Course: Environment and Climate Change Management

Lecturer: Mr. Phu Hai Do

Students: Nguyen Thi Nhat Linh - 1306080045
Nguyen Thao Phuong - 1306080067
Pham Hai Van - 1306080104
Le Thi Thu Ha - 1306080022
Nguyen Ha Thu - 1306080088

Hanoi, 2016

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ iii

A/ INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
B/ RESEARCH METHOD................................................................................................................. 1
Result ................................................................................................................................................................2
C/ DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................................5
I/ THE CURRENT SITUATION OF WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN HANOI URBAN
SECTOR .............................................................................................................................................................5
1. Background: Political – Economic – Social context and Wastewater releases ...........................................5
1.1. Political – Economic – Social context ...................................................................................................5
1.2. Wastewater Release in Hanoi ................................................................................................................6
2. The management of Wastewater in Hanoi’s urban sector ............................................................................6
2.1. Legal and Institutional Framework related to Wastewater management .............................................7
2.2. Wastewater treatment in Hanoi .......................................................................................................... 10
3. Assessment ................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.1. Achievements ...................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2. Issues .................................................................................................................................................. 12
II. CAUSES .......................................................................................................................................................15
1. Regulatory and national policy issues ....................................................................................................... 15
2. Hanoi’s management capacity issues ........................................................................................................ 16
3. Technical and science issues ..................................................................................................................... 17
III. RECOMMENDATIONS ..........................................................................................................................18
1. Legislative system ..................................................................................................................................... 18
2. In Hanoi urban’s area level........................................................................................................................ 18
3. Regarding technologies ............................................................................................................................. 19
D/ CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................................................20
APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................................................21
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................23

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 ABSTRACT
After years of “Doi moi”, Vietnam is witnessing a vital period of economic
growth along with highly-emphasized sustainable urban development.
However, in Hanoi, one of the hugest center in term of economy, politics and
society, coinciding with a rapid population growth and urban expansion with
the establishment of factories, industrial zones, and business centers, the
issues on wastewater management has manifested the weaknesses in
institutional and legal framework in national and municipal, as well as
Vietnam’s technology aspects toward wastewater management. Thus, this
research paper relied on both data from primary sources – surveys from
citizens living in Hanoi’s urban sector and secondary sources - other
previous studies, aims to providing some recommendations for the
improvements of wastewater management in Hanoi urban area, then can be
applied for other area in Vietnam, basing on the problems and causes of
these problems through going in-depth about (1) The general context; of
wastewater management in Hanoi’s urban sector; (2) Causes; and (3)
Recommendations.

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A/ INTRODUCTION
More than 25 years since the implementation of “Doi moi” in 1986, Vietnam itself has transformed
toward a striking economic development whilst other countries have witnessed a huge slowdown from
world’s political and socio-economic situations. However, according to VOV World (2015), the fact
that the economic growth principally bases on the exploitation of resources in terms of forestry,
agriculture and fisheries has demonstrated the frequent contrariwise direction between economic and
environment. As a result, those stresses on environment require the urgent need of immediate and
prospective efficient environment management at all level in Vietnam to ensure the national economic
growth moving toward environment sustainability (World Bank, 2013).
Strikingly, the city of Hanoi, one of the hugest economic and trade centers of Vietnam, is coping with
various environmental pressures due to the continuous size’s expansion, population’s growth and rapid
urbanization. Moreover, it is reported that the liberalization of trade from economic reform does
stimulate the economics through the establishments of factories, industrial zones, and business centers
but concurrently, it has created an enormous amount of waste into the environment, especially in
Hanoi’s urban sector with its geodemographic and geographic advantages (Thi Thanh Van, 2009). In
which, Dr. Viet Anh Nguyen (2015) strongly emphasized on the urgency of wastewater comparing
with other sources of waste in the urban area of Hanoi due to its negative impact on citizens’ lives,
which is homologous with our survey’s result when the majority of 220 participants is concerned about
wastewater most.
In fact, in all over Vietnam and particularly, in Hanoi urban sector, wastewater has been a matter
attracting a lot of attention from citizens, companies and government since the law on environmental
protection was implemented. Over 20 years, Vietnam’s government has prescribed a large number of
policies and official documents guiding and regulating the management of wastewater as well as
finances to build the drainage system and wastewater treatment toward 2020’s goals set under the
“Orientation of Urban Sewerage Development” in 1999: (i) 100% of large urban centers will have
adequate water treatment system; (ii) The total urban sewerage service coverage will be 80-90%
(DFID, 2005).However, a question is raised whether the government can reach the goals or not when
in Hanoi, despite some achievements, the troubles related to the decentralization, the financial burdens,
low-technologies and especially, the participation of private sectors, pressure groups, commune is still
highlighting. Tran Thi Viet Nga (2011) has emphasized that under the decentralized management
approach, there are a huge number of efforts have to focus on the need of improving management of
wastewater in Hanoi.
Thus, this research paper relied on both data from primary sources – surveys from citizens living in
Hanoi’s urban sector and secondary sources - other previous studies, aims to providing some
recommendations for the improvements of management of wastewater can be applied for other units
basing on the problems and causes of these problems through going in-depth about (1) The general
context; of wastewater management in Hanoi’s urban sector; (2) Causes; and (3) Recommendations.

B/ RESEARCH METHOD
Our research methodology utilizes both qualitative method for the purpose of gathering relevant data
from various sources of documents and compiling from databases in order to analyze the information
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and then, arrive at a complete understanding about the wastewater treatment system in Hanoi which
aims to investigate on the current situation as well as the efficiency of wastewater management in
Hanoi. This data collection will combine surveys and interview with residents living nearby water
sources and Hanoi’s urban citizens about the worst polluted rivers and lakes in Hanoi. The
questionnaire contains 8 questions which can be divided into 3 parts. The first part, including the first
3 questions, aims at the general viewpoints of Hanoi residents on the pollution situation of wastewater.
The second part, matching the 3 next questions, was designed to approach how wastewater pollution
cankers the people’s lives that live nearby water sources area. Subsequently, the final part, involving
the 2 last questions attempts to figure out the people’s perspectives on the effectiveness of local
government dealing with wastewater. The number of residents settling nearby Hanoi water sources
who participated in this survey was 220 in total. Moreover, with the purposes of obtaining high
response rates and great authenticity, the participants were chosen on a voluntary basis. The survey
was carried out in April, 2016, in top three water polluted area include Kim Nguu River, To Lich River
and Truc Bach Lake. 220 questionnaires were delivered to the subjects after edited cautiously. All of
the handouts were collected after 15 minutes to guarantee appropriate time for processing. 17 people
were interviewed for sharing specific experiences without record and photograph due to the private
requirement. Within one week, the findings were interpreted for final results. Besides, the secondary
data consisting of previous theories and statistics from books, journals and many other sources of
document to deeply explore the institutional framework, policies, and the management system applied
in Hanoi. All of them are used aiming to help us figure out the key issues, cause and then, draw the
recommendations.

