BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIS
ENGINEERING

UNIT – 2

1
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
 The voltage which changes polarity at regular interval of
time is known as the alternating voltage.
 The one complete cycle of an alternating quantity consists
two half cycles. And the direction of a half cycle changes
after every particular interval of time.
The alternating voltage is generated in two ways.
 By rotating the coil inside the uniform magnetic field at
constant speed.
 By rotating the magnetic field around the stationary coil
at the constant speed.
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
 Consider the stationary coil places inside the uniform
magnetic field. When the coil rotates in the anticlockwise
direction at constant angular velocity ω the electromotive
force induces in the coil. The cross-sectional view of the
coil at the different position is shown in the figure below.
 The magnitude of the emf induced in the coil depends on
the rate of the flux cut by the conductor.
 The figure below shows that the no current induces in
the coil when they are parallel to the magnetic line
of forces. i.e., at the position (1), (2) and (3). And the
total flux cut by the conductor becomes zero.
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
 The magnitude of the induces emf becomes
maximum when the conductor becomes
perpendicular to the magnetic line of force. The
conductor cuts the maximum flux at this position.
 The direction of the emf induces in the conductor is
determined by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGES
R.M.S. VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE
 The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared” is
define this as the “amount of AC power that produces
the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”.
 The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average)
value of the squared function of the instantaneous
values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are
VRMS or IRMS.
R.M.S. VOLTAGE EQUIVALENT
R.M.S. – GRAPHICAL METHOD
R.M.S. – GRAPHICAL METHOD
R.M.S. – GRAPHICAL METHOD
R.M.S. – VOLTAGE EQUATION
AVERAGE VALUE
 Then the average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity, such as a sine wave, is the average
value measured over only one half of a cycle, since as we
have just stated, the average value over one complete
cycle is zero regardless of the peak amplitude.
 Again consider only the positive half cycle from the
previous RMS voltage tutorial. The mean or average
voltage of a waveform can be found again with a
reasonable amount of accuracy by taking equally spaced
instantaneous values.
AVERAGE VALUE – GRAPHICAL METHOD
AVERAGE VALUE – GRAPHICAL METHOD
AVERAGE VALUE – ANALYTICAL METHOD
AVERAGE VALUE – VOLTAGE EQUATION
AVERAGE VALUE – VOLTAGE EQUATION
AVERAGE VALUE
 For a sinusoidally varying quantity, a average value =
0.637 * max-value.
 In case of rectangular wave form RMS value = Average
value.
 For all other types of wave forms RMS value is greater
than the average value.
 Moving coil meters always indicate average values.
 Moving Iron meters always indicate RMS values.
FORM FACTOR (KF) & PEAK FACTOR
 The ratio of the root mean square value to the average
value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) is
called Form Factor.

 The value of Form Factor is 1.11

FORM FACTOR & PEAK FACTOR
Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to
the R.M.S value of an alternating quantity. The
alternating quantities can be voltage or current.
B-H CURVE – MAGNETIC MATERIAL
 The B-H curve is the curve characteristic of the
magnetic properties of a material or element or alloy. It
tells you how the material responds to an external
magnetic field, and is a critical piece of information
when designing magnetic circuits.
 A huge increase in B for the same H! The hysteresis
comes into play when the material has been
magnetized. The B within the material does not go back
to what it was before, but is dependent on the history of
its magnetization.
B-H CURVE – MAGNETIC MATERIAL
B-H CURVE – MAGNETIC MATERIAL

The slope of the B-H curve at some location on its curve is its incremental
permeability at that location. However, sometimes the permeability is
measured from the origin to the location of interest, and that slope is called its
B-H CURVE – MAGNETIC MATERIAL
DC MACHINES - CONSTRUCTION

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TYPES OF DC GENERATORS

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DC GENERATORS

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TYPES OF DC GENERATORS

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 Current and Magnetism in a Coil

When current moves through a coiled conductor

a circular magnetic field is induced about the coil
A Conductor in a Fixed A Current Carrying Conductor in a
Magnetic Field Fixed Magnetic Field

Force

Fixed Magnetic Field

Induced Magnetic Field (Due to

current)
 A Motor Armature in a Fixed
Magnetic Field

S
N Direction of Force (Torque) acting
to turn the Armature (Conductor)

The magnetic field surrounding a

current carrying conductor interacts
with an existing magnetic field.
 Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Thumb = Direction of
Conductor Motion
Fore Finger = Direction of Fixed
Magnetic Field (N to S)

Middle Finger =
Conventional Current
Direction

Determines the direction of DC current

carrying conductor in a fixed magnetic
field
 Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Direction of
Rotation
Fixed Magnetic Field
Direction

