Author: Manuj Notebook: Environment and Geography

Created: 22 July 2015 at 12:43:36 PM

Updated: 17 December 2015 at 12:23:07
AM

Geography Lectures
Plate Tectonic Theory
1. Came in 1960s
2. Based on 2 scientific evidences:
1. Sea-Floor Spreading
2. Palaeo-Magentism Theory
3. Plates
Continental Crust (40-60 km deep), Oceanic Crust (1-2 km deep) and Upper
part of the mantle are all three together known as lithosphere
Various chunks and parts of lithosphere are known as lithosphere
Hence plate consists of oceanic crust, oceanic crust and upper part of the
mantle
Floats over the Asthenosphere (unique mechanical rigidity, semi-molten and
plastic)
Lithosphere floats over Asthenosphere
Lithosphere is not continuous and broken and spread around
Three Types of Plates:
Oceanic
Continental
Oceanic-Continental
Plates can be entirely oceanic, continental or oceanic-continental
15 Major Plates:

Plate Interactions
 1. Divergent Boundary
Mid Oceanic Ridge formation (Oceanic)
Rift Valley Formation (Continent)
Nascent Sea formation (Continental)
2. Convergent Boundary
Ocean-Ocean
Island Arcs are formed
Ocean-Continental
Volcanic Mountains along the continental margins
C-C
Fold Mountains are formed
3. Transverse Boundary
Two plates slip past each other
No vulcanism but only seismic activity

Rift Valley formation due to Plate Divergence

Red Sea Formation

Knot of Plates

More than one plate is combining here to form "knot of plates"

One arm of knot going towards Red Sea
One arm towards the Rift valley
The third arm is reaching the Gulf of Kucchh
Landforms on earth:
1. Mountains
2. Plateaus
3. Plains

Mountains
Types of Mountains

1. Fold Mountains
2. Block Mountains

Fold Mountains

Type of Stress: Compressive

Formed due to compressive force.
When there is horizontal force on any landmass, the middle landmass will rise up
and the rocks will rise up creating fold mountains.
Formed due to compressive force and collision of plates (C-C, O-C)
Folding of sedimentary rocks
These are formed due to convergent boundaries of:
1. O-C (Rockies, Andes)
2. C-C (Himalayas, Alps)
Youngest mountains of the earth
Known as true mountains
Characteristics of Fold Mountains:
1. Extension mountain chain
2. Great heights
3. Formed along unstable parts of earth
4. Sedimentary deposits of marine origin (C-C)
Oceanic-Continental (O-C) Convergence
1. Descending links of convection current cause collision between oceanic and
continental plates
2. Oceanic plate will subside below the continental plate because it is heavier
than the continental plate.
3. Geo-Syncline:
Elongated, narrow depression on the continental margins
Here, sediments from both land and oceans accumulate
Continental-Continental (C-C) Convergence
Eventually, the O-C convergence is over as the oceanic floor is consumed.
When C-C collision happens, the geosyncline on continental margins also
get consumed in the C-C collision. They also get folded and mix with other
rocks.
Hence, marine origin sediments are found due to these Geo-Synclines.
Fold Mountains of the world:
Himalayas (Asia)
Alps (Europe-Asia)
Andes (South America)
Rockies (North America)
Atlas Mountains (Africa)
Great Dividing Range (Australia)
Other older fold mountains:
Aravallis
Appalachian Mountains
Ural Mountains
Eastern Ghats
Pamir Knot — uplifted when Indian continental mass collapsed into the Eurasian
mass, and also giving rise to the various mountain ranges from it.
All mountain ranges around this region have originated from the Pamir Knot
Suleiman and Kirthar Ranges — Pakistan
Hindu-Kush — Afghanistan
Elburz and Zagros — Iran
Taurus and Pontic — Turkey
Tian Shan and Kunlun Shan — China
Karakoram and Himalayas
Alaska Range
Pyrenees — France and Spain border
 Caucasus
Apennines — Italy
Balkan Mtns. — Eastern Europe
Carpathian Mtns.

European Mountain Ranges

Importance of mountain building process:

Understanding the origin and evolution of earth’s crust

Eg: C-C fold mountains indicate that these must have been two different
landmasses or continents that collided to result into one piece of landmass
The joints of these are fold mountains.
Eg: Himalayas, Urals

Block Mountains

Type of Stress: Tensile

Tensile force is used to create mountains as opposed to compressive force that
was used in creation of fold mountains
 Depression will be created as two land masses move further away from each
other.
One block moves down, while other one moves further away.
A smooth fault is formed — known as normal fault.
Sometimes, many different (multiple) blocks of earth may go up and down.
Uplifted portion: Horst
Depressed portion: Grabben
HORST — Block Mountains
GRABBEN — Rift Valley
Eg: African Rift Valley
Block Mountains around the rift valley (depression results in appearance as
mountains — hence not “true” mountains)
Europe:
Rhine Grabben — Rift valley (Rhine River)
Black Forest — Horst mountains
Vosges Mountains — Horst mountains
India:
Vindhyas — Block mountains (these are also fold mountains and
escarpments)
Satpuras — Block mountains (these are also fold mountains and
escarpments)
Narmada Rift Valley

Plateaus
Higher than surrounding region and the top of plateaus is flat as opposed to the
mountains with conical top
Formation of Plateaus:
1. Inter-montane plateau: Formed during the formation of the mountains
itself
2. Deposition of lava
3. Deposition of winds
4. Eroded due to glaciers — upland’s top region eroded, flattened and hence
plateau is formed
Eg:
Inter-montane:
Bolivia Plateau
Tibetan Plateau
Highest plateau of the world
Indian Rivers:
Biggest rivers like Brahmaputra (Mt. Kailash), Sutlej
(Mansarovar), Indus (Mansarovar) etc. originating here
Also, Kosi, Ghaggar also originate in Tibetan plateau
China, Burma Rivers etc:
Salween River (flows in China, Burma and Thailand) —
cows through Shan Plateau
River Mekong (Lassagongma Spring in Tibet) — flows
through China, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and
Vietnam

Irrawaddy River (Flows Only in Burma — does not

 originate in Tibetan plateau though)
Chinese Rivers:
Yangtze River (Red River)
Hwang-Ho River (Yellow River) also originates in the
Tibetan Plateau
Plays important role in South West Monsoon season
Columbia Plateau
Colorado Plateau
Anatolia Plateau (turkey)
Continental Plateau:
Deccan
Katanga (Africa)
South of Congo Basin at the origin of Congo and Zambezi rivers
Dense equatorial forests
Known for resources such as Gold, Diamonds, and Copper