Result
This section outlines the results of the survey carried out to discover the general viewpoints of Hanoi
residents on the pollution situation of wastewater.
The chart below shows which are the most concerned environmental problems of the participants, with
more than 1 option are available to be chosen. Though it is predictable that water pollution and air
pollution make up for major concerns of the people, the gap between the most chosen one, water
pollution with 76%, is unexpectedly much higher than the runner-up, air pollution with 44.1% and the
rest options: soil pollution, noise pollution and other with 19%, 10.5% and 5.5% respectively.

1. Which environmental problems that you most concern

about?
80%
60% 76%

40%
44.10%
20%
19%
0% 10.50% 5.50%
Air pollution Noise pollution Water pollution Soil pollution Other

Figure 1. Environmental problems in urban Hanoi

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Some may be confused that while the survey on wastewater was conducted nearby the water sources
area, it is understandable that the majority of the local people will concern mostly about water
pollution. However, as the question was designed to let the participants choose more than 1 option, the
exceptional high of the water pollution result is still incredible.
Remarkably, the pie chat indicates that 62% of the participants think that the pollution situation of
Hanoi wastewater is serious. Even worse, 10% of the people consider the pollution level can reach
severe level. Only 19% of the participants think the water pollution is just in slight level, and 9% insist
of no pollution happening to Hanoi wastewater.

2. Which is the level of wastewater pollution in

urban Hanoi?
10%
9%
No pollution
19% Slight
Serious
62% Severe

Figure 2. The level of wastewater pollution in urban Hanoi?

Whilst being asked about the main causes of wastewater in their local area, the majority of the
participants assert that is due to the domestic waste (71.3%). Industrial waste is believed to be the
second-most harm to the environment with 54.1%, closely followed up by the hospital waste with
47.2% and the livestock farm waste.

3. Which reasons according to you are the main

causes of wastewater pollution in your local area?

71.30%
54.10% 47.20%
18.10% 12.30%
Domestic waste Industrial watse Livestock farm Hospital waste Other
waste (livestock,
slaughtering
areas, ...)

Figure 3. Reasons according to you are the main causes of wastewater pollution in your local area

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In the second part of the survey, people are asked whether the water sources directly have impact on
their life. Moreover, the next question was added to report if their life was harmfully affected by the
water pollution.

4. Do the water souces 5. Does wastewater pollution

directly affect your life?
directly affect your life?

14% 28%

Yes Yes

No No
72%
86%

Figure 4. The effect of water on citizen’s life Figure 5. The effect of wastewater pollution
citizen’s life
It is easy to be seen from the pie chart, over 80% out of 220 participants’ life was influenced by the
water sources nearby, and the majority of them admit that they are bored by the pollution. In particular,
it is reported that the most annoying problem is the irritating stench from the polluted water sources in
the local areas. More than a half of them afraid that it will badly infect their healthy life. The polluted
wastewater can also cause trouble for the resident’s business, and sometimes canker agriculture.

6. How wastewater pollution negatively affect your life?

Other 4.10%

Canker health 63.20%

Canker agriculture 11.40%

Trouble bussinuess 35.50%

Irritating stench 78.20%

Figure 6. The negative effect of wastewater pollution (cont)

The last part of the survey aims at the people’s points of view about the wastewater management
system in their local areas and the effectiveness of the local government. The results seem to be not
quite positive when 57% of the resident claim that the wastewater treatment system in their area is

4
terrible and 23% of them think that the system is not really effective. The amount of people have
positive perspective on their local wastewater treatment system is pathetically little.
Regarding of the local government’s efforts to improve the polluted level of the wastewater, the
proportions are nearly the same. Remarkably, the amount of people do not give any attention to the
local government’s movement accounts for over 30% of 220 participants, sadly higher than being
expected.

7. What do you think about 8. Does the local

the wastewater government attempt to
management system in your improve the polluted
local area? situation in your area?
6% 12%
Good Actively
31%
14% 30% Normally
Average
27% Listlessly
57% 23%
Not really I don’t care
good

Figure 7. The wastewater management system Figure 8. Local government intervention

C/ DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
I/ THE CURRENT SITUATION OF WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN HANOI URBAN
SECTOR
1. Background: Political – Economic – Social context and Wastewater releases

1.1. Political – Economic – Social context

Vietnam is regarded as a coutry having a development success story. The implementation of political
and economic reforms (Đổi Mới) in 1986 has transformed the country to lower middle income status
within a quarter of a century with per capita income of around US$2,100 by the end of 2015 from the
group of poorest countries in the world, with per capita income around US $100 (World Bank, 2015).
It can be asserted that Vietnam’s economic growth since 1990 has been among the fastest in the world,
averaging 5.5 percent a year since 1990, and 6.4 percent per year in the 2000s. Vietnam’s economy
continued to strengthen in 2015, with estimated GDP growth rate of 6.7 percent for the whole year. In
addition, there are also some striking improvements in social outcomes across the board. Using the
US$1.90 2011 PPP line, the fraction of people living in extreme poverty dropped from more than 50
percent in the early 1990s to 3% today. It is reported that concerns about poverty are now focused on
the 15 percent of the population who are members of ethnic minority groups, but account for more
than half the poor. Not only are incomes higher, but the Vietnamese population is better educated and
has a higher life expectancy than most countries with a similar per capita income. The maternal
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mortality ratio has dropped below the upper-middle-income country average, while under-five
mortality rate has fallen by half, to a rate slightly above that average. Access to basic infrastructure
has also improved.
The national development has paved an unprecedented path for the growth in population and
urbanization Hanoi, one of the largest economic and international trade centers of the country,
especially when “open-door” was lauched during 1995 – 2003 period (Thi Thanh Van, 2009). HCMC
and Hanoi account for more than half of the urban land in the country, and the gap between them and
other urban areas is widening, with 75% of the new urban spatial growth in the country recorded in
these two urban areas. Surprisingly, according to Tu Hoang (2015), Hanoi witnessed a first rapid
population growth with an increase about 40 per cent from 3 million in 2009 to 5.6 million in 2015
people while the number of urban districts rose from 7 to 12 with a total area of over 1,000 km2. At
the present, population living in Hanoi urban’s area is estimated as 60% which increase by 20% from
2009. However, the urban population growth and urbanization are accompanied by an increase in
resource consumption and environmental degradation. In which, the pollution has worsened because
the urban environmental sanitation infrastructure unfortunately is not adequately satisfying the demand
for discharging wastewater in the last decade which manifest the weaknesses in institutional and legal
framework in national and municipal, as well as Hanoi’s capacities and technology aspects toward
wastewater management.