Conventional
Current Direction S
N
 Motor (armature) rotation is caused by the
simultaneous attraction and repulsion between the
electromagnetic field in the armature and a fixed
magnetic field
Armature

Fixed Magnets
TYPES OF DC MOTORS

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TYPES OF DC MOTORS

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TYPES OF DC MOTORS

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

1. Electrical Characteristics (Ta Vs Ia)

2. Speed &Armature current Characteristics (N Vs Ia)
3. Mechanical Characteristics (N Vs T)

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT MOTORS

 Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

Since the filed winding in a DC shunt motor is excited by the constant
supply voltage. V the current the filed winding , Ish is constant. Since
the filed current in the DC shunt motor is constant, the flux produced
by the filed is also constant. i.e ɸ is constant value . There foe linear
characteristics along with Tsh, which is less than Ta due to losses in
the DC motor.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT MOTORS

 Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia) .

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf
is also almost constant, the speed should remain constant. But
practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf
Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases
slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load
speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant
speed motor.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC COMPOUND MOTORS

 DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a

compound motor, if series and shunt windings are connected such that
series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the motor is
said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite
to the direction of the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be
differentially compounded.

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APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

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 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
1. Flux control method
2. Armature control method
3. Voltage control method

DC Shunt motor

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

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 VOLTAGE CONTROL METHOD OF DC MOTOR
 Ward-Leonard System: This Ward –leonard system is used where
very sensitive speed control of the motor is required (e.g electric
excavators, elevators, etc.). The arrangement of this system is as
required in the figure shown below.
 M2 is the motor, it controls the speed of the generator. M1 may be any
AC motor or DC motor with constant speed. G is the generator directly
coupled to M1. In this method the output from the generator G is fed to
the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled. The
generator output voltage can be connected to the motor M2 and it can
be varied from zero to its maximum value, and hence the armature
voltage of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly. Hence very smooth
speed control of motor can be obtained by this method.


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SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR

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STARTING METHODS OF DC MOTOR
 For all practical practices to obtain optimum operation of the
motor the armature resistance is kept very small usually in the
order of 0.5 Ω and the bare minimum supply voltage being 220
volts. Even under these circumstance the starting current, Ia is
as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440 amp.
Such high starting current of DC motor creates two major
problems.
 Firstly, current of the order of 400 A has the potential of
damaging the internal circuit of the armature winding of DC
motor at the very onset.
 Secondly, since the torque equation of DC motor is given by
 Very high electromagnetic starting torque of DC motor is
produced by virtue of the high starting current, which has the
potential of producing huge centrifugal force capable of flying
off the rotor winding from the slots.
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3 POINT STARTER

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WORKING OF THREE POINT STARTER:
 Initially when a DC supply is switched ON with handle in the OFF
position.
 The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud, the shunt field
winding is directly connected across the supply while the whole
starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit.
 As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the
starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The
handle is now held magnetically by the no volt release coil which is
energized by shunt field current.
 If the motor is overloaded (or any fault occurs) it will draw
excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the
ampere turns of the overload release coil and pull the armature,
thus short circuited the no volt release coil. The no volt coil is
demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the
spring .thus the motor is automatically disconnected from the
supply. 55
3 POINT STARTER

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4 POINT STARTER

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 3 POINT STARTER
AND 4 POINT STARTER
3 Point Starter:
 The 3 point starter uses three terminals for running the motor
 Terminals: The 3 point starter includes 3 terminals namely, Armature
terminal (A), Field terminal (F), and the Line Terminal (L).
 NVC (No Volt Coil): The connection of three-point starter can be done in
series with the field coil.

4 Point Starter:
 The 4 point starter uses four terminals for speeding up the motor
 Terminals: The 4 point starter includes 4 terminals namely, Armature
terminal (A), Field terminal (F), and the Line Terminal (L).
 NVC (No Volt Coil): The connection of four-point starter can be done in
parallel with the field coil.

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SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
•According to double field revolving theory, we can resolve any
alternating quantity into two components.

•Each component has a magnitude equal to the half of the

maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity, and both these
components rotate in the opposite direction to each other.

•For example - a flux, φ can be resolved into two components

•Each of these components rotates in the opposite direction i.e.

if one φm/2 is rotating in clockwise direction then the other
φm/2 rotates in anticlockwise direction.
 When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator
winding of single phase induction motor, it produces
its flux of magnitude, φm.
 According to the double field revolving theory, this
alternating flux, φm is divided into two components of
magnitude φm/2.
 Each of these components will rotate in the opposite
direction, with the synchronous speed, Ns.
 Let us call these two components of flux as forwarding
component of flux, φf and the backward component of
flux, φb.
 The resultant of these two components of flux at any
instant of time gives the value of instantaneous stator
flux at that particular instant.