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3D seismic investigation of the structural and stratigraphic characteristics of

the Pagasa Wedge, Southwest Palawan Basin, Philippines, and their tectonic
implications

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.12.017

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 Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Full length article

3D seismic investigation of the structural and stratigraphic characteristics of T

the Pagasa Wedge, Southwest Palawan Basin, Philippines, and their tectonic
implications
⁎
Kimberly A. Ilaoa, Christopher K. Morleya, , Mario A. Aureliob
a
Petroleum Geophysics MSc Program, Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
b
Structural Geology and Tectonics Laboratory, National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Pagasa Wedge is a poorly imaged deepwater orogenic wedge that has been variously interpreted as re-
Accretionary wedge presenting an accretionary prism, a former accretionary prism modified by thrusting onto a thinned continental
Mass transport margin, and a gravity-driven fold-thrust belt. This study, using 2D and 3D seismic data, together with well
Nido limestone information indicates that at least the external part of the wedge is dominantly composed of mass transport
South China Sea
complexes, capped by syn-kinematic sediments that have thrusts and normal faults superimposed upon them.
Palawan ophiolite
Drilling shows that despite stratigraphic repetition of Eocene Middle Miocene units, there is stratigraphic
omission of Oligocene and Early Miocene units. This absence suggests that mass transport processes have in-
troduced the Eocene section into the wedge rather than tectonic thrusting. The accretionary prism stage
(Oligocene) of the Central Palawan Ophiolite history appears to be marked by predominantly north-vergent
deformation. The Deep Regional Unconformity (∼17 Ma) likely indicates the approximate time when obduction
ceased in Palawan. The Pagasa Wedge is a late-stage product of the convergence history that was active in its
final phase sometime above the top of the Nido Limestone (∼16 Ma) and the base of the Tabon Limestone in the
Aboabo-A1X well (∼9 Ma). The top of the wedge is traditionally associated with the Middle Miocene
Unconformity (MMU), However the presence of multiple unconformities, diachronous formation tops, local
tectonic unconformities and regional diachronous events (e.g. migrating forebulges) all suggest simply giving a
single age (or assigning a single unconformity, such as the MMU as defining the top of the Pagasa Wedge is
inappropriate. The overall NE-SW trend of the wedge, and the dominant NW transport of structures within the
wedge diverge from the more northerly transport direction determined from outcrops in Palawan, and also from
the Nido Limestone in the SW part of the Pagasa Wedge. Possibly this NW transport direction is more related to
gravity-driven structures responding to uplift of NE-SW Dangerous Grounds margin during the Middle Miocene
(related to slab breakoff?) than it is to thrusting rooted in a plate boundary. The final modification of the wedge
occurred when the effects of compression deformation on the wedge had largely ended, but gravity processes (in
particular mass transport and normal faulting) still operated.

1. Introduction
The Pagasa Wedge is a complex orogenic prism that lies NW of the
island of Palawan in the Palawan Trough. The name is derived from the
Miocene age Pagasa Formation, which is the undeformed sedimentary
section that is adjacent to, and the time-equivalent with at least the
external part of the wedge (Aurelio et al., 2014; Steuer et al., 2013).
This wedge was initially interpreted as a mélange and/or accretionary
wedge that marked the end of subduction in the Middle Miocene
(Hamilton, 1979; Holloway, 1981). Subsequently, the wedge was pro-
posed to be the result of the subduction of proto-South China Seas
oceanic crust in the area of the present-day Palawan Trough until the
Oligocene and then later overthrusting of the wedge onto attenuated
crust of the Dangerous Grounds during the Oligocene and Miocene
(Steuer et al., 2014). However, Hinz and Schluter (1985) suggested that
the chaotic wedge is unrelated to an ancient subduction zone. Hall
(2013) takes the interpretation of Hinz and Schluter (1985) one step
further to suggest it is the toe region of a gravity driven system linked
with large-scale extensional collapse on Palawan and the lateral
equivalent area of NW Borneo.
From the earliest seismic reflection profiles to the most recent 3D
survey (Hamilton, 1979; Aurelio et al., 2014) the Pagasa Wedge has

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chrissmorley@gmail.com (C.K. Morley).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.12.017
Received 26 June 2017; Received in revised form 9 December 2017; Accepted 9 December 2017
Available online 16 December 2017
1367-9120/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 1. Geologic Map showing location of PNOC SC 63 Exploration Block in SW Palawan and the boundary of the 3D Seismic Survey used in the study. Geologic information was mostly
from Aurelio et al. (2014), while some portions in the North are from Keenan (2016). Some geologic descriptions are from Peña (2008). Locations of depth slices (Fig. 11A and B), offshore
seismic lines (Figs. 5, 6, 8, 12–19), a NW-SE structural transect (Fig. 3A), and wells used for correlation (Aboabo-A1X and Baragatan-1A) are shown. Land topography is from SRTM
(Jarvis et al., 2008); bathymetry is from GEBCO (2014).

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K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 2. Correlation of onshore and offshore stratigraphy of Central and South Palawan. Offshore formational names are adopted from Forbes et al. (2011), on land formational names are
from Aurelio and Peña (2010).