1.2. Wastewater Release in Hanoi

The report of Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment in 2015 shows that the total
amount of domestic sewage and industrial wastewater in the urban area of about 500,000m3 per day
which is discharged through the sewer system and 4 main river including Lich, Lu, Set, Kim Nguu.
There are 3 main types of sewage: domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater and wastewater from
hospitals. As being defined in Encyclopedia Britannica, domestic wastewater carries used water from
households and apartments; Industrial wastewater is used water coming from manufacturing or
chemical processes; and lastly, hospital sewage is used water in health treatments from hospitals.
In addition, it is also stated that that the amount of wastewater of Hanoi's population is 600,000 m3
per day, with about 250 tons of waste is discharged to the river. Besides, the sewage from production
activities, hospitals and service facilities containing contaminants that have not been processed is up
to 90%. In addition, many factories and production facilities such as abattoirs and even hospitals are
not equipped with effluent treatment systems. Adding to that is the large amounts of waste from
hospitals and industrial parks (Nguoiduatin, 2013).

2. The management of Wastewater in Hanoi’s urban sector

Due to the rapid population growth, urbanization and industrialization, the old infrastructure of Hanoi
were being under a huge pressure. Hanoi faced a lot of challenges in this period, mainly in the
management of water resources. Along this time, the Hanoi Water Supply Program was going into
practice with the supports from some professional water sectors come from World Bank, Asian
Development Bank and the Japanese Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund from UNDP. This
program focused on a long-term development objective that: “To secure adequate and safe water
supply to citizens, industry and other consumers in the urban area of Hanoi city by creating a sound
public utility, which will provide self-financing, potable water efficiently and at least cost.”

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From the beginning of 21st century until now, Hanoi applies the “open-door” policies and witnessed a
much higher rate of population growth go along with the increase in the resource consumption and
environmental degradation. This is the reason why they are trying to apply more policies and programs
to enhance the situation of wastewater management, focus on the mobilization of both financial and
technical resources to promote the managerial method.

2.1. Legal and Institutional Framework related to Wastewater management

2.1.1. Legal Framework

In Vietnam, the national policy framework for environment management including wastewater
management was established base on the law of “Environmental Protection” in 1994 and the 'Law on
National Water Resources (LWR)', which applied broad en from 1999, regulates the overall
development of the sector. Furthermore, there is a target to ensure that all urban wastewater is treated
by 2010 under Vietnam Development Goals. These are based on the Millennium Development Goals
under the framework of a Comprehensive Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy. The “Orientation
of Urban Sewerage Development” issued in 1999 envisages an enlarged catchment area for urban
sewerage in Hanoi from 30-40% to 80-90% by 2020 and proper financial mechanisms to ensure
sustainable urban sewerage through public urban sewerage companies (Van 2009). The National Law
on Environment Protection stipulates that wastewater must be properly treated before discharge (NHK
2005). Vietnamese Building Regulations (Ministry of Construction, 1999) require that houses and
apartment buildings in cities should be equipped with a septic tank. The WHO guidelines on allowable
limits of nematode eggs and faucal coli forms in wastewater reuse in agriculture and aquaculture have
not been incorporated into national standards, as they could not be met without prior appropriate
wastewater treatment. Overall, there are a various legal documents directly related to the management
and development of urban drainage and sewerage systems, as management tools of government
include:

 Law on Environmental Protection promulgated November 29 2005, effective July 2006

 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental Protection Commitment/Scheme
(for industrial establishments/zones operating prior to 01/07/2006)
 Discharge permit of Wastewater fees (67 Decree, 88 Decree) – Government Decree
No.67/2003, followed by Decree no. 04/2007: Environment Fee for industrial wastewater
 Circular No.09/2009/TT-BXD on 21/05/2009 of Ministry of Construction on provisions
implementing the content of Prime Minister’s Decree No.88/2007/N D - CP date d 28/05/2007
on Urban Drainage and Industrial areas
 Prime Minister’s Decision No.1929 & 1930: Orientation for Urban and Industrial Water
Supply, 9 Wastewater Development (2009) - sewerage and drainage development in urban
centers and industrial zones up to 2025 anda vision for 2050
 Decision No.16/2008/QD - BTNMT on 31/12/2008 of MONRE on national technical
regulations covering wastewater
 U3SAP: Initiated in 2005, Proposed to GoV in 2007, Commenced 2010-2012
 Decree No.25/2013/ND-CP dated 03/29/2013 on environmental protection charges for
wastewater replaceing Decree No. 67/2003/ND - CP dated 13/06/2003, No. 04/2007/ND-CP
and 26/2010/ND-CP.
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Specifically, in term of financial aspect, the water fees policies have also applied to manage the usage
of water resources. According to the Decree No 88/2007/ND-CP stated that all household who excrete
wastewater into the drainage system have to take the responsibility for paying the drainage fee.
Additionally, based on the regulation of the Decree No 67/2003/NĐ-CP dated June 13, 2003 issued by
the government on the fee of environmental protection for wastewater and the Decree No 04/2007/NĐ-
CP dated on January 8, 2007 on revision and amendment of several articles of the Decree No
67/2003/NĐ-CP, if the wastewater is discharged to the environment, the households are obligated to
pay additional fee of environment protection. For domestic water, if the drinking water is consumed
from centralized systems, the amount of wastewater taken into fee calculation is about 100% consumed
amount of drinking water as shown in the water bills. The amount of wastewater taken for
measurement is 4m3/person/month in case of little consumption. For other types of water, if the
consumed water is from the centralized water supply system, the amount of wastewater calculated for
drainage fee is about 80% of the amount of drinking water as shown in the water bills. Drainage fee is
determined as the rate % and is not less than 10% of water tariff for different consumers and the content
of pollutants to be calculated for drainage fee will be determined based on criteria COD (mg/L).
In addition, according to the Decree 88/2007/ND-CP, drainage systems of urban areas were invested
from state budget and other legal funds toward the government’s attempt to mobilize financial and
technical resources from diverse sources. The construction of drainage system in accordance with the
master plan for drainage under every method of investment is encouraged and enabled by government.
Investors also benefited from privilege policies, supports for investment under regulations of the law.
Drainage system of industrial parks, new urban areas invested by supporting budget, own budget, other
legally mobilized fund of the units assigned to be investors in business, development of infrastructure
of industrial parks and new residential areas. The Vietnamese government also provides supporting
tools for environmental management, such as the environmental standard and discharge database of
hotspot criteria consist of 7 circular of MONRE.

