Radiation: Processes and Properties

- Environmental Radiation -
Chapter 12
Section 12.8
Solar Radiation

Solar Radiation
• The sun is a nearly spherical source of radiation whose outer diameter is
1.39 x 109 m and whose emissive power approximates that of a blackbody at 5800 K.

• The distance from the center of the sun to the center of the earth varies with time
of year from a minimum of 1.471 x 1011 m to a maximum of 1.521 x 1011 m, with
an annual average of 1.496 x 1011 m.

• Due to the large sun-to-earth distance, the sun’s rays

are nearly parallel at the outer edge of the earth’s
atmosphere, and the corresponding radiation flux is
q′′S = f x Sc

Sc → the solar constant or heat flux (1353 W/m 2 )

when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun.
f → correction factor accounting for eccentricity
of the earth's orbit ( 0.97 < f <1.03)
Solar Radiation (cont).

• Extraterrestrial irradiation of a surface whose normal is at a zenith angle θ

relative to the sun’s rays is
GS ,o = f x Sc x cosθ

• Interaction of solar radiation with earth’s atmosphere:

¾ Absorption by aerosols over the entire spectrum.
¾ Absorption by gases (CO2, H2O ( v ), O3) in discrete wavelength bands.
¾ Scattering by gas molecules and aerosols.
Solar Radiation (cont).

• Effect of Atmosphere on Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation:

¾ Attenuation over the entire spectrum but more pronounced in spectral bands
associated with polar molecules.
¾ Note concentration of all radiation in the spectral region 0.3 < λ < 3μ m and
peak at λ ≈ 0.5μ m.
¾ Why is the assumption of graybody behavior often inappropriate for
surfaces experiencing solar irradiation?
Solar Radiation (cont).

• Effect of Atmosphere on Directional Distribution of Solar Radiation:

¾ Rayleigh scattering is approximately uniform in all directions (isotropic

scattering), while Mie scattering is primarily in the direction of the sun’s
rays (forward peaked).

¾ Directional distribution of radiation

at the earth’s surface has two components.
– Direct radiation: Unscattered and in
the direction θ of the sun’s rays.
– Diffuse radiation: Scattered radiation
strongly peaked in the forward direction.
¾ Calculation of solar irradiation for a
horizontal surface often presumes the
scattered component to be isotropic.
′′ cosθ + π I dif
GS = GS ,dir + GS ,dif = qdir

0.1 < ( GS ,dif / GS ) < 1.0

Clear skies Completely overcast
Terrestrial Radiation
Terrestrial Radiation
• Emission by Earth’s Surface:
E = εσ T 4

¾ Emissivities are typically large. For example, from Table A.11:

Sand/Soil: ε > 0.90
Water/Ice: ε > 0.95
Vegetation: ε > 0.92
Snow: ε > 0.82
Concrete/Asphalt: ε > 0.85

¾ Emission is typically from surfaces with temperatures in the range of

250 < T < 320 K and hence concentrated in the spectral region
4 < λ < 40 μ m, with peak emission at λ ≈ 10 μ m.

• Atmospheric Emission:
¾ Largely due to emission from CO2 and H2O (v) and concentrated in the
spectral regions 5 < λ < 8 μ m and λ > 13μ m.
Terrestrial Radiation (cont).

¾ Although far from exhibiting the spectral characteristics of blackbody emission,

earth irradiation due to atmospheric emission is often approximated by a
blackbody emissive power of the form
Gatm = σ Tsky
4

Tsky → the effective sky temperature

230 K< Tsky < 285 K

Cold, clear sky Warm, overcast sky

• Can water in the natural environment freeze if the ambient air temperature
exceeds 273 K? If so, what environmental conditions (wind and sky)
favor ice formation?
Surface Properties

Surface Radiative Properties

• Concentration of solar ( 0.3 < λ < 3μ m ) and terrestrial ( 4 < λ < 40 μ m ) in
different spectral regions often precludes use of the gray surface approximation
(ε ≠ α S ) .

¾ Note significant differences in ρλ and α λ for the two spectral regions: snow,
human skin, white paint.
¾ In terms of net radiation transfer to a surface with solar irradiation, the parameter
α S / ε has special significance. Why?
Surface Properties (cont).

Surface αS / ε

Snow 0.29

Human skin 0.64 Rejection

White paint 0.22

Black paint 1.0

Collection
Evaporated Al film 3.0
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck

Problem 12.119: Determination of preferred roof coating (Parsons Black,

Acrylic White, or Zinc Oxide White) and corresponding
heat load for prescribed operating conditions.

KNOWN: Dimensions and construction of truck roof. Roof interior surface temperature.
Truck speed, ambient air temperature, and solar irradiation.

FIND: (a) Preferred roof coating, (b) Roof surface temperature, (c) Heat load through roof, (d)
Effect of velocity on surface temperature and heat load.
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck (cont)

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Turbulent boundary layer development over entire roof, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible atmospheric (sky) irradiation, (4) Negligible contact resistance.

PROPERTIES: Table A.4, Air (Ts,o ≈ 300 K, 1 atm): ν = 15 × 10−6 m 2 s , k = 0.026 W m⋅ K ,

Pr = 0.71.

ANALYSIS: (a) To minimize heat transfer through the roof, minimize solar absorption relative
to surface emission. Hence, from Table A.12, use zinc oxide white for which αS = 0.16
and ε = 0.93.

(b) Performing an energy balance on the outer surface of the roof, αSGS + q′′conv − E − q′′cond = 0 ,
it follows that
4
αSGS + h(T∞ − Ts,o ) = εσ Ts,o + (k t)(Ts,o − Ts,i )
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck (cont)

where it is assumed that convection is from the air to the roof. With
VL 30 m s(5 m)
Re L = = = 107
ν −6 2
15 × 10 m s

Nu L = 0.037 Re 4L/ 5 Pr1/ 3 = 0.037(107 ) 4 / 5 (0.71)1/ 3 = 13,141

h = Nu L (k L) = 13,141(0.026 W m⋅ K/5 m) = 68.3 W m 2⋅ K .

Substituting numerical values in the energy balance and solving by trial-and-error, we obtain

Ts,o = 295.2 K.

(c) The heat load through the roof is

q = (kAs t)(Ts,o − Ts,i ) = (0.05 W m ⋅ K × 10 m 2 0.025 m)35.2 K = 704 W .

(d) From parametric calculations based on the foregoing model, the following results are
obtained.
Problem: Heat Load on Food Delivery Truck (cont)

300 700

295 650
Temperature, Tso(K)

Heat load, q(W)

290 600

285 550

500
280
5 10 15 20 25 30
5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity, V(m/s)
Velocity, V(m/s)

The surface temperature and heat load decrease with decreasing V due to a reduction in the
convection heat transfer coefficient and hence convection heat transfer from the air.

COMMENTS: The heat load would increase with increasing αS/ε.