215
K.A. Ilao et al.
shown a complex to chaotic internal structure; hence, the description of
the wedge as a mélange wedge (e.g. Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 2010).
Never-the-less two wells that penetrate the wedge and 3D seismic data
provide some information about the internal structure of the wedge
(Aurelio et al., 2014). This study discusses the results of detailed
mapping and description of features (thrusts and folds, mass transport
complexes, normal faults, local unconformities, local syn-kinematic
units) within the wedge, mostly based on 3D seismic interpretation,
together with more regional interpretation using 2D seismic data. The
features are discussed in the context of their implications for the origin
of the wedge.
2. Methodology
2.1. Seismic acquisition and processing
The project focuses on structural analysis of the Pagasa Wedge ob-
served in Southwest Palawan Basin using a dataset provided by the
Philippine National Oil Company, operator of the SC 63 Sabina petro-
leum exploration block, Southwest Palawan, Philippines (Fig. 1).
The Kawayan 3D seismic survey was acquired by PGS Geophysical
Marine Acquisition in late 2009 with a full-fold area of approximately
754 km2 at 18.25 × 6.25 m bin spacing. The acquisition record length is
6656 ms at a sample interval of 2 ms. Four Teledyne RDH solid strea-
mers (100 m separation) were used, each measuring 6000 m and towed
at a depth of 7 m. Two BOLT LLXT air guns, towed at 8 m depth and
separated by 50 m, were used as sources with a shot interval of 18.75 m.
Standard navigation and QC processing for seismic interference, swell
noise, impacts from debris, bad channels, and other software/hard-
ware-related acquisition problems were addressed using PGS software,
including common-offset cubes, 2D QC brute stacks, and RMS-ampli-
tude and noise analyses.
The datasets were processed from navigation-merged SEGY field
tapes with the objective of improving imaging of the section between
the water bottom and the strong reflections from the Nido Limestone
(Oligocene-Early Miocene). The 3D volume was depth-migrated using
Kirchhoff pre-stack migration (PSDM) employing a velocity model in-
itially from isotropic tomography inversion/vertical transverse isotropy
(VTI). This was followed by three iterations of anisotropic tomography
inversion (TTI). The initial velocity model was calibrated against logs
from the Aboabo A-1X well.
2.2. Seismic interpretation
A standard 3D seismic interpretation workflow was followed using
IHS Kingdom software, starting from well to seismic correlation to
horizon and fault mapping. For this study, seismic data was interpreted
in the depth domain. Focus was given to structural interpretation of the
Pagasa Wedge. The top and base of the wedge were the only horizons
related to the wedge that could be mapped regionally. The traditional
problem with the wedge has been its lack of consistent internal re-
flections, and this study encountered the same problem. However, lo-
cally-extensive horizons with some geological meaning could be
mapped. These horizons were either high amplitude events that pro-
vided information about local structure, or local unconformities that
marked a difference in reflection dip patterns above and below. Thrusts
and normal faults affecting the wedge could also be mapped in some
places, and displacements estimated by offset of local (e.g. high am-
plitude events) or regional (top of wedge, top Nido Limestone) markers.
3. Regional geology and tectonics
Palawan Island is traditionally divided into two terranes: NW and
SW Palawan (Aurelio et al., 2014). The tectonic boundary between
these is not yet fully understood, but authors including Saldivar-Sali
(1978), Hamilton (1979), and Holloway (1981) interpret the boundary
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
to lie at the Ulugan Bay fault (see Fig. 1), which separates regions of
contrasting stratigraphy. The North Palawan Block is underlain by a
continental microblock (Holloway, 1981; Mitchell et al., 1986; Aurelio
et al., 2013) while the southern half is underlain by ophiolitic basement
(Mitchell et al., 1986). However, this distinction may just mark a dif-
ference in erosion, where the southern half is composed of continental
crust overthrust by ophiolitic basement, while erosion has revealed the
continental crust in North Palawan.
The tectonic evolution and stratigraphy of SW Palawan and its vi-
cinity is related to early rifting followed by drifting, and finally collision
(e.g. Holloway, 1981; Sales et al., 1997). Rifting of mainland China was
initiated in the Late Cretaceous (Holloway, 1981, see review in Morley,
2016). This event, which lasted until the Eocene, created the horst and
half-graben geometry of the basement, which is infilled by synrift se-
diments (Sales et al., 1997; Franke et al., 2011). Synrift sedimentation
was followed by deposition of the carbonate facies known as the Nido
Limestone in the offshore stratigraphy in the Late Oligocene to Early
Miocene (see Fig. 2). Platform carbonates were deposited in the rela-
tively deep portions of the basin while in shallow portions, such as in
fault block crests and structural highs, reefal limestones were formed
(Franke et al., 2011). In SW Palawan, platform carbonates were ob-
served to be more prevalent based on seismic reflection data (Hinz and
Schluter, 1985).
Contemporaneous with the widespread carbonate deposition is the
formation of the Pagasa wedge (e.g. Hinz and Schluter, 1985; Schluter
et al., 1996). The Pagasa Wedge impinges on the SE margin of the
Palawan Trough. In turn the wedge appears to be overlain by the Pa-
lawan Ophiolite to the SE (Fig. 3A). The Early Cretaceous Palawan
Ophiolite is interpreted to have been emplaced, with northerly ver-
gence, during the Late Eocene-Early Miocene based on syn- and post-
kinematic sedimentation relationships, and thrust-related meta-
morphism of Eocene sedimentary units (Aurelio et al., 2014). The
ophiolite has been interpreted to represent Proto-South China Seas crust
(Savva et al., 2014) or Proto NW Sulu Sea crust (Liu et al., 2014). A
Mesozoic ophiolite is also present in northern Borneo, which has been
interpreted as forming in an intra-oceanic arc setting (Hall and Wilson,
2000), and was emplaced in the Late Cretaceous or Early Palaeogene
(Newton-Smith, 1967; Omang and Barber, 1996).
The Nido Limestone has been interpreted as a carbonate platform
developed on top of a forebulge (Steuer et al., 2014). In this scenario
subduction of the proto-South China Sea oceanic crust was completed
during the Oligocene, and the former accretionary prism began to
overthrust the attenuated continental crust of the Dangerous Grounds-
Reed Bank area giving rise to the present Palawan-NW Borneo trough as
a foredeep basin (Hinz and Schluter, 1985; Steuer et al., 2014). The
progressive NW thrusting and migration of the foredeep and forebulge
means that the Nido Carbonates are predicted to become progressively
older under the Pagasa Wedge (Steuer et al., 2014).
Hall (2012, 2013) views the evolution of Palawan very differently
from Steuer et al. (2014). In his scenario during the Oligocene Palawan
lay north of the Proto-South China Seas (Fig. 4). Similar scenarios for
the location of Palawan are shown in cross-sections in Savva et al.
(2014) and Liu et al. (2014). Hall (2012, 2013) in plate reconstructions
shows that Palawan was brought into alignment with the NW Borneo
trough by subduction along the southeastern margin of the Proto-South
China Seas, counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo and late NW-directed
subduction of the Celebes Sea beneath the Sulu Arc. Hall (2013) sug-
gests that the deepwater thrust sheets of the Palawan trough are gravity
driven systems that can be linked with low-angle detachments that have
helped exhume the thrusted ophiolite stacks of Palawan. Sapin et al.
(2013) also present a gravity driven scenario for NW Borneo. However,
Wang et al. (2017) argue that the Mw 6.0 Mt. Kinabalu earthquake of
2015, although associated with normal faulting, was too deep
(13–14 km) and steep (60°) to be associated with a gravity driven
system, and prefer to link it with a tectonically driven convergent
system at depth.
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 3. NW-SE oriented cross-sections of Palawan (A) and NW Borneo (B) regions showing structural and stratigraphic relationships. (A) NW-SE cross-section showing interpreted present
tectonic setting of the region from Offshore SW Palawan to Offshore NW Sulu Sea. The Pagasa Wedge is interpreted to be overlain by the Palawan Ophiolite at the SE. Offshore SW
Palawan is based from interpretation of a regional 2D seismic line, Palawan Island is based on onshore observations of Aurelio et al. (2014), and Offshore NW Sulu Sea is based from the
study of Letouzey et al. (1987). The depth of the Moho is based on the study of Liu et al. (2014). (B) Cross-section through Northern Borneo redrawn from Hall (2013). The thickest crust
in the vicinity of the Kinabalu Granite formed during Early Miocene collision, and is inferred to have become an extensional culmination during Middle Miocene extension. See Fig. 1 for
location.

During the Late Miocene to Pliocene, the Palawan block converged
with the Philippine mobile belt to the NE, causing another thrusting
event in Palawan (Suzuki et al., 2000). This event coincides with the
deposition of the fine to coarse marine clastics of the Matinloc For-
mation and shelfal carbonates of the Likas Formation (Sales et al., 1997;
Fig. 2). With the uplift of Palawan in the Late Pliocene, Quezon clastics
prograded over the uplifted and eroded Likas carbonates. The Pleisto-
cene was a period of relative tectonic quiescence favorable for the de-
position of the Carcar Limestone (Sales et al., 1997).
3.1. Well data
The Aboabo-A1X and Baragatan-1A wells provide both stratigraphic
information about the Pagasa Wedge and important tie points to
seismic data (Fig. 5). The Aboabo-A1X well report shows that Late
Miocene sediments overlie the Pagasa Wedge, which contains sedi-
mentary rocks of Eocene to Miocene age based on calcareous nanno-
fossils and foraminifera. The well penetrated over 1600 m of Pagasa
Wedge section, whose dominant age is Middle Miocene. However,
within the wedge three intervals of Middle Eocene sandstones and
shales ∼130–500 m thick are also present. The section is dominantly

Fig. 4. Tectonic evolution of Palawan and surrounding regions from 40 Ma to 20 Ma, showing the future Palawan Island region laying north of the Proto-South China Seas during the
Oligocene (After Hall, 2012, 2013).