2.1.2. Institutional Framework

a. At national level
In fact, there are a range of agencies guiding the the urban sanitation in Vietnam in general. The table
that clearly shows the specialized works on issue of water resources management of different
Ministries:

Ministry Functions
MOSTE Wastewater discharge quality standards
MONRE Natural water resources management
Wastewater discharge control
MARD Rural water supply and sanitation
MOC Urban water supply, Urban drainage and sanitation
MoH Controls drinking water and sanitation quality
In Vietnam nowadays, although general duty for this sector is under MoC, many responsibilities for
water resources management have been decentralized at the municipal level (GHK 2005). It is still up

8
to the national ministries for plans, implementation and finance major water structures, but it is the
provincial People’s Committees responsibility to deal with operation and maintenance of urban water
supply, sanitation and drainage services. To carry out these tasks an Urban Public Works Service
Department (UPWSD) has been established by local People’s Committees. For the large cities such as
Hanoi, the Municipal People’s Committees have the same function as provincial People’s Committees.
In addition, the responsibility of enforcing environmental legislation, including inspection, lies with
the provincial Department of Science and Technology (DoSTE). Each province has its own local
department. With so many ministries, departments and agencies responsible for management of water
resources the managerial results wary greatly. Many agencies have, as described above, been
decentralized, but still not given authority to make relevant decisions (GHK 2005).

b. At Hanoi’s urban area level

Regarding to wastewater management, the Hanoi Sewerage and Drainage Company (SADCO) was
established. It is a public utility under authority of Hanoi People’s Committee taking responsibility on
treatment and disposal of both domestic and industrial wastewater. The sewerage and drainage network
in the core urban area of Hanoi is under the provision, operation and maintenance of SADCO (Van,
2009). The primary and secondary network (ditches, channels, city’s sewers and rivers, as well as other
sewerage and drainage facilities) are managed by Hanoi SADCO. In general, SADCO enterprises have
clear organizational structures and well-established work procedures set by internal and Company’s
regulations for development of plans and for regular maintenance and emergency activities for flood
prevention. SADCO is divided into 4 operational units (enterprises), each with a responsibility for
operation and maintenance of the sewer network in different districts.

Figure 9: The relationship between

SADCO and other stakeholders in
wastewater management

The main tasks of each enterprise are (i) maintain assets and facilities for sewerage and drainage,
reduce flood incidents and ensure wastewater drainage in the area under its management (ii) develop
and to propose plans and measures for effective management of sewerage and drainage system; (iii)
repair and rehabilitate the existing sewerage and drainage system under its maintenance budget; (iv)
9
organize and provide services in wastewater and environmental sanitation for individuals and
organizations; (v) cooperate with local (wards, districts) authorities to raise public awareness in
participation in management and protection of sewerage and drainage syste

The main tasks of SADCO encompass the maintenance and cleaning of the drainage systems which
are conducted throughout the year, but most intensive before the rainy season. A special enterprise
within SADCO uses sewer jetters and vacuum trucks for major sewer cleaning operations. However,
in order to to maintain small channels and sewers in the alleys and lanes, SADCO workers have to use
mainly, manual methods. The mechanical cleaning is carried out around the year (about 15 km per
month), while the manual cleaning is generally undertaken on a quarterly basis and the SADCO pays
the workers for the work carried out based on the volume of sludge and garbage collected. The sludge
and solid wastes in wastewater are collected and transferred to tankers, from where the collecting
vehicles deliver the waste to the landfills. About 70% sludge is collected mechanically and 30%
manually. The amount of solid waste disposed to the sewers, channels and lakes is estimated to be
about 30% of total solid waste generated from the city.

2.2. Wastewater treatment in Hanoi

2.2.1. Existing Sanitation system: Sewerage and Drainage system

Until the last decade, the proper handling of wastewater in Vietnam in general and in Hanoi in
particular had not received the satisfactory concern from the administrative agencies. Instead, much of
improvement had been done in water quality and water supply. The investment directed to wastewater
sector is much lower compared to the large amount of funds to water supply sector.
According to Van (2009), Hanoi’s sewerage and drainage system, combined both storm-water and
wastewater, has been constructed during the French colonial time (from 1905 to 1945) covers a small
area of about 1,000 ha in the central part of the old city. It means the existing system guarantees the
need for only 35-40 percent of the current urban population. In spite of having been expanded and
being one of the urban centers with the best drainage and sewerage system, about 65 percent of Hanoi’s
total population has been able to access the system. Over a long time without upgrade and repair, the
system of drainage and sewerage in Hanoi becomes old and seriously degraded. The average ratio of
sewer length is about 0.3 m for an urban resident of Hanoi. The number is even much lower per capita
in tertiary network in small sewers in alleys and living areas. The total length of sewer in this network
is 190 km making up to 29 percent of total length of the road (641 km) with width which is over 2 m.
The Sewerage and Drainage Company (SADCO) is in charge of provision, operation and maintenance
of the sewerage and drainage network in the inner urban areas of Hanoi. However, by 2002 it could
only control approximately 11 percent of the total while local authorities like ward/commune Peoples
Committees had been entitled to manage the rest of network (SADCO 2003).
There is an underground drainage network built in the inner areas of Hanoi and in the outer parts, the
drainage relies mainly on the open drains. At household level, there are three types of systems for
domestic wastewater disposal consisting of include septic tanks, double vault latrines, on-site systems.
As calculated, nearly one third of Hanoi’s population is responded by septic tank, roughly one fifth of
by double vault latrines, a bit lower than one fourth by on-site systems whist the rest amount does
not benefit from any system at all. Starting from toilets, wastewater flows through septic tanks then is
10
released into sewer. Water can be processed before discharged if these are properly maintained.
Wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms is removed both by septic tank and disposed directly into
the sewers. A 5-member household usually uses a septic tank with volumetric of 1 m3. Septic tank
cleaning services are provided by either private companies or the Urban Environment Company
(URENCO).
Figure 10: Sources and flows of wastewater in Hanoi’s urban sector

