Flight

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For other uses, see Flight (disambiguation).

Natural flight: a hummingbird

Human-invented flight: a Royal Jordanian Airlines Boeing 787

Flight is the process by which an object moves through an atmosphere (or beyond it,
as in the case of spaceflight) without contact with the surface. This can be
achieved by generating aerodynamic lift associated with propulsive thrust,
aerostatically using buoyancy, or by ballistic movement.

Many things can fly, from natural aviators such as birds, bats, and insects, to
human inventions like aircraft, including airplanes, helicopters, balloons, and
rockets which may carry spacecraft.

The engineering aspects of flight are the purview of aerospace engineering which is
subdivided into aeronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through the air, and
astronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through space, and ballistics, the
study of the flight of projectiles.

Contents
1 Types of flight
1.1 Buoyant flight
1.2 Aerodynamic flight
1.2.1 Unpowered flight versus powered flight
1.2.2 Animal flight
1.2.3 Mechanical
1.2.3.1 Supersonic
1.2.3.2 Hypersonic
1.3 Ballistic
1.3.1 Atmospheric
1.3.2 Spaceflight
2 History
2.1 Aviation
2.2 Spaceflight
3 Physics
3.1 Forces
3.1.1 Thrust
3.1.2 Lift
3.1.3 Drag
3.1.4 Lift-to-drag ratio
3.1.5 Buoyancy
3.1.6 Thrust to weight ratio
3.2 Flight dynamics
3.3 Energy efficiency
3.4 Range
3.5 Power-to-weight ratio
4 Takeoff and landing
5 Guidance, navigation and control
5.1 Navigation
5.2 Guidance
5.3 Control
5.3.1 Traffic
6 Flight safety
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Types of flight
Buoyant flight
Main article: Aerostat

An airship flies because the upward force, from air displacement, is equal to or
greater than the force of gravity
Humans have managed to construct lighter than air vehicles that raise off the
ground and fly, due to their buoyancy in air.

An aerostat is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyancy to
give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons,
airships, and moored balloons. An aerostat's main structural component is its
envelope, a lightweight skin that encloses a volume of lifting gas[1][2] to provide
buoyancy, to which other components are attached.

Aerostats are so named because they use "aerostatic" lift, a buoyant force that
does not require lateral movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a
lifting force. By contrast, aerodynes primarily use aerodynamic lift, which
requires the lateral movement of at least some part of the aircraft through the
surrounding air mass.

Aerodynamic flight
Unpowered flight versus powered flight
Main article: Unpowered flight
Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for
example, the flying squirrel. This is termed gliding. Some other things can exploit
rising air to climb such as raptors (when gliding) and man-made sailplane gliders.
This is termed soaring. However most other birds and all powered aircraft need a
source of propulsion to climb. This is termed powered flight.

Animal flight

Female mallard duck

Tau emerald dragonfly

Kea
Main article: Flying and gliding animals
The only groups of living things that use powered flight are birds, insects, and
bats, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct pterosaurs, an order of
reptiles contemporaneous with the dinosaurs, were also very successful flying
animals. Each of these groups' wings evolved independently. The wings of the flying
vertebrate groups are all based on the forelimbs, but differ significantly in
structure; those of insects are hypothesized to be highly modified versions of
structures that form gills in most other groups of arthropods.[3]

Bats are the only mammals capable of sustaining level flight (see bat flight).[4]
However, there are several gliding mammals which are able to glide from tree to
tree using fleshy membranes between their limbs; some can travel hundreds of meters
in this way with very little loss in height. Flying frogs use greatly enlarged
webbed feet for a similar purpose, and there are flying lizards which fold out
their mobile ribs into a pair of flat gliding surfaces. "Flying" snakes also use
mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth
motion much the same as they use on the ground.

Flying fish can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring
for hundreds of meters. It is thought that this ability was chosen by natural
selection because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators.
The longest recorded flight of a flying fish was 45 seconds.[5]

Most birds fly (see bird flight), with some exceptions. The largest birds, the
ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos and the
Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic
era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the
same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight.[citation
needed] Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a
lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage.