217
K.A. Ilao et al.
Fig. 5. Seismic sections intersecting Aboabo-A1X (A) and Baragatan-1A (B) Wells, showing lithologies encountered in the wells, ages of intervals, and tie with seismic. Ages in the wells
are based on biostratigraphic studies conducted for each well. See Fig. 1 for location.
shale-prone, but contains significant intervals of sandstones and silt-
stones (∼35%), together with some thin carbonates. The Baragatan-1A
penetrated a high amplitude, SE-dipping reflection package within the
Pagasa Wedge. The section was dated throughout as Middle Miocene,
with a possible Early Miocene section towards the base of the well
(2506 m MD). The depositional environment of the Middle Miocene
section based on microfossils is bathyal. Only about the upper 20%
thickness of the wedge (∼400 m) was penetrated by the Baragatan-1A
well.
4. Results
4.1. Seismic interpretation
The top and base of the Pagasa Wedge were mapped in the study
area as these horizons were used to deduce the general characteristics
of the wedge. Other horizons were also mapped, including those high
amplitude reflectors within the wedge that correspond with the tops of
folded high amplitude reflection packages. Unconformities in the upper
part of the wedge were also observed and mapped, although they can
only be mapped over a limited area of the wedge. The top of the wedge
was interpreted on a positive amplitude reflection (peak). This horizon
is characterized by medium continuity and is located at a depth of
around 1000 m at the SE portion of the seismic data, and deepens to
around 2200 m towards the NW. Thrusts and folds are truncated at this
horizon.
The base of the wedge was treated here as the same as the Top Nido
formation, as the detachment surface of the wedge was interpreted to
be generally overlying the top of the Nido Limestone. The Top Nido
horizon was mapped on a positive high-amplitude reflection (peak) of
variable continuity. The horizon is located at a depth of around 4000 m
at the NW portion of the 3D seismic and deepens to around 5500 m
towards the SE. The horizon is highly continuous in the NE but becomes
discontinuous in the SW due to the presence of both normal and reverse
faulting. In addition, the detachment is also observed or inferred to be
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
directly on top of the Nido Formation in the NE part of the seismic
survey area where the formation is a distinctive high amplitude con-
tinuous event. There are some facies changes visible on seismic data, in
particular towards the NNW corner of the 3D survey the Nido
Formation changes from being two to three high-amplitude reflections
thick to a thicker unit marked by high amplitudes at the top and base,
with a low amplitude, low reflection continuity centre (Fig. 6, NE). This
locally thicker Nido Formation facies is interpreted to represent a reefal
facies. The external part of the Pagasa Wedge, which is dominated by
mass transport complexes, avoids the reefal facies and exhibits a re-
entrant in the front of the wedge at the reef (Fig. 7). Another change in
character to the Nido Limestone is seen in the SW portion of the 3D
survey where the reflections are disrupted and repeated by thrusts
(Fig. 6, SW). These thrusts are dominantly oriented E-W to ENE-WSW,
and verge to the north. In places duplexes (or pseudo-duplexes) with
floor thrusts from the base of the Nido Limestone, and the roof thrust
overlying the Nido Limestone can be inferred (Fig. 8). In some cases the
roof thrusts are the base of a mass transport complex, which gives rise
to a pseudo-duplex geometry. There is no consistent hanging wall fold
structure that would indicate the detachment in the northern area has
consistently ramped down to lie within or below the Nido Limestone in
the SW area. Hence, it seems easier to infer that there are two separate
thrust systems: one overlying the Nido Limestone directed to the NW,
and one underlying the Nido Limestone directed to the N to NNW (e.g.
Fig. 8). The depth structure map (Fig. 7) shows the thrust hanging walls
only, duplications of horizons (in the footwall areas) are not re-
presented in the map. This map aims to demonstrate the locations,
spacing and trends of thrust faults affecting the Nido formation. Fault
spacing is on the order of 100’s m (∼300–500 m), with a maximum
observed offset of about 4 km.
Two unconformities (1 and 2) were identified within the Pagasa
Wedge. These unconformities are not marked by a clear reflector, but
form a trend marked by subtle erosional truncations. Both un-
conformities were interpreted on discontinuous positive amplitude re-
flections (peaks). The depths of the horizons are variable due to local
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 6. SW-NE oriented 3D seismic inline offshore SW Palawan (top), and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing the different stratigraphic units in SW Palawan. These units
include (a) the Cretaceous continental basement affected by rifting, (b) the Eocene synrift deposits filling up the half-grabens, (c) the Oligo-Miocene Nido Limestone characterized by high
amplitude multi-banded reflectors thickening to the NE transitioning from a platform to a reefal facies and highly affected by thrusting at the SW, (d) the Mass Transport Deposit (MTD)
characterized by chaotic reflection packages depicting at least two events of mass transport, (e) the Pagasa Wedge characterized by chaotic reflections, (f) the syn-thrust deposits whose
top corresponds to the “Middle Miocene Unconformity” (MMU), (g) the Tabon Limestone marked by high amplitude reflections overlying the syn-thrust, and (h) the Carcar Limestone
corresponding to the topmost seismic unit characterized by a generally coherent reflector package. See Fig. 1 for location.

folding, and the offshore dip of the wedge, but in general Unconformity
1 lies at depths around 1500–2300 m, while Unconformity 2 (Figs. 8
and 9) ranges between depths of 1500 m and 3070 m. One local horizon
on an unconformity shows a synformal structure that is elongate in a
NE-SW direction, suggesting a phase of folding after unconformity de-
velopment. The synclinal structure is not very regular (Fig. 9).
Interpretation of other horizons within the wedge was also at-
tempted. These horizons were both interpreted on positive amplitude
reflections (peaks) and are characterized by high-amplitude but rather
low continuity. They are termed here as intraformational sequences,
which define the tops of folding structures. They were made to de-
termine the morphology and orientation of some of the clearer fold
structures within the wedge. Fig. 10 shows local maps on some fold
structures; they can only be mapped along strike for distances between
about 1 and 3 km. Three show a NE-SW trend, while fold 1 has more of
an E-W trend. It is apparent from depth slices through the Pagasa
Wedge that internally it is composed of very discontinuous reflection
packages (see Fig. 11). The most common trend of amplitudes on the
depth slice is NE-SW but there are a wide range of other trends present
since there are numerous circular to oval geometries in the amplitude
trends, which reflect the presence of folds, which are commonly
bounded by thrusts or normal faults. The high-amplitude slices that are
prominent on seismic sections (e.g. Figs. 8 and 12) extend along strike
for only a few kilometres on depth slices (e.g. Fig. 11B).
Some normal faults are confined within the wedge, while others
offset the top of the wedge. The interpreted normal faults generally
trend NE-SW, similar to most structures within the wedge. Normal
faults were identified from local offset of reflections or mapped hor-
izons. The best-defined normal faults occur in the SW portion of the
study area (Fig. 12). The largest of these faults has a maximum throw of
∼650 m, and the upper part of the fault lies in the Late Miocene to
Pliocene Likas and Matinloc formations, which overlie the wedge. Ex-
pansion of the Matinloc Formation (clastics) occurs towards the fault.
Fig. 12 illustrates this relationship showing the interpreted normal fault

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K.A. Ilao et al.
Fig. 7. Top Nido Depth Structure Map (Thrust Hanging Wall) showing thrust faults oriented in two directions: E-W trending and NE-SW trending, inferred to be depicting two separate
thrust systems affecting Nido Limestone. Shallow portion on the map depicts the location of the Nido Limestone reefal facies, where the wedge exhibits a re-entrant in the front of the
wedge at the reef.
and the mentioned formations. There are other normal faults that are
entirely confined to the section overlying the wedge, that were not
mapped in this study (see Fig. 12).
In some portions of the study area, normal faults entirely confined
below the MMU were observed. The throws of these NE-SW striking
normal faults is low (∼100 m or less) compared with the later ones that
offset the top of the wedge. The faults show relatively low spacing
(kilometers apart). An example of this type of normal fault observed in
the study area is shown in the NW portion of the seismic line in Fig. 8.
Note that the fault is truncated by the Top of Wedge horizon and there
was no observed displacement on the overlying formations. The sedi-
ment package on the hanging wall side of this normal fault is pre-
dominantly a chaotic reflection package. On some lines the data is clear
enough to permit an interpretation where many of the normal faults are
linked with detachments that pass into thrust faults (Figs. 13 and 14).
Fig. 15 shows a 2D line where the offset of a prominent high amplitude
reflection indicates the presence of normal faults, 3D data only covers
the NW portion of the normal faulting, but supports the interpretation
shown on the 2D line.
Mass transport deposits (MTD’s) are imaged at the leading edge of
the wedge (Figs. 13–17). They are best imaged in the NW and most
external part of the 3D seismic survey area. The mass transport com-
plexes form tabular deposit up to 500 m thick. Towards the distal end
220
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
SE dipping reflections within the MTD suggest imbricate structures
around the compressional toe region (see Fig. 16). In some places
multiple MTD’s are present overlying each other in sedimentary suc-
cession, but in other places thrusts have caused duplication of the same
MTD. Fig. 17 shows multiple MTD’s that in places have been emplaced
over thin areas of parallel reflections that represent undeformed parts
of the Pagasa Formation. This relationship demonstrates that the mass
transport deposits step back towards the hinterland passing up section.
The mass transport complexes that extend furthest to the NW lies at
the base of the Pagasa Wedge (Figs. 6 and 16). There are commonly at
least two MTD’s that form this lowest complex, in some areas they are
separate and in others they are amalgamated. Passing to the NE along
the front of the wedge there is a re-entrant where the basal MTD’s run
up against a prominent high in the Nido Limestone, where the lime-
stone thickens from about 550 m to 1300 m passing into a build-up
(Figs. 7 and 11A). The seismic character of the Pagasa Wedge changes
from having some distinct internal divisions (e.g. Figs. 13–17) to one
where there is no distinct internal division (Fig. 18). This suggests that
the arrival of the carbonate build-up triggered considerable amalga-
mation (of MTD’s) and mixing of stratigraphy at the front of the Pagasa
Wedge.
The Aboabo-A1X well encountered three repetitions of Eocene
section within the Pagasa Wedge (Fig. 5). However to be a simple thrust
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 8. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing presence of normal fault confined within the wedge and
truncated by the MMU. At the NW portion (3–4.5 km depth), duplexes (or pseudo-duplexes) with floor thrusts from the base of the Nido Limestone, and the roof thrust overlying the Nido
Limestone can be inferred. See Fig. 1 for location. MMU = Middle Miocene Unconformity; UC = Unconformity (local).