Ozark (USA)
Ethiopian Highlands
Glacial:
Garhwal Plateau
Laurentian Plateau (In Canada)
Lava Plateau:
Columbia-Snake Plateau (USA)
Deccan Plateau
 Shan Plateau (Myanmar)
Crossed by Salween River
Lead, Zinc and Silver found
Teak Forest (Deciduous forest)
Loess Plateau (Wind):
China — deposition of loess, sands etc. in Central China region
(Siberian winds carrying these sands)

Plains and Rivers of the World

Plains
Flat areas with low heights
Best for human habitation
Most populated
Alluvial deposits make them fertile and good for agriculture
Depositional Plains
Due to deposits of rivers
Also created due to depositions of sea (sub-merged
coast)
Erosional plains
Wind erosion of plateaus
Also due to river erosion
Important Rivers of the World

Yangtze River:
Mouth — Shanghai Port (East China Sea)
The Three Gorges Dam lie on its path
Biggest port of China, traffic is equivalent to top 12 ports of
India combined
 Important industrial cities located on this river
Navigable river
35% of China lives around the river
Sichuan Region — rice cultivation centre
Wuhan — Iron and Steel
Nanjing — Textile, Iron and Steel
Chengdu — Oil and Gas
Yun Ho Canal — Connect Yangtze with Hwang Ho River
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers:
Baghdad (Iraq) — on Tigris River
Historical Importance — Mesopotamia civilization and
Babylonian civilizations originated here
Petroleum also found
Lake Van — Turkey (very saline)
Lake Uremia — Iran (very saline)

Amazon River
Forests known as Selvas (known as lungs of the world)
Eucador —
petroleum found below the huge bioreserve known as
YASUNI national park
compensation demanded for not destroying it
biodiversity greater than entire North America
Serrate forest found here in Amazon basin
Petroleum Reserve at the mouth
Mato Grasso Plateau — gold reserves
Mississippi River Basin
 Temperate Grasslands — Praires
Wheat, Cotton and Corn cultivation
New Orleans — chip building, port
St. Pittsburg — Iron and Steel
Kansas — Agriculture
Australia — Murray-Darling Basin
Wheat Cultivation
Dairy production
Agriculture main activity
Wool and Dairy and sheep rearing
GeoPhysical Phenomenon — Volcanism,
Earthquakes, Tsunami
1. Volcanism
1. Completesequence of creation of magma, and then movement
of magma, and eventually creation of volcanic landforms is
known as volcanism.
2. Volcanism is found according to patterns —
3. Distribution:
1. Pacific Ocean Ring of Fire (pacific ocean ocean
spreading fastest)
O-O Convergence
O-C Convergence
2. Mid Oceanic Region Volcanism [MOR]
O-O Divergence
Basaltic eruption — peaceful
3. Mediterranean Volcanism
Mediterranean Sea is residual part of Tethys Sea
Tethys sea was located between Laurasia and Gondwana
landmasses
Collision of Africa to Laurasia caused breaking up of the
plates of Mediterranean sea
 Many plates found here and they are mostly broken into small
pieces
Breaking up of these mediterranean plates into multiple blocks
and their interaction is causing volcanism here
This is mostly Andesitic eruption (O-O and O-C)
Eg: Mt. Etna, Mt Vesuvius etc.
4. Hot Spot Volcanoes
Not related to the plate tectonics
Magmas come directly from interior of the earth through pipe openings
known as Plumes
The location of the plumes remains fixed, however the plate above
the plume moves.
If the plate has oceanic region above it, the plume release of magma
causes Island formation
If the plate has continental landmass above it, the plume release
of magma cuts through the landmass and basaltic plateaus are
formed
Examples:
Aleutian Islands — formed due to Hotspot activities (between
Alaska and Russia)
Chain of islands formed as plate of ocean above moves
across
Also indicates the direction of movement of plate

Basaltic Eruption
 Occur at mid-oceanic ridge and hot spot volcanism
Basalt is highly fluid and mobile — therefore landforms from
these don’t develop like cones and spread around
Spread across easily
Quite eruption

Andesitic Eruption
Occur at at Volcanic Arcs (Islands), Volcanic mountains
Andesite is less fluid and less mobile
Solidfies at short distance — therefore landforms from these
develop like cones and don’t spread around
Explosive due to intense pressure inside

5. Volcanic Landforms
Extrusive
1. Volcanic Plateau
Created by Hot Spot Volcanoes (under continental plain)
and eruption of Basaltic magma due to cracking of the
continental crust
Eg: Deccan Trap
Formation of Deccan Trap
Indian plate passed over a hot spot near the
Reunion Islands
Basaltic Eruption took place during this time
from the hotspot area near Reunion Island
area
 Layers of layers of basaltic magma was
formed eventually the Deccan trap was
created
Soil — “Black Soil” or “Regur” — Cotton soil