Among living animals that fly, the wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan,
up to 3.5 meters (11 feet); the great bustard has the greatest weight, topping at
21 kilograms (46 pounds).[6]

Most species of insects can fly as adults. Insect flight makes use of either of two
basic aerodynamic models: creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects,
and using clap and fling, found in very small insects such as thrips.[7][8]

Mechanical
Main article: Aviation

Mechanical flight: A Robinson R22 Beta helicopter

Mechanical flight is the use of a machine to fly. These machines include aircraft
such as airplanes, gliders, helicopters, autogyros, airships, balloons,
ornithopters as well as spacecraft. Gliders are capable of unpowered flight.
Another form of mechanical flight is para-sailing, where a parachute-like object is
pulled by a boat. In an airplane, lift is created by the wings; the shape of the
wings of the airplane are designed specially for the type of flight desired. There
are different types of wings: tempered, semi-tempered, sweptback, rectangular and
elliptical. An aircraft wing is sometimes called an airfoil, which is a device that
creates lift when air flows across it.

Supersonic
Main article: Supersonic speed
Supersonic flight is flight faster than the speed of sound. Supersonic flight is
associated with the formation of shock waves that form a sonic boom that can be
heard from the ground,[9] and is frequently startling. This shockwave takes quite a
lot of energy to create and this makes supersonic flight generally less efficient
than subsonic flight at about 85% of the speed of sound.

Hypersonic
Main article: Hypersonic speed
Hypersonic flight is very high speed flight where the heat generated by the
compression of the air due to the motion through the air causes chemical changes to
the air. Hypersonic flight is achieved by reentering spacecraft such as the Space
Shuttle and Soyuz.

The International Space Station in earth orbit

Ballistic
Main article: Ballistics
Atmospheric
Some things generate little or no lift and move only or mostly under the action of
momentum, gravity, air drag and in some cases thrust. This is termed ballistic
flight. Examples include balls, arrows, bullets, fireworks etc.

Spaceflight
Main article: Spaceflight
Essentially an extreme form of ballistic flight, spaceflight is the use of space
technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space.
Examples include ballistic missiles, orbital spaceflight etc.

Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like

space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of
spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other earth
observation satellites.

A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial
thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface
of the Earth.[10] Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft�both when unpropelled
and when under propulsion�is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics.
Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric
reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.

History
Many human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such
as stones and spears,[11][12] the boomerang in Australia, the hot air Kongming
lantern, and kites.

Aviation
Main article: History of aviation
George Cayley studied flight scientifically in the first half of the 19th century,
[13][14][15] and in the second half of the 19th century Otto Lilienthal made over
200 gliding flights and was also one of the first to understand flight
scientifically. His work was replicated and extended by the Wright brothers who
made gliding flights and finally the first controlled and extended, manned powered
flights.[16]

Spaceflight
Main article: History of spaceflight
Spaceflight, particularly human spaceflight became a reality in the 20th century
following theoretical and practical breakthroughs by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and
Robert H. Goddard. The first orbital spaceflight was in 1957[17], and Yuri Gagarin
was carried aboard the first manned orbital spaceflight in 1961.[18]

Physics

Lighter-than-air airships are able to fly without any major input of energy
Main article: Aerodynamics
There are different approaches to flight. If an object has a lower density than
air, then it is buoyant and is able to float in the air without expending energy. A
heavier than air craft, known as an aerodyne, includes flighted animals and
insects, fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft. Because the craft is heavier than air,
it must generate lift to overcome its weight. The wind resistance caused by the
craft moving through the air is called drag and is overcome by propulsive thrust
except in the case of gliding.

Some vehicles also use thrust for flight, for example rockets and Harrier Jump
Jets.

Finally, momentum dominates the flight of ballistic flying objects.

Forces

Main forces acting on a heavier-than-air aircraft

Main article: Aerodynamics
Forces relevant to flight are[19]
Propulsive thrust (except in gliders)
Lift, created by the reaction to an airflow
Drag, created by aerodynamic friction
Weight, created by gravity
Buoyancy, for lighter than air flight
These forces must be balanced for stable flight to occur.

Thrust
Main article: Thrust

Forces on an aerofoil cross section

A fixed-wing aircraft generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction
opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the spinning
blades of a propeller, or a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet
engine, or by ejecting hot gases from a rocket engine.[20] The forward thrust is
proportional to the mass of the airstream multiplied by the difference in velocity
of the airstream. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by
reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser
on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use
engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, and vector sum of this thrust
fore and aft to control forward speed.