221
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 9. Depth structure map of one local unconformity (Unconformity 2 in text) within the Pagasa Wedge showing a synformal structure that is elongate in a NE-SW direction. Extent of
the unconformity is not defined because of some constraints in the mapping (e.g., data quality and discontinuity of reflections).

repetition the Oligocene and Early Miocene section, including the Nido derived from any section where the Nido Limestone is present (i.e. not
Limestone, would be expected to be present too, but these are absent. derived from beneath external and central part of the wedge). One in-
Consequently well data suggests that the Eocene section was not terpretation could be that the Eocene repetitions are achieved by splays

Fig. 10. Depth structure map of intraformational sequences

(anticlines) showing the general trends of relatively clearer
folding structures within the Pagasa Wedge.

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along a far-travelled thrust sheet, but the seismic sections, for all their
poor data quality, do not really support such an interpretation. A sim-
pler interpretation is that the Eocene is reworked within the Middle
Miocene section, either in a finely disseminated way, or via mass
transport complex. The unpublished micropaleontology reports for the
wells indicate that even within section dated as Middle Miocene con-
siderable reworking of older microfossils occurs. The island of Palawan
most likely is the potential source area, and the Panas and Pandian
formations on the island would be prime sources of Eocene material,
while the Oligocene is only very locally present (Aurelio et al., 2014).
5. Discussion
5.1. Dating the top of the wedge
Recent studies have given conflicting ages regarding the termina-
tion of deformation in the Pagasa Wedge (12 Ma by Aurelio et al., 2014,
and 7 Ma by Steuer et al., 2013). The top of the wedge has also been
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
Fig. 11. Depth slices through the 3D survey showing the
internal geometry of the Pagasa Wedge. (A) Depth slice at
3228 m, (B) depth slice at 3052 m, showing a detail of the
internal wedge morphology in the central part of the 3D
data. See Fig. 1 for location.
linked with the highly contentious Middle Miocene Unconformity
(MMU) (e.g. Steuer et al., 2013; Aurelio et al., 2014; Morley, 2016).
Consequently it is necessary to better understand the evidence for the
timing of the wedge, and how this timing fits with regional tectonic
events.
The evidence for the timing of the wedge deformation is based on
seismic reflection data tied to wells (Steuer et al., 2013; Aurelio et al.,
2014). According to Steuer et al. (2013) the top of the Nido Limestone
and base of the Tabon Limestone constrain development of the wedge
to between ∼18 Ma and ∼7 Ma. The Murex-1 well is cited as providing
a constraint of 7 Ma on the timing of deformation. However in the vi-
cinity of the Murex-1 well the Tabon Limestone (base ∼7 Ma) does not
lie on top of the wedge, there is a ∼200 m thick interval of post-ki-
nematic Matinloc Formation above the top of the wedge, whose base is
dated based on foraminifera at N16 (8.3 Ma; Steuer et al., 2013). Also in
this locality the shallow part of the wedge is strongly affected by normal
faults (Steuer et al., 2013), not thrust faults. Hence contractional de-
formation ended sometime prior to 8.3 Ma. In the Aboabo-A1X well the
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 12. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline

offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural
interpretation (bottom), showing a normal
fault affecting the wedge and overlying for-
mations (Tabon Limestone and Matinloc
Formation). Thickening of the Matinloc
Formation is observed towards the fault.
Normal faults confined to the sections over-
lying the wedge were also defined but were
not mapped in this study. MMU = Middle
Miocene Unconformity. See Fig. 1 for location.

base of the Tabon Limestone lies directly on the wedge and is dated deformation at 12 Ma. The reason for this age is because that is the
around 9 Ma (Steuer et al., 2013). Hence this well appears to provide a upper age of the Pagasa Formation, which also coincides with the
reasonable younger limit on the age of the wedge at 9 Ma. Conversely MMU. Determining a precise age for the duration of activity within the
Aurelio et al. (2014) place the upper age of the main wedge wedge is difficult, because the wedge does not appear to show its

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Fig. 13. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing the external part of the wedge where six separate mass
transport complexes can be identified (labelled 1–6). See Fig. 1 for location.

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K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 14. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing the external Pagasa Wedge where several mass transport
complexes are present, and appear to pass from thrusts in the NW area to normal faults towards the SE. The wedge is interpreted to be composed of numerous gravity slides rather than
thrust sheets driven by lithospheric stresses. A different set of thrust sheets are interpreted to be present on the SE part of the line. See Fig. 1 for location.

youngest movement at the thrust front. Aurelio et al. (2014) label a upper part of the Pagasa Formation between the deformed wedge and
sequence in the external part of the wedge as syn-thrust, this sequence the base of the Tabon Limestone (see Fig. 6). In places this syn-thrust
lies within the lower part of the Matinloc Formation and possibly the sequence has been subject to late-stage folding and thrusting. The

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Fig. 15. NW-SE oriented 2D seismic line across the Pagasa Wedge (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom). The seismic line shows the generally poorly reflective nature of the
wedge. One area where high amplitude reflections are present within the wedge suggests that normal faults are present transporting rotated blocks in an offshore direction. The
geometries are consistent with those present on adjacent 3D lines. See Fig. 1 for location.
sequence is absent in many places either due to erosion or because it
onlaps pre-existing highs. In the vicinity of the external part of the
Pagasa Wedge the syn-thrust sequence can be approximately bracketed
between the top of the Pagasa Formation (∼12 Ma, Aurelio et al.,
2014), and the base of the Tabon Limestone in the Aboabo-A1X well
(∼9Ma, Steuer et al., 2013).
The term MMU is fraught with problems of regional correlation,
including often the MMU actually appears to be of Early, not Middle
Miocene age (see discussion in Morley, 2016). Consequently the term
Red Unconformity has been used as an alternative (Steuer et al., 2014;
Morley, 2016). Hinz and Schluter (1985) introduced the Red Un-
conformity as a prominent reflector that marks the top of a sedimentary
layer, the Pagasa Formation rather than an unconformity in the Borneo-
Palawan trough. The age of the top is 15.2 Ma according to Steuer et al.
(2013). However, Aurelio et al. (2014) date the MMU and top of the
Pagasa and Isugod formations at 12 Ma. Onshore Palawan the Isugod
Formation is the lateral equivalent of the Pagasa Formation. The dif-
ference in age of the Pagasa Formation between Aurelio et al. (2014)
and Steuer et al. (2013) is not discussed in the later paper. However, the
cause of the range of ages is apparent from the well correlation data
provided in Steuer et al. (2013) as follows: Murex-1, Pagasa/Pulute
Formation top above N14; Paz-1, Pagasa/Pulute Formation top between
N13 and N14; Busuanga-1 top Pagasa Formation N8; Cadlao-1, top
Pagasa Formation N12. Where the planktonic foraminifera zones are
dated as: N 16 = 8.3 Ma, N14 = 10.2 Ma, N13 = 11.2 Ma, N
12 = 11.5 Ma, and N8 = 15.2 Ma (Steuer et al., 2013). The well tops do
not consistently show a 15.2 Ma age, instead the top is diachronous and
appears to range between about 15.2 and 10.2 Ma.
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
The dating of formations appears to be problematic in some wells.
For example in the Penascosa-1 well Steuer et al. (2013) show the Nido
Limestone as ending at N8 (15.2 Ma) and being overlain by about 600 m
of Pagasa Formation and 400 m of Lower Matinloc Formation. The
presence of 600 m of fine-grained Pagasa Formation suggests a con-
siderable time period for deposition, yet the well correlations show that
both the Pagasa Formation and the Lower Matinloc Formation are
present below the N9 (14.5 Ma) marker. These observations pose the
questions – is deposition of 1 km of section in 0.7 Myr reasonable? Or is
there some inaccuracy with the biostratigraphy? Our suspicion is that in
this case there is an issue with the biostratigraphy (e.g. reworking).
As discussed above, the top of the Pagasa Formation appears to be
highly variable in age, ranging from about 15.2 Ma to 10.2 Ma. In part
this range may reflect problems with biostratigraphy (highlighted by
the Penascosa-1 well), problems with formation identification in wells,
and in part the well documented diachronous nature of the formation
tops (Steuer et al., 2013). From this review we do not consider that an
age of 15.2 Ma for the top of the Pagasa Formation is a good age to use
regionally. The 12 Ma age used by Aurelio et al. (2014) is also too
limiting. From the evidence discussed above the age of the top of the
Pagasa Wedge and Pagasa Formation is diachronous. Where the Tabon
Limestone directly overlies the wedge, activity may have stopped
around 9 Ma. Passing towards the front of the wedge cessation of ac-
tivity is older, and the age of section overlying the wedge is probably
younger around 12 Ma and younger. The older age for the Pagasa
Formation (15.2 Ma) is probably only appropriate for the NW part of
Palawan, and reflects the top of the Pagasa Formation becoming older
passing NE along the shelf (Steuer et al., 2013). The presence of
K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 16. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing Mass Transport Deposits (MTD’s) at the leading edge of the
wedge. The MTD’s were observed to contain SE-dipping reflectors suggesting imbricate structures around the compressional toe region. See Fig. 1 for location. MMU = Middle Miocene
Unconformity.