Spatial Distribution of Lava Plateaus

2. Volcanic Cones
1. Shield
Due to Hot Spot activity under the Oceans
Highly Fluid and Basaltic — therefore not very high
and only dome shaped
Gentle slope
Eg: Hawaiian
Small volcanoes
2. Cinder
Formed due to O-C Collision
Volcanic mountains
Less fluid (Andesitic)
Viscous lava solidifies at short distance
Dust and Ashes deposition — not very high, more
than shield but medium range height
Small volcanoes
Eg: Mt. Paricutin, Mexico
Parasite Cones:
Several branches of pipes coming out from
therein central pipe
Volcanic cones are enlarged
Lava comes out from several minor pipes —
multiple cones are found due to these
multiple pipes
Fumaroles:
A vent through which gasses and water
vapor comes out
When emission of lava terminated from an
active volcano — magma called inside (last
sign of active volcano)
CO2, Sulphur, Nitrogen Oxide comes out
Crater:
When volcano becomes extinct then at the
mouth of the volcano a depression is formed
known as crater
Depression at the mouth of volcanic vent
Mostly in cinder cones
Crater Lake formed if filled with water
Caldera:
Enlarged form of crater is known as caldera
Two view on formation:
1. Formed Due to subsidence of crater
naturally
2. Formed Due to violent explosion of
volcano — which caused the
subsidence
Lava Plugs:
When active volcano becomes extinct,
plugging of volcanic pipes and vents takes
place.
These plugs are known as lava plugs
Geysers:
Fountains of hot water
Ground water heated by shallow source of
magma
Pressure is created due to steam formation
in chambers under ground along the vent
More rare than hot springs
Get different colors due to hot water mixed
with silica accumulated on surface
Eg: Old Faithful at Yellow Stone National
Park in USA
Hot Springs:
Water reaches deep enough and heated by
interior of the earth (magma)
 Pressure is not created as chambers are not
found
Found everywhere
They get different colors in water due to
Cyanobacteria
Medicinal values
Can be useful for harnessing geo-thermal
energy
Geo-Thermal Energy
Difficult to locate a good source of
geothermal energy with current
technology
Difficult to dig a deep well with hard
and hot bedrock
Harmful gases are also released while
exploration — these can be toxic for
workers as well as bad for the
atmosphere
3. Composite
Volcanic Mountains
Highest
New layers of ashes, dust, and lava come out
(composite materials)
Mt. Stromboli, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji
Violent
Large volcanoes
Intrusive (inside earth’s surface)
Dykes etc.
Phacoliths
Laccoliths
Lupoliths
Sill
Batholiths
2. Earthquakes
Sudden vibration or movement in earth’s crust
Release of energy due to intense pressure + active internal
dynamism of the earth
Types:
1. Shallow focus EQ
2. Intermediate focus EQ
3. Deep focus EQ (at O-C Convergence plates greater
than depth of 300 km)
A deep-focus earthquake in seismology is an earthquake with
a hypocenter depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost
exclusively at oceanic-continental convergent boundaries in
association with subducted oceanic lithosphere.
They occur along a dipping tabular zone beneath the subduction
zone known as the Wadati–Benioff zone.
Deep-focus earthquakes give rise to minimal surface waves. Due
to their focal depth, the earthquakes are less likely to
produce seismic wave motion with energy concentrated at the
surface. The path of deep-focus earthquake seismic waves from
focus to recording station goes through the heterogeneous
upper mantle and highly variable crust only once. Therefore, the
body waves undergo less attenuation and reverberation than
seismic waves from shallow earthquakes, resulting in sharp body
wave peaks.
Shallow-focus earthquakes are the result of the sudden release
of strain energy built up over time in rock by brittle fracture and
frictional slip over planar surfaces.
However, the physical mechanism of deep focus earthquakes is
poorly understood. Subducted lithosphere subject to
thepressure and temperature regime at depths greater than
300 km should not exhibit brittle behavior, but should rather
respond to stress by plastic deformation.
O-O Subduction
 Case of Japan:
Japan is located at the junction of three plates (Eurasian plate, Pacific
plate, and Philippine plate)
Both Pacific and Philippine plates subducting under the
Eurasian plate
Reasons of Earthquakes:
1. Collision of Plates boundaries
O-O
O-C
C-C
2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
O-O Divergence
3. Transverse Plate Boundaries
Friction between two plates
San Adreas fault in California
4. Frequent interaction of other plates as well — e.g.: Mediterranean
area
5. Craton
Stable Part of crust is known as craton (no vulcanism etc.)
Re-emergence of old cracks causes earthquakes
6. Human induced
Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS)
Mining
Nuclear testing
3. Tsunami
Tsunami is a marine earthquake — caused due to creation of massive waves
Caused due to sudden disturbances in the ocean crust
Speed: 700 km/hr vs. normal waves of 100 km/hr
 Wavelength: normal waves have wavelength of 100 meters; while wavelength
of Tsunami is long as much as 150 km
Phase 1:
Water is lifted upward —> Tsunami wave is generated in this region —
> since the wavelength of tsunami is long, it is smooth and hence not
even recognized by boats and ships in mid-ocean area where it
originates.
Phase 2:
Receding of water: Water in coast areas accumulates and recedes
backwards when an earthquake occurs in ocean in nearby area
Accumulation: Due to receding, the height of waves increased and
wavelength reduced drastically
Enormous energy is formed and released at the coast — these are
multiple waves — their 4th and 8th wave is most dangerous
Time lapse between Tsunami waves is 15 minutes to 50 minutes.

Indian preparedness against Tsunami

Early warning system on the coastal areas (10 minute warning of
earthquakes in Indian ocean)
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Sciences (INCOIS),
Hyderabad is the centre for this
High frequency (HF) radars and sensors are also put

Oceanography
Three divisions of ocean

1. Oceanic Crust and the Mid Oceanic Ridge (MOR)

 2. Ocean Continental Margin
3. Deep Ocean Plains or Abyssal Plains

MOR

Oceanic crust is created at the mid oceanic ridge due to constant release of
magma from the crack along the MOR
It is basaltic in nature and the entire ocean floor is made of Basalt
Oceanic crust has thickness of 1-3 km
This oceanic crust is destroyed at the trenches
Not flat, and has a lot of landforms

Continental Margins

1. Continental Shelf (1-900 km wide; avg. 50 km in width)

Depth is around 200 meters
Very active with marine life like floating planktons, benthos (crabs) and
nektons (fish)
Photic zone
Sendiments from land are known as terrigenous sediments
90% of the world’s petroleum reserves are found in continental shelfs
Gulf of Cambay, Bombay High, Gulf of Persia, Barents Sea, Gulf of Mexico,
North Sea, Norwegian Sea
2. Continental Slope
1. These are rapid slopes after the continental shelf
2. Large rivers like Ganga, Amazon etc. vertically erode the continental shelf
and slope and form huge canyons here
3. Continental Rise
Small portion which is a transition between ocean floor and the continental
slope

Abyssal Plains
Occupy 40% of the ocean floor
Deposits from continents — terrigenous, deposits from dead marine life —
biogenous and also salts and minerals (inorganic)