Lift
Main article: lift (force)

Lift is defined as the component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to

the flow direction, and drag is the component that is parallel to the flow
direction
In the context of an air flow relative to a flying body, the lift force is the
component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the flow direction.[21]
Aerodynamic lift results when the wing causes the surrounding air to be deflected -
the air then causes a force on the wing in the opposite direction, in accordance
with Newton's third law of motion.

Lift is commonly associated with the wing of an aircraft, although lift is also
generated by rotors on rotorcraft (which are effectively rotating wings, performing
the same function without requiring that the aircraft move forward through the
air). While common meanings of the word "lift" suggest that lift opposes gravity,
aerodynamic lift can be in any direction. When an aircraft is cruising for example,
lift does oppose gravity, but lift occurs at an angle when climbing, descending or
banking. On high-speed cars, the lift force is directed downwards (called "down-
force") to keep the car stable on the road.

Lift can also occur in a different way if the air is not still, especially if there
is an updraft due to heat ("thermals") or wind blowing along sloping terrain or
other meteorological conditions. This form of lift permits soaring and is
particularly important for gliding. It is used by birds and gliders to stay in the
air for long periods with little effort.

Drag
Main article: Drag (physics)
For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement.
[22][23][24][25] Therefore, drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered
vehicle it must be overcome by thrust. The process which creates lift also causes
some drag.

Lift-to-drag ratio
Speed and drag relationships for a typical aircraft
Main article: Lift-to-drag ratio
Aerodynamic lift is created by the motion of an aerodynamic object (wing) through
the air, which due to its shape and angle deflects the air. For sustained straight
and level flight, lift must be equal and opposite to weight. In general, long
narrow wings are able deflect a large amount of air at a slow speed, whereas
smaller wings need a higher forward speed to deflect an equivalent amount of air
and thus generate an equivalent amount of lift. Large cargo aircraft tend to use
longer wings with higher angles of attack, whereas supersonic aircraft tend to have
short wings and rely heavily on high forward speed to generate lift.

However, this lift (deflection) process inevitably causes a retarding force called
drag. Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag
is an indication of the aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. The lift to drag
ratio is the L/D ratio, pronounced "L over D ratio." An airplane has a high L/D
ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small amount of drag. The
lift/drag ratio is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag
coefficient, CL/CD. [26]

The lift coefficient Cl is equal to the lift L divided by the (density r times half
the velocity V squared times the wing area A). [Cl = L / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] The
lift coefficient is also affected by the compressibility of the air, which is much
greater at higher speeds, so velocity V is not a linear function. Compressibility
is also affected by the shape of the aircraft surfaces. [27]

The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the drag D divided by the (density r times half
the velocity V squared times the reference area A). [Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * V^2)]
[28]

Lift-to-drag ratios for practical aircraft vary from about 4:1 for vehicles and
birds with relatively short wings, up to 60:1 or more for vehicles with very long
wings, such as gliders. A greater angle of attack relative to the forward movement
also increases the extent of deflection, and thus generates extra lift. However a
greater angle of attack also generates extra drag.

Lift/drag ratio also determines the glide ratio and gliding range. Since the glide
ratio is based only on the relationship of the aerodynamics forces acting on the
aircraft, aircraft weight will not affect it. The only effect weight has is to vary
the time that the aircraft will glide for � a heavier aircraft gliding at a higher
airspeed will arrive at the same touchdown point in a shorter time. [29]

Buoyancy
Main article: Buoyancy
Air pressure acting up against an object in air is greater than the pressure above
pushing down. The buoyancy, in both cases, is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced - Archimedes' principle holds for air just as it does for water.

A cubic meter of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and room temperature has a
mass of about 1.2 kilograms, so its weight is about 12 newtons. Therefore, any 1-
cubic-meter object in air is buoyed up with a force of 12 newtons. If the mass of
the 1-cubic-meter object is greater than 1.2 kilograms (so that its weight is
greater than 12 newtons), it falls to the ground when released. If an object of
this size has a mass less than 1.2 kilograms, it rises in the air. Any object that
has a mass that is less than the mass of an equal volume of air will rise in air -
in other words, any object less dense than air will rise.