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K.A. Ilao et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237

Fig. 17. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline over the Pagasa Wedge (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom). An interpretation of the line shows a mixture of normal faults and
thrust faults. It is inferred that there is a mixture of early and later gravity driven structures, the early gravity driven structures are linked normal and thrust faults. Some later, vertically
more extensive normal faults are inferred to cut across the stacked mass transport complexes and earlier thrusts and normal faults. See Fig. 1 for location.

multiple unconformities associated with the wedge, the diachronous
nature of formation tops, the transition of local unconformities laterally
into conformable sequences, and the presence of regional diachronous
events (e.g. migrating forebulges, Steuer et al., 2014) overprinting more
local tectonic ones, all suggest a simple MMU interpretation or single
age should not be applied to the top of the Pagasa Wedge (see Steuer
et al., 2013, 2014; Morley, 2016).
5.2. Internal structure
The internal structure of the Pagasa Wedge is very poorly imaged
even on 3D seismic data. There are patchy occurrences of dipping high
amplitude events but these are highly variable and cannot be mapped
over long distances (Fig. 11). Many of the high amplitude events are
interpreted as imbricates and thrusts of Nido Limestone, but wells have
demonstrated that sand layers and Miocene limestones are also re-
sponsible for some of the high amplitude events (Figs. 5 and 16). While
in many accretionary prisms seismic imaging of the wedge degrades
significantly away from the wedge front, commonly the frontal part of
the wedge displays well-imaged simple large-scale folds and thrusts
(e.g. Hikurangi, e.g. Barnes et al., 2010; Nankai, e.g. Moore et al., 2011;
Makran, e.g. Grando and McClay, 2007). Similar well developed folds
and thrusts are observed along strike-from the Pagasa Wedge in deep-
water Southern Sabah and Brunei (e.g. Morley, 2009; Cullen, 2010;
Hesse et al., 2010). For the Pagasa Wedge imaging is also best near the
thrust front, but simple, clear examples of detachment or fault propa-
gation folds typical of the external zones in the wedges cited above, are
not present (Figs. 13–17). Instead ramping thrusts overlying a mass
transport complex characterises much of the thrust front (e.g. Fig. 16).
In Fig. 13, a late ramping thrust possibly related to gravity driven