According World Bank (2013), the quality of wastewater treatment in Hanoi is not very high. Not to
mention domestic black wastewater, equal around 20% of total, that is handled in septic tanks and
some certain amount of wastewater from industries and hospitals which are preceded passes through
preliminary treatment, all untreated wastewaters are directly discharged into surface water bodies
draining towards the Nhue and Red rivers.
The wastewaters disembogue from the inner areas to the south of Hanoi, specifically to the treatment
reservoirs in Thanh Tri district then eventually discharge to the Red River (Nguyen Le, 2013). A
combined system is formed by drainage and sewerage in which wastewater flows into lakes, ponds
and rivers by gravity. It can be seen that the canals and rivers are very significant in draining household,
industrial water. Through a combined sewers and channels, storm water and wastewater in urban parts
is released into rivers, regulating lakes and ponds. Hanoi cities have a lot of big lakes and ponds which
connect with Kim Nguu and Set Rivers. The water bodies in the city have role to help to adjust and
regulate drainage and wastewater flow, provide water for agriculture as well as enable ground water
recharge.
Currently, Hanoi is in the process to complete the Master Plan for sewerage, drainage and environment
improvement with core objectives to improve the drainage capacity of sewerage and drainage system
11
and also to prevent floods in Hanoi. After that, Hanoi’s environmental management agencies have to
work on efficient wastewater treatment. To implement this plan, the local municipality receives large
assistance from foreign funds. In particular, the first phase of this plan had been implemented in 1996
– 2004 under the loan of approximately U.S $200 million supported by the Japanese Bank for
International Cooperation (JBIC). This agency also provides assistance to do researches in order to
propose ambitious plans in the future including:
• Separation of the drainage system for the To Lich and Nhue River Basin
• Construction of a network of new drainage pipes
• increasing the capacity to pump storm water into the Red River
It is estimated that he total cost of construction is around US$ 1.16 billion. Additionally, the annual
operation and maintenance cost is US$ 10.5 million (DIFI 2005).

2.2.2. Wastewater Reuse

In the research carried out in 2012, a group of researchers from Hanoi University of Civil Engineering
had pointed out that in Hanoi, the number of farmers using wastewater to irrigate is estimated 658,000
on 108,178 ac (43,778 ha) of land. The main wastewater reuse areas of Hanoi city are Thanh Tri and
Hoang Mai district. It is considered as a traditional practice for farmers and local communities to reuse
wastewater in aquaculture and agriculture. Reusing wastewater decreases the expenses which are
required for production and vegetable. Recently, the level of contamination in urban wastewater and
industrial effluents has increased dramatically (DFID, 2005). The main wastewater reuse areas of
Hanoi city are Thanh Tri and Hoang Mai district.

3. Assessment

3.1. Achievements
Since the country implemented open-door policy till current days, drainage and sewerage system of
Hanoi urban areas has made significant growth. Recently, the first step of wastewater treatment plans
(WWTP) which aims to the comprehensive treatment of wastewater in Hanoi has been established.
The two pilot WWTPs in Kim Lien and Truc Bach of the Drainage and Sewerage Project for Hanoi
City Phase 1 have been brought into operation in Sep 2005 and have stably operated with total design
capacity of 6,000 m3/ngd for the whole day. The North Thang Long - Van Tri WWTP was designed
for the capacity of 42,000 m3/d under North Thang Long - Van Tri Urban Development Project. The
one stream among six streams of this project has been started to operate since Sep 2008. The amount
of wastewater processed by these WWTPs reaches the Vietnamese standards. The majority of the
Hanoi’s urban wastewater is accounted by domestic wastewater. In populated areas like the inner parts,
urban centers ad living quarters, almost domestic wastewater in mainly treated in septic tanks of
household before being discharged to public sewer network. Hereabout, septic tanks built at the new
urban zones and office buildings follow technical requirements so that they can overcome the
weaknesses of old constructed septic tanks to create improved effluent quality. (Le 2011)

3.2. Issues
First of all, the decentralization is not completely carry out because many agencies have, as described
above, been decentralized, but still not given authority to make relevant decisions (GHK 2005).
12
Ineffective division of responsibilities within departments is the result of many changes and reforms
during recent years. A good example of ineffective management is Hanoi division of monitoring
responsibilities where nine agencies claim responsibility for water quality monitoring.

Besides, the legal framework for wastewater management is not really efficient due to not only the
lack of reasonable synchronization but also overlaps and gaps. Some targets are too ambitious and as
the legal regulation documents are elaborated by various Ministries, among the targets for
environmental protection and wastewater collection and treatment still exist some conflicts. The
Environment Protection Law was issued for the first time in 1995 and done up 10 years later in 2005.
In 2003, an Environmental Protection Fee which is imposed on urban and industrial wastewater
discharges was launched. In 2007, Vietnamese government issued Important Decrees on Urban and
Industrial Water supply, Wastewater Management, and Solid Waste Management. Aside from that,
the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental’s (MONRE) regulations controlling wastewater
standard have changed several time since its first standard issued in 1995 (TCVN - Viet Nam National
Standards). In detail, it has had six revisions in 2000 – 2011 period (turns into QCVN - Vietnam
National Technical Standards). In term of establishing and collecting wastewater fees, there is a
shortage of clarify and also ambiguous responsibilities between MONRE and water supply enterprises.
Decree 25/2013/ND-CP and Circular 63/2013-TTLT to guide implementation of Decree 25 are
adopted in 2013 as an attempt to make clear and distinguishes the environmental protection fee from
the wastewater fee. World Bank (2013) stated that the regulation on domestic wastewater provides that
if the wastewater system operator and the households do not connect to a piped water system, they will
have to pay environmental protection fee under 10 percent of local water tariff. 10 percent of the water
tariff is far lower compared to the wastewater tariff. While the wastewater tariff ought to comply with
the principle of recovery of wastewater system O&M (Operations and Maintenance) costs, this
regulation may not bring about any encourages to the connection of households to wastewater network.

In 2003, the total amount of industrial wastewater was accounted for 263,000 m3 but only 6.2% of
them was treated, along with a huge amount of untreated hospital wastewater. By 2008, everyday
approximately 400,000 to 450,000 m3 of domestic wastewater was discharged into the sewerage and
drainage of Hanoi city (Le Ngoc Can, Satoh, & Mino, n.d). Along with domestic wastewater, around
260,000 m3 of industrial wastewater flowed into the rivers while only 10 percent of this amount was
processed before discharge. Thus, serious pollution caused by wastewater happens in almost rivers and
lakes in Hanoi urban sector. Untreated wastewater which contains the toxic and inorganic substances
as well as a high level of organic substances worsens the water quality of rivers, lakes and ponds in
Hanoi when it is released. It is reported from our survey that up to 63% participants recognized the
serious pollution and 10% consider that the pollution can reach the serve level in Truc Bach Lake, Kim
Nguu River and To Lich River, especially in Kim Nguu River, an interviewer said that there are some
wastewater flows with strange color appearing in every evenings but he does not know where those
flows come from. Pollution from wastewater can increase the social costs ranging from the
environmental damages and economic losses (Dao, Con & Khai 2010).