Thrust to weight ratio

Main article: Thrust-to-weight ratio
Thrust-to-weight ratio is, as its name suggests, the ratio of instantaneous thrust
to weight (where weight means weight at the Earth's standard acceleration
{\displaystyle g_{0}} g_{0}).[30] It is a dimensionless parameter characteristic of
rockets and other jet engines and of vehicles propelled by such engines (typically
space launch vehicles and jet aircraft).

If the thrust-to-weight ratio is greater than the local gravity strength (expressed
in gs), then flight can occur without any forward motion or any aerodynamic lift
being required.

If the thrust-to-weight ratio times the lift-to-drag ratio is greater than local
gravity then takeoff using aerodynamic lift is possible.

Flight dynamics

Pitch

Yaw

Roll

The upward tilt of the wings and tailplane of an aircraft, as seen on this Boeing
737, is called dihedral angle
Main article: Flight dynamics
Flight dynamics is the science of air and space vehicle orientation and control in
three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of
rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle's center of mass, known as pitch,
roll and yaw (See Tait-Bryan rotations for an explanation).

The control of these dimensions can involve a horizontal stabilizer (i.e. "a
tail"), ailerons and other movable aerodynamic devices which control angular
stability i.e. flight attitude (which in turn affects altitude, heading). Wings are
often angled slightly upwards- they have "positive dihedral angle" which gives
inherent roll stabilization.

Energy efficiency
Main article: propulsive efficiency
To create thrust so as to be able to gain height, and to push through the air to
overcome the drag associated with lift all takes energy. Different objects and
creatures capable of flight vary in the efficiency of their muscles, motors and how
well this translates into forward thrust.

Propulsive efficiency determines how much energy vehicles generate from a unit of
fuel.[31][32]

Range
Main article: range (aircraft)
The range that powered flight articles can achieve is ultimately limited by their
drag, as well as how much energy they can store on board and how efficiently they
can turn that energy into propulsion.[33]

For powered aircraft the useful energy is determined by their fuel fraction- what
percentage of the takeoff weight is fuel, as well as the specific energy of the
fuel used.

Power-to-weight ratio
Main article: power-to-weight ratio
All animals and devices capable of sustained flight need relatively high power-to-
weight ratios to be able to generate enough lift and/or thrust to achieve take off.
Takeoff and landing
Main article: takeoff and landing
Vehicles that can fly can have different ways to takeoff and land. Conventional
aircraft accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for
takeoff, and reverse the process for landing. Some aircraft can take off at low
speed; this is called a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and
Harrier jump jets can take off and land vertically. Rockets also usually take off
and land vertically, but some designs can land horizontally.

Guidance, navigation and control

Main article: Guidance, navigation and control
Navigation
Navigation is the systems necessary to calculate current position (e.g. compass,
GPS, LORAN, star tracker, inertial measurement unit, and altimeter).

In aircraft, successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to

place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering
the safety of those on board or on the ground.

The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft
is flying under the visual flight rules (VFR) or the instrument flight rules (IFR).
In the latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio
navigation aids such as beacons, or as directed under radar control by air traffic
control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using dead reckoning
combined with visual observations (known as pilotage), with reference to
appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids.

Guidance
Main article: Guidance system
A guidance system is a device or group of devices used in the navigation of a ship,
aircraft, missile, rocket, satellite, or other moving object. Typically, guidance
is responsible for the calculation of the vector (i.e., direction, velocity) toward
an objective.

Control
Main article: Flight control system
A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control
surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary
operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine
controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed.

Traffic
In the case of aircraft, air traffic is controlled by air traffic control systems.

Collision avoidance is the process of controlling spacecraft to try to prevent

collisions.

Flight safety
Main article: aviation safety
Air safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of
flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education
and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the
public as to the safety of air travel.