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movement transported a stack (numbered 3–6) of previously emplaced
mass transport complexes over the Pagasa Formation. Additionally in
the southern part of the 3D data two orientations of thrusts and folds
are present: NE-SW and E-W (Fig. 7).
The highly discontinuous internal structure of the Pagasa Wedge
requires some explanation. Of particular interest is how the internal
structure is indicative of the tectonic processes that formed the wedge.
Historically, there have been three main origins proposed for the
wedge: (1) accretionary prism (Hamilton, 1979); (2) former accre-
tionary prism caught up in early-stage collisional margin (Savva et al.,
2014); and (3) gravity-driven wedge (Hall, 2013; Fig. 3B). At present
there is consensus that the wedge is not an active accretionary prism
(e.g. Hall, 2012; Savva et al., 2013, 2014; Aurelio et al., 2014; this
study); and most workers seem to view the wedge as being
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
Fig. 18. NW-SE oriented 3D seismic crossline showing the
geometry of the external Pagasa Wedge as it interacts with a
build-up in the Nido Limestone. See Fig. 1 for location.
progressively thrust onto the Dangerous Grounds-Reed Bank margin as
a consequence of Cenozoic ophiolite emplacement from the SE (see
Savva et al., 2014 for a review). The lack of internal reflectivity can be
explained as a result of several factors including: (1) considerable de-
velopment of mass transport complexes that have reworked material
from the wedge, and have then been incorporated into the wedge as it
propagated seaward. (2) Gravity collapse of the wedge that resulted in
normal faults affecting the wedge, and superimposing normal faults and
toe thrusts on the internal architecture of the wedge. This gravity
driven deformation is superimposed on older gravity driven systems
(mass transport complexes for example) within the wedge. (3) Larger-
scale thrusting related to either the early stage collisional margin, or the
crustal-scale gravity driven process of Hall (2012).
The Pagasa Wedge is inactive today, and so the normal faulting and
K.A. Ilao et al.
mass transport complexes imaged also reflect late stage processes as
tectonic activity decreased and there was no longer sufficient force to
keep the wedge at critical taper and propagating seawards. The late
degradation of the wedge is manifested as isolated listric faults off-
setting the top of the wedge (Fig. 12), as mass transport complexes
around the front of the wedge (Figs. 13–17), as late slump systems
(linked normal fault-thrust fault systems, Figs. 13–17), and as local
amalgamation of the external wedge adjacent to Nido Carbonate build-
ups (Fig. 18).
5.3. Significance of critical taper angle
King and Morley (2017) give the following results for the different
taper angles compared for different fold and thrust belts (FTBs) around
the world. Wedge taper angles in near-field stress-driven FTBs display
the smallest critical tapers: ≤2° for salt detachments and 2–4° for shale
detachments. Combination near-field and far-field stress-driven FTBs
tend to display wedge-taper angles ranging from 4° to 6°, whereas FTBs
driven only by far-field stresses have wedge-taper angles ≥7°. These
differences were attributed largely to variations in the strength of the
basal detachment. These general changes were attributed to the dif-
ferences in material behaviour between salt and shale, and differences
in overpressure magnitude between gravity-driven systems and accre-
tionary prisms (King and Morley, 2017).
For the Pagasa Wedge three profiles parallel to the dip direction of
the wedge were measured to determine the average taper angle, which
is ∼9° (Table 1). The wedge taper angle of ∼9° for the Pagasa Wedge is
a typical value for FTBs that have resulted from predominantly far-field
stresses (King and Morley, 2017). The classification scheme cannot,
however, categorically define the type of fold and thrust belt, there is
just an overall tendency for accretionary prism basal thrusts to be
somewhat stronger than the basal thrusts associated with gravity-driven
systems.
5.4. Regional tectonic evolution of the southern South China Seas region
Hutchison (2010) in his review of the Northwest Borneo Trough
favoured a common origin for Palawan and NW Borneo. He saw the
simplest tectonic explanation as the wedge originating as an accre-
tionary prism, and subsequently was emplaced onto the Dangerous
Grounds continental crust, with the subduction system evolving into a
foredeep (the original trench position being lost to the SE). The pre-
sence of drowned carbonate build-ups (Nido Limestone) around the
trough can be explained in the context of thrust sheet loading, and
foredeep propagation to the NW with time (Hutchison, 2010; Steuer
et al., 2014). The plate reconstructions of Zahirovic et al. (2014) es-
sentially follow this scenario where central and southwestern Palawan
is rifted from South China in the Palaeogene, during formation of the
Proto-South China Seas oceanic crust in a back-arc setting. From the age
of oceanic crust generated south of Palawan the model suggests that the
Palawan ophiolite is Palaeogene in age, although due to uncertainties
about the timing of opening this age could be extended into the late
Cretaceous (Zahirovic et al., 2014). By 45 Ma central and southwestern
Palawan has moved SSE to become nearly in line with NE Borneo. This
scenario places a trench on the NW side of Palawan from the Late Eo-
cene until collision with the Dangerous Grounds continental crust
Table 1
Critical taper angle measured at different locations within the study area.
α Β
A 4° 5°
B 4° 6°
C 3° 5°
Average
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
(containing NE Palawan) in the Middle Miocene.
The reconstruction of Hall (2012), and models in Savva et al.
(2014), and Liu et al. (2014) are contrary to the scenario of a shared
history between Borneo and Palawan. Hall (2012) shows the region of
the NW Borneo trough as a product initially of subduction of the Proto-
South China Seas, followed later, at around 20 Ma by underthrusting of
Dangerous Grounds crust beneath Borneo, which lasted until around
10 Ma. In these reconstructions Palawan forms the NE extension of the
Dangerous Grounds Crust, and the NW side of Palawan is never the site
of any crustal-scale thrusting, or subduction. It is just part of the rifted
southern margin of the South China Seas spreading centre. Instead the
Proto-South China Sea subduction zone runs NE-SW and lies SE of Pa-
lawan during the Palaeogene. Only in the late Early Miocene to Middle
Miocene does Palawan line up with NW Borneo. Between 20 Ma and
15 Ma subduction of the Proto-South China Seas crust ceased and sea-
floor spreading began in the Sulu Sea. Consequently at the time of
Pagasa Wedge development in the Hall (2012) reconstruction, there
was no regional tectonic cause for the scenario envisioned by Hutchison
(2010).
The history of the ophiolites on Palawan is an important constraint
on the two models. The Palawan outcrops comprise gabbros, perido-
tites, and pillow basalts with intercalated pelagic sediments and cherts
(Wolfart et al., 1986; Tumanda et al., 1995). In some places sediments
have been dated as Late Campanian to Early Maastrictian (Wolfart
et al., 1986), while a 130 Ma age was obtained from harzburgites from
the Osmium-Rhenium method (Santos, 1997). Eocene-Early Oligocene
turbidites of the Panas Formation overlie the ophiolitic units. Keenan
(2016) interprets the Cretaceous ophiolites as relatively small frag-
ments derived from the downgoing slab of Proto-South China Seas
oceanic crust attached to the Dangerous Grounds block. A separate,
younger (Palaeogene) ophiolite is the more widespread of the two
ophiolites on the island, which Keenan (2016) refers to as the Central
Palawan Ophiolite. Igneous-type zircons from a plagiogranite in the
Central Palawan Ophiolite were U-Pb dated at 34.1 ± 0.1 Ma (Keenan
et al., 2016). On the basis of field relationships and geochemistry the
plagiogranite is consistent with the felsic magma being comagmatic
with the dominant MORB-IAB type magmas in the section (Keenan
et al., 2016). The metamorphic sole is exposed in the Dalrymple Point
area (see Fig. 1), and shows increasing metamorphic grade upwards
towards the base of the ophiolite, and ranges from kyanite schists to
garnet amphibolites in basaltic oceanic crust and associated sedimen-
tary rock lithologies (Keenan et al., 2016). Ar-Ar cooling ages on two
hornblende samples and one white mica sample yielded ages of
34.2 ± 0.5, 34.2 ± 0.6 and 34.25 ± 0.3 Ma (Keenan et al., 2016). P-
T conditions for the garnet amphibolites were calculated at 700–760 °C
and exceeding 9 kb (Keenan et al., 2016). The small difference between
the age of the sole protolith (∼34.2 Ma) and the upper plate ophiolite
(34.1 ± 0.1 Ma plagiogranite) suggests subduction was initiated in
very close proximity to, or at a spreading centre (Keenan et al., 2016).
The latest motion on the ophiolite appears to be early Miocene since it
overlies the Oligocene-Early Miocene St. Paul Limestone (lateral on-
shore equivalent to the Nido Limestone). Aurelio et al. (2014) state,
without providing details, that the Early Miocene Isugod Formation,
which overlies the St. Paul Limestone, seals thrust faults related to
ophiolite emplacement.
Three key constraints regarding ophiolite development and empla-
cement from the review above are: (1) two separate ophiolites are
present on Palawan, one that formed during the Cretaceous, and one
that formed during the Palaeogene, (2) these ophiolites were thrust to
the north, and (3) this thrusting occurred between ∼35 Ma and
α+β ∼23 Ma (Aurelio et al., 2014; Keenan et al., 2016). The Cretaceous
ophiolite age is not explained by the Zahirovic et al. (2014) plate re-
9° construction, which form the oceanic crust south of Palawan during the
10°
Palaeogene only. However, the authors show in the plate reconstruction
8°
9° the minimum age of Proto South China Sea formation and consider that
roll-back and back-arc extension could have occurred during the Late
231
K.A. Ilao et al.
Fig. 19. NW-SE oriented 2D line offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing progradational units between the wedge and the base of the Tabon