13
 Figure 11: Wastewater pollution in Truc Bach Lake, Kim Nguu River and To Lich River
In fact, WHO, VIHEMA and UNICEF (2011) has claimed that the four main rivers including To Lich,
Lu, Set and Nhue have the three to four times higher than regulated standard of average concentrations
of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and other heavy metals.
The polluted water system of Hanoi does not only have function as a wastewater reservoir but also
supplies tons of fish every month from each pond. Kim Nguu river located in Hoang Mai district is the
most polluted river with about 100,00 m3 of wastewater that contains a wide range of industrial
chemicals, fertilizers, chemical to protects plants and animal and also human feces released into it.
The indicators of BOD5 and COD in the water are 3-7 times higher than regulated standard. At the
same time, the ratio of total coliform is even thousands times higher. In the Yen So commune where
Kim Nguu River passes, over half of agriculture land here served for raising fish, and many other areas
irrigate vegetable by using wastewater from this river. Industrial and hospital wastewater is important
element of urban wastewater. Since these wastewaters are untreated or treated ineffectively, they could
lead to high risk of water pollution at the source other, simultaneously poison vegetables and aquatic
products raised by them and impact negatively to health of farmers as well as consumers.
Moreover, the tradition of reusing wastewater for farming is foundin Hoang Mai and Thanh Tri. Some
interviewers living near Kim Nguu River have stated that there is a private pipe which transports
untreated water to the residential farming area used to irrigate the vegetables and their aquatic products.
Wastewater accounts for nearly half of the total demand for water during the winter-spring paddy rice
season (equal 2,563 m3 of wastewater is used for 1 hectare). Other agricultural products such as maize
uses 1000m3/season (37.5% of total demand), potato uses 900m3/season (34.2% of total demand).
The suburban areas of Hanoi are the main supplies of vegetable for the city so that the consumers have

14
to suffer contaminated food raised by untreated wastewater combining risks from heavy metals and
pathogents which negatively impact the health of farmers and consumers (Nguyen Viet Anh, 2015).

II. CAUSES
It can be asserted that because the decentralized wastewater management in Hanoi is a multi-related
field, the problems above can be driven from the shortcomings in both national policies and
institutional framework, Hanoi’s management capacities of local authorities and local stakeholders
raging from administrative system, financial burdens, lack of abilities and technical aspects.

1. Regulatory and national policy issues

DFID (2005), through evaluating the efficiency of regulatory framework and national policies, showed
that there is no “real” management for urban wastewater, especially domestic water.
Firstly, for urban sector, the limited effective instruments for the policy’s implementation process are
also factors negatively influencing the performance of management system with the combination of
the centralized decision machinery and decentralization (Nguyen Hoang Anh, 2012). The successful
decentralization needs the leadership of a central body whose functions consist of building the
guidelines as well as monitoring, structuring and co-operating the different decentralized system,
meaning that the government can be act as the strategic leader providing legal framework and having
full responsibility and accountability. Nevertheless, a glance the environment law’s enforcement has
revealed a number of shortcomings with a weak cooperation between different functional agencies and
stakeholders and the administrative capacities, especially in term of controlling pollution caused by
industrial wastewater due to political sensitiveness.
In addition, although the effluent standards can be applied basing on QCVN 24-2009 (MONRE)
commonly practice in Hanoi, there is only some standard’s requirements for industrial wastewater
discharges are followed, mainly in the fully foreign, joint-venture or new firms. In parallel, there are
the official effluent standards for domestic wastewater, but our statistics and real survey indicate that
the wastewater from residential area are discharged without control from the government because in
general, there is a lack of effective policies and existing legislations to create some flexibility in
effluent discharge quality. More specifically, Vietnam’s government has no national laws governing
the collection and treatment of septage as well as no mandate or policy guidelines for septage
management leading to the fact that some urban operators only need to obtain license before starting
operations. As a result, Hanoi’s authority has no incentive to promote septage management.
Other issues on legal framework are related to the financial aspects when the wastewater fees are still
low to cover O&M costs or system upgrades and not accurately calculated in Hanoi particularly. Dr
Nguyen Viet Anh in the training workshop 2010 claimed that the government’s failure causes an unfair
among businesses, some have to pay but others not, due to a lack of mechanism to assign the property
taxes as well. It is important to note that not only domestic but especially the fees for industrial
wastewater for cost recovery are inadequate to expense for basic environmental standard. The
wastewater system operator and the households do not connect to a piped water system, they will have
to pay environmental protection fee under 10 percent of local water tariff. 10 percent of the water tariff
is far lower compared to the wastewater tariff. While the wastewater tariff ought to comply with the
principle of recovery of wastewater system O&M (Operations and Maintenance) costs, this regulation
15
may not bring about any encourages to the connection of households to wastewater network (UNCC
2015). Relevant to financial aspect, the foreign investment and ODA in wastewater gradually
increases, but due to the disproportionate reallocation as well as collecting system, those investments
seem to be ineffective (World Bank, 2013). In short, it is the restrictions in appropriate policies and
models has slowed the mobilization of resources outside the state budget as well as prevented the
participation of private sector to reduce the financial burdens.