Resources:
PMN (Poly Metallic Nodules) or Manganese nodules
Concentration of metals around this
Found at the depth of 4000-6000m
30% Manganese
Iron
Silicon
Al
Nickel
Cobalt
India got permission from International Sea Authority to explore PMN
India has been granted as a “Pioneer Investor” for 15 years
India has secured huge tracts in Indian ocean to extract PMN
India RV Samudra Ratnakar + equipment from South Korea sourced
NIOT (National institute of ocean technology) developing technology
China has also got permission from ISA in Indian ocean to explore PMN
International Sea Authority
Formed by UN Convention on Laws of the Seas (UNCLOS)
1983
60 countries signed
Came into force in 1993
Laws regarding sea:
Decides the maritime boundary
Deep Sea Mining (Intl. Sea Bed Authority, HQ@ Kingston,
Jamaica) rules
Environment Protection
Dispute Settlements
Territorial Extent of Countries:
UNCLOS decides the Territorial extent of countries
EEZ up to 200 miles
Contiguous Zone — to protect from smugglers and criminals
Territorial Sea — Can have its navy etc.
Islands
Types of Islands
Volcanic — By O-O plate convergence and also by Hot Spot Volcanic
activity
Eg: Japan, Philippines, Kurile, Aleutian
Continental — once part of the continent
Eg: Madagascar island, Vancouver, Sri Lanka, Baffin Island
Large in size than other three types of islands
Landforms etc. very similar to the continent
Coral — Formed due to coral reef accumulation
Formation of coral reefs around islands
Eg: Lakshadeep, Maldives, Mauritius, Bahamas, Bermuda
Sand-bar islands — Accumulation of sand near the coast
Wave action results in erosion of rocks and deposition of the minerals
and sand there itself.
If the continental shelf is shallow, the islands are formed over time
Eg: Long Island in New York
Coral Reefs:
Coral Reefs are complex ecosystems in marine environments. These are
formed by tiny corals that secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons — these also
function as habitats for polyps, that live in these calcium carbonate
structures.
Coral are also known as “rainforests of the ocean”
Indicator species
Primary food-chain
Source of great biodiversity
Corals live in symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthaele — Zooxan..has
 photosynthetic capabilities
Zooxanthaele lives inside the skeleton of the corals, and in turn
the Zooxanthaele provides food to the corals
Conditions for growth of corals:
1. Need submarine shallow platform (50 meters deep) — must be able to
receive sun light
2. Temperature: 25-27 degrees
3. Warm, tropical, and low latitude waters
4. Moderate Salinity — 33 ppt
5. Not at mouth of the rivers, not turbulent water
6. Need circulatory and nutrient rich water
Coral Bleaching
Due to stress in improper conditions, the corals release
their Zooxanthaele
This causes color of corals to lose as Zooxanthaele provides the
colors to corals
Ultimately, without food, corals die out
Reasons: Due to global warming, ozone depletion, ocean
acidification, algal blooms, Increase in sedimentation from rivers,
marine pollution, diseases.

Marine Pollution
Oil Spills
Run-off from land (eutrophication)
Atmospheric input (makes oceanic water acidic)
Dumping of toxic elements
Ballistic water issue (on ports, water is filled in the sea vessels for
loading and unloading of these sea vessels. This water that is filled
into ports is known as ballistic water. It gets released in other climatic
regions when the vessels reach other ports. Eg: water filled in ship in
Bombay port may be released on NY port — living organisms also
carried and threat of invasive species)
Tar Balls — lumps of petroleum, due to oil spillage from tankers, lumps
caused due to oil reaction with the sea water
Very sticky and greasy