Limestone.
Cretaceous. This requires the older ophiolite to be of Late Cretaceous
age, whereas there is evidence from both Borneo and Palawan for Ap-
tian-age radiolarian cherts associated with pillow basalts indicating the
ophiolite is at least partially of Early Cretaceous age (e.g. Aitchison,
1994; Asis and Jasin, 2012; Meresse et al., 2012a,b)
As reviewed by Hall (2013) the ophiolite fragments (Darwell Bay,
Tellupid) of NW Borneo are thought to range in age between 160 and
75 Ma, and were emplaced in the Late Cretaceous or Early Palaeogene.
This differs significantly from the Palaeogene age of formation of the
Central Palawan Ophiolite and the timing of subduction initiation
(∼35–34 Ma) and Late Oligocene-Early Miocene obduction. In Hall
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
(2013) there is also an implication that some ophiolites might be of
different origins than others. The interpretation of sub-continental
mantle peridotites around Mount Kinabalu (Imai and Ozawa, 1991)
suggests a possible continental-extensional origin for some peridotite-
dominated ophiolites.
The Palawan ophiolite has been inferred to represent a fragment of
the Proto-South China Sea crust (Hall, 2012; Zahirovic et al., 2014;
Savva et al., 2014; Keenan et al., 2016), or a fragment of the NW Sulu
Sea (Muller, 1991; Schluter et al., 1996; Liu et al., 2014; see review in
Morley, 2016). The evidence from the Palawan ophiolite for the timing
of deformation, and the presence of an obducted Palaeogene spreading
K.A. Ilao et al.
centre surrounded by Cretaceous-age oceanic crust (Encarnacion, 1994;
Keenan et al., 2016), perhaps best fits with a modified scenario from the
Hall (2012) plate reconstructions (Fig. 4). In this scenario a narrow
Palaeogene spreading centre and oceanic rift formed within the Proto-
South China Seas domain. Around 34–35 Ma, at the time when seafloor
spreading was about to commence in the South China Seas area,
spreading in the Proto-South China Seas ceased (presumably some
cause and effect relationship), and a subduction zone was initiated in
the vicinity of the former spreading centre. Subduction of the Proto-
South China Sea may have continued along two trench systems from
about 35 Ma to 23–20 Ma when obduction of the ophiolite onto the
leading edge of the Dangerous Grounds-Reed Bank continental crust
was completed (Fig. 4; Aurelio et al., 2014; Keenan et al., 2016). The
presence of twin subduction zones helps to explain the lack of vol-
canism associated with the subduction, which has been one criticism of
the Proto-South China Seas model (e.g. Cullen et al., 2010). However,
this criticism maybe overstated given the presence of Eocene-Miocene
age, subduction related igneous activity in the ‘gold belt’ of Central
West Kalimantan (Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1999). The obduction event in
Palawan seems to be later, and separate from NW Borneo (Fig. 4).
5.5. Miocene granites of Palawan
Two small granite bodies (Bay Peak and Mount Capoas granites) are
dated at 13.8 ± 0.2 Ma and 13.5 ± 0.2 Ma respectively (Suggate
et al., 2014). Geochemistry of the Mount Capoas granite shows it to be a
metaluminous, high-K calc-alkaline porphyritic biotite granite, which
plots in tectonic discrimination diagrams in the syn-collisional and
volcanic arc fields (Encarnacion and Mukasa, 1997). However,
Encarnacion and Mukasa (1997) interpreted the setting of the granite as
post-rifting, non-collisional, and unrelated to subduction, and explained
the plots in the syn-collisional and volcanic arc fields as a function of
the granite source rock composition, not tectonic setting. Suggate et al.
(2014) suggested an extensional setting related to slab rollback for the
granites. These granites were intruded at the same time as the Pagasa
Wedge was active. If the granites are really post-orogenic, then same
must be true of the wedge.
40
Ar/39Ar K-feldspar geochronology and forward modelling sug-
gests the Mount Capoas granite was emplaced at depths of 7–9 km, and
cooled towards ambient temperature around 12 Ma, but then after a
period of quiescence to about 11 Ma experienced a phase of very rapid
cooling (Forster et al., 2015). (U-Th)/He data indicate that the period of
cooling (average rate of ∼70–75 °C/Ma) lasted until 8.5 Ma ± 0.4 Ma,
when the samples reached ambient temperatures of around
70 °C ± 5 °C (Forster et al., 2015). Thus there is evidence for a period
of uplift between 11 and 8.5 Ma from Palawan that coincides with the
upper part of the Pagasa Wedge and the progradational units between
the wedge and the base of the Tabon Formation (Fig. 19).
5.6. Tectonic transport direction
Published structural measurements of tectonic transport direction
for Palawan are limited. Aurelio et al. (2014) describe north directed
striations and strike-slip faults associated with the ophiolite. For the
Ulugan Bay area, Keenan (2016) presents structural data for bedding,
foliations, fold axes and lineations, which show highly variable direc-
tion, but these directions do not coincide well with a NW-SE direction
of transport. The poles to fold axes indicate both E-W and NE-SW
trending folds, while lineations are predominantly oriented N-S and to a
lesser extent NW-SE. Bedding and foliation strike predominantly E-W to
NW-SE. While the structure is complex, and there are superimposed
phases of folding, the absence of a stronger influence of transport to the
NW is notable, and transport direction towards the north seems to have
been important during the history of the ophiolite obduction (Aurelio
et al., 2014; Keenan, 2016).
In the reconstruction by Zahirovic et al. (2014) the Dangerous
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
Grounds-Reed Bank and northern Palawan areas collide with Borneo-
South Palawan in the Miocene. However, we follow Holloway (1981)
and Hall (2012) in inferring that both north and south Palawan are
underlain by Dangerous Grounds-Reed Bank continental crust, and that
the suture marked by the ophiolite lies to the SE of Palawan. The dif-
ference between North and South Palawan is just in the exhumation
level of the ophiolite.
The orientation of the island, the NE-SW trend of some mappable
geological units, and the NE-SW striking Borneo-Palawan trough lead to
an expectation that the overall tectonic transport direction of thrusts is
to the NW, at least in the later stages of development. However the
orientation of the South China Seas rifted margin is more E-W, the older
magnetic stripes in the South China Sea oceanic crust strike E-W
(anomalies 10–7, ∼30–23 Ma), while the younger ones (anomalies 6b-
5c) become more ENE-WSW to NE-SW trending in a transition period
between anomalies 6b and 6 (Briais et al., 1993). This transition period
is dated between 23 and 20 Ma according to Briais et al. (1993). In the
plate reconstruction in Fig. 4, which are modified from Hall (2012), the
edge of the Dangerous Grounds continental-ocean transition is shown as
trending NE-SW. This margin moves south towards an E-W trending
subduction zone, which represents the trench of the Central Palawan
Ophiolite. Then around 23–20 Ma the direction of subduction became
more south-southeasterly to southeasterly and the impact of the NE-SW
Dangerous Grounds margin became greater and started to impose a NE-
SW trend on structures forming in the Pagasa Wedge. This scenario
suggests that the E-W trending thrusts seen in the southern Pagasa
Wedge could have been initiated during the early phase of N-S con-
vergence, and perhaps represents a palaeo-thrust front when the
stresses began to re-orientate. The thrusts were reactivated in the
Middle Miocene. If the Proto-South China Sea oceanic slab broke-off
from the Dangerous Grounds eastern margin during late Early Miocene
to Middle Miocene this would have caused buoyant uplift along the NE-
SW trending leading edge of the Dangerous Grounds, imposing this
direction on the margin. Uplift (possibly coupled with crustal thick-
ening) would have given rise to erosion, and gravity induced de-
formation, where mass transport complexes and gravity tectonics were
predominantly transported in a northwesterly direction.
The apatite fission track data that is available for the Palawan
continental terrain is from the Buruanga Peninsula Panay Island. This is
not in an ideal location for Palawan specifically (300 km to the ENE),
but indicates uplift occurred in events that span 14–7 Ma (Walia et al.,
2013). This timing overlaps with Late Miocene collision with the Phi-
lippine Mobile Belt (Aurelio et al., 2014). In addition to the granites
discussed previously, the timing of uplift on Palawan can be con-
strained by outcrop and seismic data. Sub-aerial uplift clearly postdates
the Early Miocene St. Paul Limestone, and the marine Middle Miocene
Isugod Formation. There is also clearly later uplift in the Pleistocene
that post-dates the Likas (Tam and Iwahig Limestones present onshore
Palawan (Aurelio et al., 2014; Fig. 2). From 2D seismic reflection data
west of Palawan there is indication of uplift at the later stages of the
Pagasa Wedge, because there are progradational seismic reflection that
lie on top of the wedge (with a suspicion that some of the oldest events
have been incorporated into the wedge). These events lie between the
near shelf edge location of wells like the Aboabo-A1X well, and the
Island of Palawan. In the Aboabo-A1X well, the base of the Tabon
Limestone (that overlies the Pagasa Wedge) is around 9 Ma (Steuer
et al., 2013). The progradational sequence underlies the base of the
Tabon Limestone at this location (see Fig. 19), so progradation ended
slightly before ∼9 Ma. Uplift of Palawan is inferred to have forced the
progradation, and this occurred before 9 Ma. The early uplift must have
only produced patchy development of islands, and was insufficient to
sustain consistent emergence of land due to the presence of carbonate
deposition over central and southern Palawan dated as Late Miocene-
Pliocene (Fig. 2). Late deformation during the Pliocene is indicated by
folding of the Matinloc Formation (Meresse et al., 2012b).
K.A. Ilao et al.
Fig. 20. Correlation of tectonic and stratigraphic events between NW Borneo and Palawan.