2. Hanoi’s management capacity issues

As mentioned before, the Hanoi Sewerage and Drainage Company (SADCO) takes in charge of
operating and maintaining the sewerage and drainage system in key urban area in Hanoi as a
centralized agency. However, the ability to deploy the programs and projects of local institutions and
stakeholders, including designers, constructors and owners under the decentralized approach is still
weak (Duong An Thanh, n.d).
The lack of data, low-cost design fee and no third-party testing and certificating organizations are the
first reasons. According to DFID (2005) and Tran Thi Viet Nga (2011), designers and design
consultants do not have sufficient data, knowledge and experience as well as tight budget which are
unable to carry out the pre-design fact-finding studies with low encouragement from low-cost projects
when almost design fee is relative to the construction cost. Saliently, due to the decentralization in
responsibility, there are only few third-party organizations which can check the technologies as well
as equipment for wastewater treatment contributing to the existing inappropriate sewerage and
drainage channels in Hanoi- too small and low the hydraulic slope, therefore causing high amounts of
sludge and sediment in the system. Additionally, the fact that the owners and operators do not have
training course, lack of funds, and disrepair has weakened the environmental pollution control
capacity. Furthermore, the active participation of local stakeholders and commune is an indispensable
instrument for the management of wastewater and environment ideally. However, based on our survey,
although the number of Hanoi’s citizens is accounted for 76%, in which 61% realized the bad situation,
but 31% of them do not know the wastewater treatment and management, even though they live near
the drainage and sewerage system and the polluted ponds and lakes. Those statistics have reflected the
lack of information in wastewater treatment among citizens in Hanoi’s urban sector, and that the social
aspects negatively restrict the residential involvement in the management process (Nguyen Viet Anh,
2010). For instance, there is a traditional acceptance of untreated wastewater disposal by the majority
of citizens and wastewater reuse attitudes of public along with the fact that the policy makers hinder
the adoption of wastewater treatment and safe reuse system. Generally, the coordination between the
populations and Hanoi’s authority in the collection and proper management of wastewater is limited.

16
 Figure 12: The relationship among education, people behavior and policy making

3. Technical and science issues

It can be asserted that technical aspects is the most concerning and urgent issues in wastewater
management in Hanoi’s urban in specific and all decentralized system operations in Vietnam.
In fact, the existing technologies in Vietnam are always so problematic due to a range of reasons. First
of all, Vietnam as well as Hanoi has a little national and international experience in combined drain
and sepic tanks with a lack of design guidelines (World Bank, 2015). Moreover, in Hanoi, most of
sanitation projects or programs are hold without tertiary network which lead to the pollution and the
disposal of toxic sewerage into Truc Bach Lake, To Lich River, and Yen So Park.
Most importantly, it is reported that due to the lack of firms’ capacity for R&D, marketing strategy,
the innovations or upgrading, the environment industry in Vietnam is still weak. Viet Anh Nguyen
(2015) strongly demonstrated that the development for research and application of science and
innovations are executed. Overall, the connection between managerial and technical aspects of
environment in Vietnam still weak with the lack of linkage between theory and reality. It can be seen
from 2005 with the DFID’s research to Viet Anh Nguyen (2015), despite some improvements in all
corners of citizen’s life, the training and education programs which connect the environmental
management and technology at universities cannot provide a necessary and practical knowledge with
only academic and theoretical framework. In general, those technical issues including the lack of
standards, guidelines, technical manuals for the design, construction, and operation are the main
reasons for the inefficiency of technical aspects of wastewater management.

17
III. RECOMMENDATIONS
From the problems and causes in the wastewater management in Hanoi urban sector as investigating
above, some recommendations below are given as orientations in order to improve the current
situation.

1. Legislative system
Firstly, the need of political will and improvements to existing institutional framework is necessary.
The government should continuously complete the strategic legislations relevant to the environment
and wastewater management with a specific guideline documents for the implementation of Law on
Environment Protection 2005 and Law on Water Resources 2012 as the foundation to enforce other
laws, national standard as well as regulate the activities related to decentralized wastewater treatment
models; management of decentralized wastewater treatment works. In addition, it is essential to
combine paralelly the centralization and decentralization at localities to ensure the effectiveness and
efficiency of each project based on Hanoi urban sector’s socio-cultural, institutional, technical,
economic and financial conditions.
Besides, there is a need to develop a more appropriate financial policies and mechanism for wastewater
management sector to increase the efficiency of the use of environmental budget due to the fact that
operation of drainage system in Hanoi’s urban area mainly rely on state budget. The financial sources
include subsidies, government’s bonds, the policies on taxes and fees, especially the sources mobilized
from private-public partnership should be transit to alternative financing modalities to local authorities.
In which, it is recommended to increase the fees on domestic, industrial and hospital wastewater
disposal in the context of Hanoi not only to recover the social costs caused by the wastewater, but also
to push the capital for new budget for planning and implementing projects. Strikingly, it is essential
for Vietnam’s government to develop the policies attempt to encourage the participation of private
sector in managing wastewater – promoting the socialization of investment - such as increase the equal
access to loans can contribute to the improvement of operational efficiency and customer service.
However, the facilities built by the private sector need to be compliable with the plans of government.
In addition, the government should allow some flexibility in effluent discharge quality based on the
receiving waters to apply the appropriate technology which can help to reduce the cost.

2. In Hanoi urban’s area level

The change in the mode of drainage management to the mode of service provision can help to enhance
the automatic monitoring with more transparency and accountability of wastewater from all sources,
emphasizing on industrial zones in Hanoi urban sector. The existing decentralized approach in Hanoi’s
urban sector requires a transformation of urban environmental companies into a limited liability
companies which have more capacity and independence to provide services and to do business on
operation, maintenance and financial management. Besides, in term of finance, it is recommended to
mobilize local communities’ resources and make attempt to explore the possibility of PPP in order to
diversify the financial sources. For example, the investment and operating costs for infrastructures
provision provided from local fund or raising annual contributions from the residents with the micro-
finance from banks or revolving fund through Women’s Union or Labor’s Union can prepare a
roadmap to increase the revenue and achieve the cost recovery.

18
When the coordination among the stakeholders from centralized to decentralized agencies, with the
participation of private sector is extremely week in Hanoi urban area, the improvement in the
decentralization of wastewater’s management can appear when the local stakeholders’ capacities are
built through the dialogue, workshops, training course for managers, staff of project management units
of SACO and URENCO. Through exchanging knowledge as well as reports reflecting the situation of
wastewater’s management in Hanoi urban sector, especially the report’s from the private sector, the
staff and the servants will have deeper understanding which can enhance the effectiveness and
efficiency of their tasks.
Most importantly, it is crucial to strengthen training, information-education-communication (IEC) in
Hanoi urban citizens and private sectors from the shortcoming listed above about the weak behavior
of citizens toward wastewater’s management. Through encouraging the pro-active participant of
stakeholders, the awareness and responsibilities of people drinking water, sanitation latrines, reusing
wastewater for livestock farms or hygienic and environmental protection behaviors can be enhanced.
More specifically, more activities such as propaganda, campaign, and voluntary works aim to develop
the connection between the commune PC and users can be a vital instrument for managing wastewater.
Enhancing the relationships between local authorities and CSOs or pressure interest group can act as
a bridge providing the information, urgent demands as well as issues, which are able to change the
plan and projects to achieve the optimal effectiveness in Hanoi urban area.