Motions of Ocean Water

1. Horizontal motion of ocean water

1. Waves
Wind pushes the water of the oceans/seas
 Gravity pulls these crests of waves downwards, the falling water
pushes the former troughs upwards
Actual water motion beneath the wave is circular
Breaking of the waves
In shallow waters
When the depth of water is less than half the wavelength of the
wave, then the waves start breaking
2. Currents
Ocean currents are shallow and narrow (up to 500 mts deep) streams
of water circulation along the ocean margins
Fast movement of water not slow
Circumnavigate the earth
They help in heat balancing of earth as well
Forces causing ocean currents
Wind — most currents follow the direction of the wind
Insolation — creates temperature differences and salinity
differences (equator water is warm, and lighter due to expansion
from sun light heat — hence this water rises up; vice-versa for
pole water which is heavier and hence sinks)
Insolation also impacts salinity level of water
Less saline water moves towards the higher saline
water
Equator water is less saline (due to rainfall)
Pole water is more saline
Gravity
Coriolis Force
Due to earth’s rotation from West to East
Deflection force — deflect the direction of currents
Clockwise in North
Anti-clockwise in South
Various Currents:
Atlantic Ocean
North Atlantic Drift
Gulf Stream
Norwegian Current
East Greenland Current
Labrador Current
Canaries Current
Pacific Ocean
Kuroshio
Oyashio
California Current
Peru or Humbolt
Indian Ocean
Good fishing grounds due to meeting of warm and cold ocean
currents
Eg: New Foundland Area
Bahia Blanc
Japanese fish grounds
2. Vertical Movement of water
1. Tides are formed
Caused by Gravitation force and Centrifugal force
Gravitation force of Moon and Sun causes the tides to be formed
Therefore, one tide where gravitation is exerted from moon, one
tide from centrifugal force. The other two sides of earth would
have low tides.
Tidal Range:
Difference in height between the High Tide and Low Tide is
known as tidal range
Depends upon:
Depth of the ocean
Configuration of the coast line
Openness/Closeness of the sea
Highest Tidal Range in the world:
Bay of Fundy (Canada)
In India
Gulf of Khambhat
Ebb — the time between high tide and low tide, when the water level
is falling
Flow or Flood — the time between low tide and high tide, when the
water level is rising
Apogee (furthest position)
Lower tides than perigee
Perigee (closest position to earth)
Higher tides
Syzygy Position
When earth, sun and moon and in the same straight line
Twice in a month
Conjunction — new moon (moon between the sun and earth)
Opposite — full moon (earth in middle and moon opposite side)
Spring Tide
HT: Very high tide due to gravitational force of both sun
and moon in one direction
LT: very low tide than usual
Quadrature Position
Moon at right angle from earth and sun
Happens on 7th and 8th day of every fortnight
Neap Tide
HT: Lower high tide due to countering gravitational force
of sun and moon
LT: Higher than usual
Tidal Currents:
Flood Current is high tide
Ebb Current is low tide
Tidal Bores:
When the sea water enters the low lying river mouth during High
Tide
This conflict between water of river and ocean creates water
waves known as tidal bores
Take place when a gulf is connected with sea with a narrow
channel
Gulf with narrow fronts and wider rears experience high tide
Remember: Hooghly river port is riverine port and gets helped by tidal
bores
Importance of Tides:
Remove pollutants and sediments from river estuaries — helps
in disilting
Helps harbour transport
Tidal energy can be created
Tidal Ports
Kandla Port
Diamond Harbor (Kolkata)
Tidal ports are fed by sea water during high tide
Located on the sea coast
Kolkata port is a riverine port, not a tidal port — diamond harbor is
different from Kolkata port but near caclutta
12 Major Ports of India:
 Tidal Energy:
Power generated taking advantage of High Tide and Low Tide
Eg: La Rance — in France, Scotland in UK
Tidal Stream Energy — by placing turbines on the ocean floor
itself. Can be done in the lower coast areas.
2. Up-welling of water
When water diverges away from the coastal region, upwelling takes
place
Ekman layer
The wind exerts a lot of force on the surface of water.
This force is effective up to 100 meters of ocean water depth
Water gets deflected by 45 degrees (from direction of wind)
when the wind exerts force on its surface
This deflection happens in layers one by one
Ekman transport: Happens in the right hand side of the wind
direction in Northern Hemisphere and left hand side in the
Southern Hemisphere
Water from below the 100 meters depth replaces this displaced water
due to wind and Edman effect. This causes upwelling.
Regions of upwelling:
Benguela Current
Peruvian Current
Canaries Current
Downwelling
When water converges towards the coastal region, downwelling
takes place
When wind direction is South to North in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Descending water is warm and saline.
Not good for fishing
3. Ocean Temperature
Main source of energy on earth is Sun
Avg. temperature of Ocean Water = 3.5 degrees celsius
Avg. temp. of Ocean Surface water = 25 degrees celsius
Water is a good conductor of heat and takes time to both absorb it and loose
it
Latitudinal Variation in Ocean temperature:
 Ocean Water temperature decreases from equator to poles
However, highest temperature of ocean water is found at tropical
regions and not at equatorial regions
This is due to too many clouds (albedo) and high rainfall at the equator
region
Hemispheric variation:
Northern Hemisphere water is more warm than the Southern
hemisphere
This is due to more land mass in the northern hemisphere
The surrounding landmass of northern hemisphere makes the
ocean water also warmer
Enclosed Sea:
At Tropics: The temperature of enclosed sea in tropical region is
higher than the surrounding ocean or seas (due to mixing of
cold current water in open oceans, temperature is lower)
At Temperate Region: The temperature of enclosed sea is lower
in temperate region than the surrounding ocean or seas (due to
mixing of warm current water in open oceans, temperature is
lower)
Effect of currents: Warm or cold current impact the nearby ocean
water temperature
Upwelling and Downwelling:
Upwelling region causes surface temperature to decrease or be
lower because of upwelling of cold bottom water to the top
Diurnal Range of Temperature:
Difference between the maximum temperature in the day and
the lowest temperature in the night is known as diurnal range of
temperature
Tropical water has higher diurnal range than the equatorial water
(this is due to rapid cooling and warming of the water under
clear skies)
Annual Range of temperature:
Bigger the ocean, lower the annual range of temperature
Pacific ocean has lower annual range of temperature than the
Atlantic ocean
Similarly, due to more landmass, the annual range of
temperature is more in the Northern hemisphere as compared to
the Southern Hemisphere
Vertical Distribution of temperature of Ocean water
Three layers when we go below ocean surface
Tropical Region:
1st Layer: up to 500 meters — uniform temperature
around 20-25 degrees celsius
2nd layer: beyond 500 meters unto 1000 meters —
known as thermocline — rapid decrease in water
temperature
3rd layer: beyond 1000 meters — cold water, less
variation
Temperate Region:
Thermocline starts immediately in temperate
region — rapid decrease of temperature
 Summer: However, in summer, the 1st Layer like tropical
region is found: up to 500 meters — uniform temperature
around 20-25 degrees celsius and then decline to 2nd
layer
Polar Region:
Not much variation in water temperature as water already
cold
4. Salinity of the Oceans
Amount of salt found in per 1000 gm of water is known as salinity of water
Various salts are evaluated in the water
If salts are more in proportion than fresh water, then it is high salinity water
If salts are less in proportion than fresh water, then it is low salinity water
Salt proportion as follows are always constant in water across all oceans:
Nacl (78%) — highest proportion of this salt as it does not get
removed and only reduces very gradually
MgCl2(11%)
MgSO4(3.5%)
CaSO4(2.5%)
Salt Budget — Irrespective of the absolute salinity of water, the
proportion of various salts remain the same across all ocean waters
Sources of Salt:
Sediments carried by rivers
Submarine vulcanism at MOR
Chemical reaction between rocks of geothermal vent of volcano and
cold water
Erosion of ocean rocks
Removal of Salts in Ocean Water:
Physical removal through action of waves
Biological removal — marine forms extract calcium from sea water to
form their bones
Variation in Salinity:
Due to addition of fresh water —> Rivers, melting of glaciers, rainfall
Due to reduction of fresh water —> High evaporation, wind
acceleration causes evaporation as well
Average Salinity = 35.5 ppt (higher than this is high saline)
Atlantic Ocean = 35.5
Dead Sea = 350
Lake Van = 400
Lake Uremia
High salinity = high density
Salinity decreases from Equatorial region Poles —> however, equatorial
regions don’t have highest salinity due to rainfall. Tropics have highest
salinity regions in the world.
Hemispheric Variation:
As against normal logic — Southern Hemisphere has more salinity
This is due to Westerlies which are fast moving winds; these
winds cause high evaporation in this area thereby making the
salinity high
Cold current —> lower salinity
Warm current —> higher salinity
Enclosed seas in tropical regions have higher salinity than surrounding open
 water
Enclosed sea in temperate regions have lower salinity than surrounding
water
Bay of Bengal Salinity < Arabian Sea salinity
Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers flow into the Aral Sea because of which its
salinity is low
Same for Black sea
Persian Gulf has lower salinity as well due to Euphrates river
Red sea has no large rivers, hence salinity more than persian gulf