5.7. Comparison of tectonic events affecting Borneo and Palawan
A correlation of tectonic and stratigraphic events between NW
Borneo and Palawan is given in Fig. 20. Correlation of the tectonic
events between these two regions can also be observed in cross-sections
(see Fig. 3). The stratigraphy of the two islands is notably different
reflecting the high flux of clastic material on Borneo, compared with the
extensive carbonate-dominated formations from Palawan. The Deep
Regional Unconformity (DRU) is a major unconformity in NW Borneo
developed around 17–16 Ma, and marks the onset of the latest cycle of
deltaic deposition (latest Early Miocene-Recent) and the formation of
the Baram-Balabac Basin (e.g. Levell, 1987; Cullen, 2010). The DRU is
clearly imaged on seismic data on the NW Borneo shelf, but is less
obvious in outcrop onshore. The DRU marks the end of folding and
thrusting in the Crocker Range, and is characterized by an underlying
relatively steeply dipping, folded and thrusted section overlain by less
intensely deformed section (see review in Morley, 2016). Erosion of the
folds and thrusts suggests sub-aerial exposure. Post DRU there was a
period of extension, which in places on the Sabah margin involves
negative inversion of thrusts (Morley, 2016). The DRU probably marks
234
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
the end of the period when thinned continental crust of the Dangerous
Grounds province was underthrust along the former subduction zone,
following complete subduction of the Proto-South China Seas oceanic
crust. The DRU is close in time to, and sometimes conflated with, an-
other unconformity that occurs on adjacent parts of the southern South
China Seas margin. This is the so called Middle Miocene unconformity
(MMU). In the context of Palawan, the MMU (Red Unconformity) is
placed at the top of the Pagasa Formation – which depending upon
location can range from 15.2 Ma (Steuer et al., 2013) to 12 Ma (Aurelio
et al., 2014).
During the Middle Miocene much of Sabah (with the exception of
some thrust-related emergent islands) remained under marine condi-
tions. It was only during the Late Miocene that the Kinabalu granite was
first intruded, and then exhumed, and shallow marine “circular basins”
were preserved as remnants fringing the uplifted area (Morley and
Back, 2008; Hall, 2013). This exhumation occurred after, and was
probably associated with the Shallow Regional Unconformity (SRU) at
around 8 Ma. In section “Miocene Granites of Palawan” we discussed
evidence for uplift between ∼11 and 8.5 Ma (Forster et al., 2015). The
SRU marks the end of a phase of inversion of the early Middle Miocene
K.A. Ilao et al.
extensional structures on the Sabah shelf (Fig. 20). Uplift of NW Borneo
associated with the SRU forced a regression, with the Late Miocene and
Pliocene depocentres located increasingly further offshore.
Initiation of folding in the deepwater fold and thrust belts of Sabah
is of Early Miocene age, with an age of termination around 7 Ma
(Cullen, 2010; Steuer et al., 2013). This timing is reasonably close to the
timing of the Pagasa Wedge, but unlike the Palawan Margin, there is an
important phase of Pliocene-Recent folding in Brunei and southern
Sabah that is not seen along the rest of the margin, and is probably
predominantly gravity driven, related to deltaic loading (Morley, 2009;
Cullen, 2010; Torres et al., 2011).
In this review we see that the DRU (∼17–16 Ma) probably marks
the end of underthrusting of the Dangerous Grounds Block beneath NW
Borneo. This could also reasonably mark the latest time when obduc-
tion ceased on Palawan. The Pagasa Wedge lies between the Deep and
Shallow Regional unconformities (Fig. 20) Continuity of the ‘melange’
style wedge between Sabah and Palawan has previously been noted (see
review in Hutchison, 2010). The regional data, therefore, seems to
point to the Pagasa Wedge and its Sabah equivalent being essentially
late to post-orogenic features.
5.8. What is the Pagasa Wedge?
The description of the Pagasa Wedge by Hamilton (1979) as a
mélange wedge, and by implication an accretionary prism represents
thinking of the time, at a relatively early stage in our understanding of
plate tectonics (see summary in Cowan, 1985). However, subsequently
it was recognised that mélanges could form in other settings (e.g. triple
junctions, collisional orogens), and that classic mélanges such as the
Franciscan Complex are in part composed of detritus eroded from pre-
existing mélanges, or detritus deposited on top of a pre-existing mél-
ange and subsequently intermixed by a variety of processes, and are not
just a product of tectonic shearing in an accretionary prism (Silver and
Beutner, 1980; Fox, 1983; Wakabayashi, 2011). The Mesozoic mélanges
(∼20–40 km wide, 100 km long) of Central Japan are thought to have
undergone widespread transformation to mélanges as a consequence of
seamount subduction (Okamura, 1991). Much of the mélange is inter-
preted to be of sedimentary origin due to mass transport complexes
forming from gravitational instability associated with seamount sub-
duction, not from shearing within fault zones (Okamura, 1991).
Modern understanding of mélanges in accretionary prisms recognises
that in different structural locations mélange types vary, for example 9
variations of sedimentary (olistostrome), seamount, and shear-related
mélange are described by Hajna et al. (2014). In collisional settings,
mélanges related to mixed thrusting, diapiric and sedimentary pro-
cesses are known (Festa, 2011).
As discussed above, studies of mélanges indicate that much of the
characteristic block-in-matrix fabric is not caused by tectonic shearing,
but instead is related to pre-tectonic phases of submarine sliding (e.g.
Osozawa et al., 2009, 2011). Our interpretation of the Pagasa Wedge as
dominated by mass transport processes fits with such studies. However,
as reviewed in Sections 5.1–5.7, the Pagasa Wedge must be considered
to be a very late stage feature of the collision process and not part of an
accretionary prism.
6. Conclusions
The origin of the Pagasa Wedge is enigmatic, in part due to the
poorly imaged internal structure of the wedge. This study indicates that
at least the external part of the wedge is dominantly composed of mass
transport complexes, capped by syn-kinematic sediments that have
thrusts and normal faults superimposed upon them. Drilling shows that
where Eocene units are present within the wedge Oligocene section is
absent, despite the Oligocene Nido Limestone underlying much of the
wedge. This absence suggests that mass transport processes have in-
troduced the Eocene section into the wedge rather than repetition in
235
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 154 (2018) 213–237
thrust slices. In the literature there are numerous diverse models for the
origin of the Palawan ophiolite and the palaeogeographic location of
Palawan during the Cenozoic. In our review of the literature the model
that best fits our understanding of the Pagasa Wedge and the Cenozoic
development of the Central Palawan Ophiolite is where Palawan lay
north of the Proto-South China Sea, and was part of the Dangerous
Grounds-Reed Bank area that moved south during formation of the
South China Sea spreading centre (Holloway, 1981; Hall, 2012).
The accretionary prism stage (Oligocene) of the Central Palawan
Ophiolite history appears to be marked by predominantly north-vergent
deformation. The Eocene deepwater section of the Proto-South China
Sea oceanic crust (lower plate) and leading edge of the Dangerous
Grounds continental margin was scraped off and incorporated into the
accretionary prism (Babuyan River Turbidites, Concepcion Phyllites,
Caramay Schists). It seems likely that by the Early Miocene the Central
Palawan Ophiolite together with fragments of the Mesozoic Proto-South
China Seas oceanic crust was overthrusting the leading edge of the
Dangerous Grounds continental crust (Fig. 4). Some complexities in the
deformation style were produced by northerly transport of the ophiolite
over a NE-SW trending continental margin. The time of the Deep Re-
gional Unconformity (∼17 Ma) marks the end of a period of thrusting
in Sabah, and may well also indicate the approximate time when ob-
duction ceased in Palawan.
The Pagasa Wedge is a late-stage product of the convergence history
that was active in its final phase sometime above the top of the Nido
Limestone (∼16 Ma) and the base of the Tabon Limestone in the
Aboabo-A1X well (∼9 Ma). The overall NE-SW trend of the wedge, and
the dominant NW transport of structures within the wedge diverges
from the more northerly transport direction determined from outcrops
in Palawan, and also from the Nido Limestone in the SW part of the
Pagasa Wedge. Possibly this NW transport direction is more related to
gravity-driven structures responding to uplift of NE-SW Dangerous
Grounds margin during the Middle Miocene than it is to thrusting
rooted in a plate boundary. At least in part the uplift is related to
thickening related to thrusting, and may possibly include an isostatic
response to slab breakoff. This latter event is capable of superimposing
a NE-SW trend on the margin, since uplift would be parallel to the trend
of the continental margin. The Tabon/Likas Formation or the lateral
equivalent Matinloc/Alfonso XIII, prograded over the top of the Pagasa
Wedge. Local gravity-driven normal faults grew during the prograda-
tional event and pass into the Pagasa Wedge. These faults mark the final
modification of the wedge, where the effects of compression deforma-
tion on the wedge had largely ended, but gravity processes still oper-
ated.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Philippine National Oil
Company – Exploration Corporation (PNOC-EC) for providing the data
and allowing publication of the results. Kimberly Ilao would also like to
thank PTT Exploration and Production Public Company Limited
(PTTEP) for providing the scholarship for her graduate studies.
Interpretation work was carried out using IHS Kingdom software. We
would like to thank Sabin Zahirovic and an anonymous reviewer for
good, constructive comments that helped improve the manuscript.
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