3. Regarding technologies
The need to study, apply and transfer clean and environmental friendly technology is not strange but
to be effectively carried out, the development o wastewater treatment technology which is suitable for
Vietnam’s and local conditions are important. It emphasizes the necessities for transforming the
available technologies into appropriate and clean technology for measures the wastewater in Hanoi
urban sector since it is one of the most modern city in Vietnam. Thi Thanh Van (2009) draws the some
practical technology needs in wastewater management including:
(1) Appropriate wastewater treatment technology dealing with low C/N ratio in the incoming
wastewater flow
(2) Appropriate technology for treatment of sludge generated from combined sewerage and
drainage system
(3) Adequate faecal sludge treatment technology
(5) Removal of organic matters from surface water
(6) Equipment to control incoming wastewater flow features for CETPs
(7) Technology for decentralized wastewater treatment with small foot-print reactor and
shallow reaction zone
(8)Technology for flow rate and concentration equalization allowing stable incoming
wastewater features at wastewater treatment plants
(9)Technology to enhance nitrification, or removal of ammonium, in wastewater treatment
systems applying natural treatment processes
19
Moreover, as discussing before, the information and knowledge from training and educating must be
applied to the practice, especially the replication of advanced environmental protection model as the
orientation for wastewater treatment technology. Thus, there is also a need to move away from rigid
and overestimated designs, norms and standards. Regarding with technology, WHO, VIHEMA and
UNICEF (2011) showed that the conduction of research and setting up the pilot management models
with the strengthening of multi-maniple and international cooperation are important for the supports
with experience, science and technology investment. It is also reported that the coordination with civil
society organizations additionally contribute to not only practical application and building a new
mechanism and effective approach to manage technology’s performances.

D/ CONCLUSION
In conclusion, since Vietnam implemented “Doi Moi” in 1986, its economy has transformed from a
central-planned economy to an open market one. Although Vietnam’s and Hanoi’s political and socio-
economic situations have witnessed upward development throughout the years, it is undeniable that its
economic growth depends largely on the exploitation of natural resources and three major sectors
including forestry, agriculture and fisheries which can harm environment with the dramatic increase
of wastewater discharge into the environment especially in the urban parts of Hanoi. Although
Vietnam’s government has implemented a huge number of laws, regulations, plans, visions, guidelines
under the decentralized approach which all have some achievements, the existing institutional and
legal framework at national and local level, as well as the local action plans have a lot of troubles
related to the decentralization, the financial burdens, low-technologies and especially, the participation
of private sectors, pressure groups, commune. As a result, based on the issues and causes in wastewater
management from the practice of Hanoi urban area toward the prospective goals ensuring the long-
term national and local sustainable development, some recommendations emphasizing on the political
will to improve the national framework in term of administration, financial stability and sustainability
with mechanism incentives for various sectors, as well as enhance the capacity at municipal level by
education training and encourage the pro-active participation of various stakeholders in wastewater
management’s tasks, with the usage of appropriate technology instead of available one. Hopefully,
those recommendations given to Hanoi’s urban area can be applied for every local units in Vietnam
with the purpose of to enhance the existing and develop the prospective management of wastewater in
Vietnam in general.

20
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
WASTEWATER IN HANOI
We are Nguyen Thi Nhat Linh, Le Thi Thu Ha, Nguyen Thao Phuong, Nguyen Ha Thu, Pham Hai
Van from the Faculty of International Studies, Hanoi University. We are doing a research project on
the impact of Wastewater in Hanoi. This questionnaire was designed to help us obtain outstanding data
for our project. We highly appreciate your opinions which are apparently crucial to the completion as
well as the quality of our paper. Thank you for your cooperation.

1. Which environmental problems that you most concern about? (You can select more than 1 option)
 Air pollution
 Noise pollution
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Other

2. You think which level of pollution is Hanoi waste water in?

 No pollution
 Slight
 Serious
 Severe

3. Which reasons according to you are the main causes of waste water pollution in your local area?
(You can select more than 1 option)
 Domestic waste
 Industrial waste
 Livestock farm waste (livestock, slaughtering area…)
 Hospital waste
 Other

4. Do the water sources directly affect your life?

 Yes
 No

5. Does water pollution directly affect your life? (If yes continue to answer the beneath questions)
 Yes
21
  No

6. How waste water pollution negatively affect your life? (You can select more than 1 option)
 Irritating stench
 Trouble business
 Canker agriculture
 Canker health
 Other

7. What do you think about the waste water system in your local area?
 Good
 Average
 Not really good
 Terrible

8. Does the local government attempt to improve the polluted situation in your local area?
 Actively
 Normally
 Listlessly
 I don’t care
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

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in Hanoi City – nutritive value and potential risk in using for agriculture”.
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http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Water/R8056-Vietnam_Case_Study.pdf

 Duong Thanh An, 2013., “Wastewater Management and Sanitation Practices in Vietnam”
http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/5-
Waste%20water%20management%20and%20sanitation%20practices%20in%20Viet%20Nam.pdf
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Hanoi SADCO.. (in Vietnamese)

 Hoang Anh Nguyen, 2013., “Wastewater management and treatment in urban areas in Vietnam”
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xuat va kien nghi” (The management and treatment of wastewater in Vietnam’s urban sector –
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http://moitruongviet.edu.vn/quan-ly-xu-ly-va-nuoc-thai-sinh-hoat-nuoc-thai-sinh-hoat-do-thi-tai-viet-
nam-de-xuat-va-khuyen-nghi/

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 Viet Anh Nguyen, 2010., “Overview of Sanitation and Wastewater Management in Vietnam
Urban Sector”. From Training Workshop “Strategic Planning for Integrated Urban Wastewater
Management”, Hanoi.
http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/db/event_upload_folder/10
4/A.Prof._Nguyen_Viet_Anh_-_Sanitation_in_Urban_Vietnam.pdf

 Viet Anh Nguyen, 2015., “Wastewater management and technology needs in Vietnam”
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 VOV World, 2015., “Vietnam sees rapid urbanization in areas and population”
http://vovworld.vn/en-US/Spotlight/Vietnam-sees-rapid-urbanization-in-areas-and-
population/306332.vov
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Opportunities”.

 WHO, VIHEMA, UNICEF, 2012., “Vietnam Water and Sanitation Sector Assessment Report”
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 World Bank, 2015., “Vietnam urbanization among fastest in region”

http://english.thesaigontimes.vn/39250/WB-Vietnam-urbanization-among-fastest-in-region-.html

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