Climatology
Early atmosphere had abundance of Hydrogen and Helium — these light gases
escaped from the atmosphere
As earth cooled down, the heavier elements of earth went towards the core, and
the lighter ones left on the outside layer.
Many gases were released during this time — Nitrogen, Sulphur, Water Vapor,
Argon, and CO2
Continuous rain on the surface from the water vapor.
The oceans were formed due to this rain.
The rain pushed the CO2 in atmosphere to the bottom of the ocean with water and
only 0.03% of ocean left in the atmosphere.
Oxygen formed due to the respiration of anaerobic bacteria — cyanobacteria
Gases
Nitrogen — 78%
Oxygen — 21%
Argon — 0.93%
CO2 — 0.03%
Neon
Helium
Ozone
N, O, H, Argon are permanent gases — quantity is constant across regions
Water vapor, CO2, and Ozone are variable gases — GHG gases
Argon and Nitrogen are inert gases — they don’t have chemical reaction with other
elements of the atmosphere
Structure: TSMITE
Troposphere
Its height is more near the equator (18km) and less near the Poles
(8km)
Why?
Because air is cool and descends down the pole area,
hence the atmosphere is thinner
At Equator, the evaporation causes high clouds to cause
air to rise high and hence thick troposphere layer
90% of atmosphere of earth is in troposphere
Temperature decreases as we go up in the troposphere
Atmosphere is heated only upward from the earth’s surface
Stratosphere
Temperature increases as we go up here in this layer
Due to the Ozone layer
 There are clouds and water vapor here
Jet aircrafts fly here
Because:
There are no vertical winds in lower stratosphere (the air from
troposphere is limited till tropopause and hence no vertical
winds in the stratosphere)
Mesosphere
Absence of GHGs
Temperature decreases as we go up
Noctilucent Clouds:
Found during summer season in higher reaches of Mesosphere
Condensation of mixture of meteoric dust and some moisture in
this region
Ionosphere
Positively charged ions present here
Ionization:
Sun’s high energy rays break the atoms of air molecules
—> become ionized (+vely charged)
Behave as free particles
These reflect the radio waves of low frequency
Layers of Ionosphere:

Thermosphere
Temperature increases as we go up like Stratosphere
Molecules of gases are ionized here (positively charged)
Due to ionization of gases, the layers of sun’s heat are trapped here
The molecules are super heated here
Exosphere
High temperature — not felt in heat due to vacuum
Aurora is formed in this region
Sun emits solar wind or storm from its corona
It interacts with the Earth’s magnetosphere
This interaction causes the ions of the magnetosphere collide
with the solar wind’s ions
This collision causes ionization — these highly charged particles
release energy and emit light
 These ions get discharged only along the magnetic lines of the
earth, which are along the poles and hence the aurora is seen
only in the polar region
Heat Budget
Avg. temp. of earth is 15 degrees celsius
35% absorbed by the Ozone layer
15% energy absorbed/reflected by the Clouds
50% of energy reaches the earth’s surface
Earth reflect some, absorbs some and then eventually radiates back
this absorbed also
20% is lost in evaporation process
10% is lost in sensible heat
15% absorbed by GHGs
5% Remaining goes back to the space
Albedo effect:
Ratio between the total amount of solar radiation falling on the earth’s
surface and the amount reflected back
Earth’s avg. is 35%
Dark soil has lowest albedo
Snow has the highest albedo
1. Fresh Snow: 80%-90%
2. Desert: 35%-45%
3. Grasses: 26%
4. Crops: 15%
5. Brick/Concrete: 10%-20%
Movement of the Air:
Horizontal Movement
Due to pressure gradient movement
From high pressure area to low pressure area always —> known
as advection
Vertical Movement
When air gets warm, it gets lighter and rises up vertically and
moves upwards —> known as convection
“Instability” — when the rising air causes rainfall, instability in
atmosphere is caused.
“Stability” condition — when air sinks downward as it is cooler
and heavy. It comes down and stabilizes the area.
Low Pressure System: Cyclonic
High Pressure System: Anti-cyclonic
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR):
The rate at which air packet cools while rising.
6.4 degree per kilometer
 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR):
If air is highly moist, then it keeps rising and does not get
cooled very fast
Wet air can reach higher altitudes
Lapse rate is low (<ALR. i.e. 3 degree per km)
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):
Dry air does not have much moisture and gets cooled up
very fast
Lapse rate is low (>ALR i.e. 10 degrees per km)

Temperature Inversion
Normally with height, the temp. decreases as we go up in the
atmosphere
However, if the temperature increases instead of decreasing higher up
in the atmosphere
Example: Happens after the Tropopause region also (Stratosphere, the
temp. increases with height)
Valley Inversion:
Cold and heavy air descends down the valley slopes in the
evening, thereby making the valley bottoms cooler than its
higher region
The warmer bottom air rises up in the higher altitude of the
valley

Implications of Valley Inversion:

 Formation of Fog:
Advection — passage of warm air over cold air
Radiation — loss of heat due to terrestrial radiation
meeting of cold and warm ocean currents
Decreasing Level of Visibility:
Mist —> Haze —> Fog —> Smog
Fog:
Water droplet condensation around a dust particle
forms fog
It reduces visibility, damages crops
Smog:
Water droplet condensed around a particle of
pollutant like SO2
Reduces visibility and also bad for health
Smoke + Fog = Smog
Occurs in cool and humid environment
Mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide --SO2
Photochemical Smog:
Formed in warm, dry and sunny climate
Mixture of unsaturated hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxide in presence of sunlight
Composes of Ozone, Nitric oxide, acrolein,
and formaldehyde, and peroxy acetyl nitrate
(PAN)
Rainfall
Process of rainfall or precipitation is:
Evaporation —> Humidity —> Condensation —> Precipitation
Evaporation:
High Temperature
Low Pressure Conditions
Fast Moving Wind
Humidity:
Absolute Humidity
Weight of water vapor in unit volume of moist air
Specific Humidity
Weight of water vapor in unit weight of dry air
Relative Humidity
Ratio or proportion of Amount of water vapor present in air to
 amount of water vapor required for saturation of air
Only on saturation of air with water vapor precipitation can take
place
Precipitation:
Precipitation depends on the temperature and moisture content of the
air
Either increase moisture content to the saturation point
Decrease moisture content by decreasing the temperature —
this can happen due to sudden uplifting of the air with moisture
When air humidity reaches its saturation point, it releases the water
and hence causes precipitation
Clouds:
“Stratus” (clouds in “layers" or strata)
"Cumulus” (clouds in form of small “balls")
Middle cloud — “Alto"
High cloud — “Cirrus or Cirro”
Cumulonimbus clouds — heavy rainfall, cyclonic condition rainfall,
indicates instability conditions
Low Clouds
Types of Rainfall
1. Convectional Rainfall
2. Orographic Rainfall
3. Cyclonic Rainfall
4. Frontal Rainfall
Frontal or temperate cyclone (in temperate region)