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flight.
Aerodynamics
Levitation
Transvection (flying)
References
Notes
Walker 2000, p. 541. Quote: the gas-bag of a balloon or airship.
Coulson-Thomas 1976, p. 281. Quote: fabric enclosing gas-bags of airship.
Averof, Michalis. "Evolutionary origin of insect wings from ancestral gills."
Nature, Volume 385, Issue 385, February 1997, pp. 627�630.
World Book Student. Chicago: World Book. Retrieved: April 29, 2011.
"BBC article and video of flying fish." BBC, May 20, 2008. Retrieved: May 20,
2008.
"Swan Identification." Archived 2006-10-31 at the Wayback Machine The Trumpeter
Swan Society. Retrieved: January 3, 2012.
Wang, Z. Jane (2005). "DISSECTING INSECT FLIGHT" (pdf). Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics. 37 (1): 183�210. Bibcode:2005AnRFM..37..183W.
doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940.
Sane, Sanjay P. (2003). "The aerodynamics of insect flight" (PDF). The Journal of
Experimental Biology. 206 (23): 4191�4208. doi:10.1242/jeb.00663. PMID 14581590.
Bern, Peter. "Concorde: You asked a pilot." BBC, October 23, 2003.
Spitzmiller, Ted (2007). Astronautics: A Historical Perspective of Mankind's
Efforts to Conquer the Cosmos. Apogee Books. p. 467. ISBN 9781894959667.
"Archytas of Tar entum." Archived December 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece/ Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
"Ancient history." Automata. Retrieved:May 6, 2012.
"Sir George Cayley". Flyingmachines.org. Retrieved 27 August 2019. Sir George
Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many
consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to
understand the underlying principles and forces of flight.
"The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling". Retrieved 26 July 2009. Sir George
Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is
credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the
first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight � weight, lift, drag, and
thrust � and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human-
carrying glider.
"U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission � Sir George Cayley". Archived from the
original on 20 September 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008. Sir George Cayley, born
in 1773, is sometimes called the Father of Aviation. A pioneer in his field, Cayley
literally has two great spurts of aeronautical creativity, separated by years
during which he did little with the subject. He was the first to identify the four
aerodynamic forces of flight � weight, lift, drag, and thrust and their
relationship. He was also the first to build a successful human-carrying glider.
Cayley described many of the concepts and elements of the modern aeroplane and was
the first to understand and explain in engineering terms the concepts of lift and
thrust.
"Orville Wright's Personal Letters on Aviation." Shapell Manuscript Foundation,
(Chicago), 2012.
https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputorig.html
"Gagarin anniversary." NASA. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
"Four forces on an aeroplane." NASA. Retrieved: January 3, 2012.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/newton3.html
"Definition of lift." Archived 2009-02-03 at the Wayback Machine NASA. Retrieved:
May 6, 2012.
French 1970, p. 210.
"Basic flight physics." Berkeley University. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
"What is Drag?" NASA. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
"Motions of particles through fluids." Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine
lorien.ncl.ac. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/liftco.html
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/dragco.html
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html
Sutton and Biblarz 2000, p. 442. Quote: "thrust-to-weight ratio F/W0 is a
dimensionless parameter that is identical to the acceleration of the rocket
propulsion system (expressed in multiples of g0) if it could fly by itself in a
gravity free vacuum."
ch10-3 "History." NASA. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
Honicke et al. 1968[page needed]
http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node98.html
Bibliography
Coulson-Thomas, Colin. The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press, 1976, First edition 1975, ISBN 978-0-19-861118-9.
French, A. P. Newtonian Mechanics (The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series) (1st
ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1970.
Honicke, K., R. Lindner, P. Anders, M. Krahl, H. Hadrich and K. Rohricht.
Beschreibung der Konstruktion der Triebwerksanlagen. Berlin: Interflug, 1968.
Sutton, George P. Oscar Biblarz. Rocket Propulsion Elements. New York: Wiley-
Interscience, 2000 (7th edition). ISBN 978-0-471-32642-7.
Walker, Peter. Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology. Edinburgh: Chambers
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External links
Look up flight in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Flights.
Flight travel guide from Wikivoyage

Pettigrew, James Bell (1911). "Flight and Flying" . Encyclop�dia Britannica. 10

(11th ed.). pp. 502�519. History and photographs of early aeroplanes etc.
'Birds in Flight and Aeroplanes' by Evolutionary Biologist and trained Engineer
John Maynard-Smith Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
Categories: FlightAerodynamicsSky
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