
4. Horn Reflected Antenna
Contains a section of large parabola
mounted such as an angle that the
energy feed horn is simultaneously
focused and reflected at right angles.
It provides a good front-to-back ratio,
good VSWR and can be used for
multi-band operation on both
polarization but offers some moding
and distortion problems particularly at
higher frequencies.
 Microwave Antennas

5. Periscope Arrangement
It is a combination of a
reflector mounted on a
tower and the parabolic
antenna below. Use the 150
feet and beyond. The
spacing between the
antenna and the reflector
should be in the near field.

Jaime P. Licuanan, PECE, ACPE