Pressure Systems of the World

Entire earth divided into 4 large pressure belts
Created due to thermal regions (by heat differences) or dynamic reasons (by
force)
4 Belts:
1. Equatorial Low Pressure belt
Due to direct insolation
Convectional movement of air; rainfall most evenings due to
rising of water vapor upwards due to heat in the day time
Absence of advection of air or horizontal winds
Therefore known as “Doldrums” or calm region
Light and feeble winds
2. Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt
30 degree - 40 degree N and S
Air that rises in the equatorial region now travels towards the
pole region
However, it loses energy midway and descends down around
the sub-tropical areas — this leads to creation of Higher
pressure region here
This is created due to Dynamic conditions and not due to
thermal reasons
Known as “Horse latitudes” because there is almost no
winds here in this High pressure system (stable conditions)
 This entire circulation from equatorial low pressure belt to the
sub-tropical HP belt is known as Hadley Cell
3. Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt
From the pole, cold winds move towards the equator
The warm and cold winds collide here at sub-polar region, the
water winds from sub-tropical high pressure zone rise up above
the cold polar winds
This rising of the warmer winds near 50-60 degree latitudes
create low pressure
Hence it is known as sub-polar low pressure belt
4. Polar High Pressure Belt
Air that rises in the sub-polar low pressure region now travels
towards the pole region
High pressure conditions
Thermally induced due to low temperature
This entire circulation from sub-tropical high pressure belt to the
sub-polar LP belt is known as Ferrel Cell

Wind Systems of the World

1. Permanent Winds
Planetary Winds
These winds flow in the same direction for the entire year
Covers large distances
Horizontal wind system

Coriolis force deflects the direction of the wind as well — in northern

hemisphere clockwise, and southern region — anti-clockwise
 ITCZ — portion or region where the winds diverge

Tropical Deserts
Due to trade winds moving east to west, they lose all the
moisture by the time they reach interior of the continent.
Additionally, cold currents in the adjoining western coasts
(western margins) of the regions causes further dry air to flow
over the region, not bringing any rain.
Westerlies:
Southern Hemisphere:
Stronger due to absence of much landmass
Known as Roaring 40s, Furious 50s, Screaming 70s, and
Shrinking 60s
Apparent Movement of Sun
The apparent motion of the sun, caused by
the rotation of the Earth about its axis, changes the
angle at which the direct component of light will strike
the Earth. From a fixed location on Earth, the sun
appears to move throughout the sky.
Summer: Sun appears to move northwards
Causes ITCZ to move northwards
Winter — vice-versa
2. Variable Winds
Seasonal Winds
Monsoon winds — seasonal reversal of these winds in different
seasons (summer and winter)
Local Winds
Cold winds
Gragale — Greece
Tremonta — Italy
Bora — Adriatic Sea
Buran — Siberia (land cold winds)
Warm winds
 Fohn — Alps
Chinook — Rockies
Zonda — Andes
Desert warm winds:
Sirocco — Sahara
Khamsin — Egypt
Gibli — Libya
Harmattan — Gulf of Guinea
Loo in summers in India
Pre-monsoon thunderstorm
Kalbaisakhi — Bihar, WB, Assam
Blossom Shower — KN
Mango Shower — Kerela
Mt. and Valley breeze
Mt Breeze:
Only during Night time
Cooler air descends down the valley from higher reaches
in the Mountain and uplifts the warm air
This wind is known as Mountain breeze
Frosting of the agriculture — bad for it
Valley Breeze:
Only during Day time
Top air in the day time gets heated up and hence moves
towards the valley to the HP area
So the cooler wind moves from valley to the top of the
mountain
This is known as Valley Breeze
Land-sea breeze
Differentiating cooling and warming of land and surrounding sea
area

Jet Streams, Air Masses, and Fronts

1. Upper Tropospheric Winds
These are the winds near the tropopause
Tropopause is closer to the poles and further from the equator
Once the air reaches the tropopause, there is high pressure in the
region
Therefore the winds move from the HP equatorial tropopause to the LP
Polar tropopause
However, in the process, these winds also get deflected by 90 degrees
due to high Coriolis force (high Coriolis force due to high wind speed)
These 90 degree deflected winds are known as the Geo-strophic
winds
Therefore, after deflection, the wind moves from West to East in the
Northern Hemisphere and also in the Southern Hemisphere (Geo-
Strophic winds) — also known as Upper Tropospheric Westerlies
2. Jet Streams
Within the Upper Tropospheric winds, there is a thin, strong and
narrow high speed stream or bands of winds — known as Jet Streams
 Very fast — 300 km /hr speed
4 Types of Permanent Jet Streams
2 Polar Jet Streams
2 Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet Stream (one in northern and one in
southern hemisphere)
Temporary Jet Streams:
Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
Air rises from the Tibetan land mass due to heating up
and moves towards the Mascerene HP zone near
Madagascar high pressure areas. It descends down in the
Mascerene region. A jet stream comes along with this
known as Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
This wind again moves from the Mascerene region
towards the low pressure Indian subcontinent region
(South West Monsoon winds)
Somali Jet Stream
Polar Night Jet Stream

Jet Streams have a lot of influence in the Temperate regions

They flow in a wavy pattern in these regions and create concurrent
High and Low pressure areas
These are also known as traveling depressions
3. Temperate Region Weather
Dynamic factors play a more important role instead of thermal factors
as in the tropical and equatorial regions
These forces or dynamic factors include Rossby waves, Jet streams,
and temperate cyclones
We study features like Air masses and fronts which are caused in
these regions
4. Air Masses
Large extensive body of air mass (100 sq. km)
Height is unto tropopause
Horizontally, the temperature and moisture of an air mass will be same
across its width
Air masses absorb the properties of the land mass or oceanic region
under it over a period of time
These could be land air mass, polar air mass, arctic air mass,
 antarctic air mass

Air masses don’t remain stationary. They move in different directions

from its source region. These create disturbances.
Air Front: When two air masses come closer to each other, they form
fronts (these are like joining places of two air masses)
When Cold Air Mass travels and pushes the Warm Air mass,
then cold front is formed
When Warm Air Mass travels and pushes the Cold Air mass,
then warm front is formed
Warm Front, Cold Front and Occluded Front
5. Frontal Cyclones and Tropical Cyclones
Frontal Cyclones
Also known as “traveling depressions”, "extra-tropical
cyclones", “temperate cyclones”, “cold core cyclones” and
“wave cyclones”
Conditions essential for formation of cyclones (any cyclones —
frontal or tropical)
Steep low pressure system or intense LP system
Air converges towards the centre
In Northern Hemisphere convergence: anti-clockwise
Closed isobars
Frontal cyclones are dynamically induced and not thermally
induced
In the areas of middle and higher latitudes, the cold winds from
the cold front and the warm winds from the warm front create a
system, which results in the extra tropical cyclones.
In these latitudes, warm winds blow from the area of low
pressure in the subtropical region towards the cold front of the
subpolar region. Hence, this warm air rises above the cold front
and the cold air from the subpolar region moves towards the
subtropical warm front underneath the warm air. This circulation
of winds from the warm to the cold front and vice versa creates
anti-clockwise extra tropical cyclones.
“Frontlysis” — only cold air masses left over and the cyclones
dissipates
Extratropical or frontal cyclones are ALWAYS moving West to
East (because of influence of the Westerlies)
Predictable and gradual movement

Difference between Extra Tropical and Tropical Cyclones:

Extra Tropical cyclones have a clear system of fronts
while tropical cyclones don't.
Extra Tropical cyclones are spread over large areas and
can generate over the land or the sea while tropical
cyclones are limited in geography and can only originate
over the oceans.
Tropical cyclones have much higher wind velocity and are
more destructive.
Extra tropical cyclones move West to East and the
Tropical Cyclones move East to West.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones are powerful wind and precipitation
systems that build over the oceans or large sea areas
and move towards the land and dissipate over it.
Tropical Cyclones bring high and destructive wind
velocities, lot of rain and storm surges over the
landmasses they move towards.
Always emerge from water bodies only
Occur in late summer
Always moves East to West
Names:
 Tropical Cyclones - Indian Ocean
Hurricanes - Atlantic Ocean
Typhoons - Western Pacific and the South China
Sea
Willy Willies - Australia
Tropical cyclones originate over the warm topical oceans,
intensify there and move towards the land from East to
West. The conditions required for the formation of
cyclones are:
Warm Temp. of over 27 degrees over the ocean
Large Sea Surface
Presence of the Coriolis Force
Small Variations in vertical wind speed or Low Wind
Shear
A pre-existing weak low pressure area
Upper divergence above the sea level system
Process - explain from the diagram
Temperate Cyclones Tropical Cyclones

30-40 degree latitudes 8-20 degree latitudes

Dynamically induced Thermally induced

Due to increasing Sea Surface

Due to frontal interaction
Temperature increase

Cover large areas cover small areas

Move West to East Move East to West

Gradual movement — predictable Swift movement — hard to predict

Wind Speed 40-50 kmph Wind Speed >120 kmph

Pressure gradient 980 mb Pressure gradient is <880 mb

Powerful on land Weak on land

Affects mainland Affect coastal areas

More time to dissipate Quickly to dissipate after coming to land

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Thunderstorms are caused by large mass of heated
air that rises up to create large cumulonimbus
clouds. As these clouds rise up and reach an area
of relatively lower temperatures, the condensation
process takes place and they release immense
 amount of precipitation over the surface of earth. If
they rise up to heights of sub-below temperature
levels, they cause hailstorms. If the air rising up is
dry, thunderstorms cause dust storms.
They are short-term and intense release of
precipitation.
Later downdraft towards the earth brings cool air
and the rain.
Types of Thunderstorms:
Orographic thunderstorms
In Cherrapunji in rain season
“Cloud Burst” also caused in these
conditions
Thermal thunderstorms
Cold Front thunderstorms
Sometimes, from these thunderstorms, spiraling air
descends down like trunk of an elephant with great
force with very low pressure at the center, causing
massive destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is known as Tornadoes. The
tornadoes over the sea are known as water
sprouts.
Lightening:
In cumulonimbus clouds, -ve charge is found in the
centre of the cloud where temperature is -5 to -15
degrees. When these charges come in contact with
positive charges from other clouds, lightening is
formed.
Nice
Notes: http://uw.physics.wisc.edu/~himpsel/107/Lectures/Cyclo
ne.pdf
Other notes: Direction of wind in the low pressure area in the
Northern hemisphere is counter-clockwise due to the coriolis
force.
Polar Vertex

Large scale cyclone that encircles geographical poles of the earth.

Span = 1000 sq. km
Develops in upper tropopause or stratosphere
Origin:
Originated during the winters due to sharp temperature differences created
between poles and equator
Cold Waves caused due to the bursting of the polar vortex
Caused in USA in 2014

*Polar Stratospheric Clouds — cause Ozone depletion

 68 º 72 º 76 º 80 º 84 º 88 º 92 º 96 º

India Rivers and Lakes

36 º

In d
Map

Jh e
us

lu m
Pangong
Ch Tso

ena
32 º Tso Fresh Water Lake
b Moriri
R a vi River
Coastline
Salt Water Lake
as
Be Gobind
Sagar
S u tle j

Mi 100 200 300

Km 100 200 300 400

28 º

Sa
Ga
nga

rd a
Sambhar Ya Gh
Lake m un ag
Luni bal h ra

G an
am
a

Ch a
Brahmaputr

Go

da
Ba
a ma

gh
k
tw ti ati Ko
B anas

m
si
ra

ip
Be

hRana Pratap Barak

S

24 º
Sagar
Gandhi
23.5 º
Sagar S on
i S in d h
ti

rb a ti
rm a

Gobind Ballabh
Pant Sagar D am oda
Ri r
S a ba

Pa

h an d

H u g h li
K al

Gulf of Kutch
ahi

da as
rm a Sub

K
Na a ai
M

adar
rn
rek
Bh
a
ha
etrunjaya
i
Tap
Sh

Bra

Hirakud
Gulf Reservoir
hm
Wa

Baita

Mouths of the Ganges

of
ani

20 º
M ah
in g a n g a

P en
Wa

Khambhat ni
ra

ga dh an
ad i
r

ng a
G od
a

a v ari P
Va

In d ra v a ti Chilika Lake
ranhita

msa

Man
dhara

a i
ar
jr

Nizam
Sagar
Bh
b
Sa

im
a G
oda

K rish K ris h n
var

16 º

Bay
Tammileru
na
i

Reservoir
a

Nagarjuna
Sagar
b h a d ra
n ga
Arabian unga
Tu
Tungabhadra
Reservoir
Pe
n n ar
T

Of
B h a d ra

Linganmakki
Sagar
Bhadra
Reservoir Pulicat Lake

P ala
12 º

Sea Krishna Raja

Sagara
Po
Stanley
nnai
yar
r

Bengal
Reservoir

B ey p
ore a v an i
Bh Bhavani Ka Andaman
m

Sagar ll id a
v e ri Ko

Per
i Vaig
Sea
ai
ya

Palk
r

Vembanad Lake Ten Degree Channel

Bay
Ta
m ir ap
ara

8º ni Gulf
of
Mannar

Great Channel

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/India_rivers_and_lakes_map.svg