JOLLAT MODEL COLLEGE

OKOKO ANNEX: 30, ELEDUWE STR, KEMBERI OFF AKOBERU ROAD, OKOKOMAIKO LAGOS.
WEBSITE :www.jmcschools.orgE-MAIL :jollatmodelcollege@yahoo.com

CHEMISTRY
E – LEARNING NOTE
2019/2020 ACADEMIC SESSION

FIRST TERM

CLASS: SSS ONE (1)

NAME:…………………………..……………………………………………….……………………………………………

DATE: …………………………………………………..

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NAME:…………………………..…………………………………………………………………..
JOLLAT MODEL COLLEGE
WEBSITE :www.jmcschools.orgE-MAIL :jollatmodelcollege@yahoo.com

FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY CLASS: SS1
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
1. Introduction to Chemistry: Meaning of chemistry, Career prospects tied to chemistry,
application of chemistry, adverse effects of chemicals and Scientific methods, drawing of
laboratory apparatus.
2. Nature of Matter: Definition of matter, States of matter and changes in states of matte,
Physical and chemical changes, Definition of physical and chemical change with example,
Differences between physical and chemical change.
3. Elements: definition of elements and symbols of first 20 elements, classification of
elements into three states of matter, composition of elements, definition of atom, atomic
mass, atomic number and relationship between atoms and elements.
4. Elements continue: definition of molecule and atomicity, examples of atom of element
and molecules of elements, Dalton atomic theory and its modification.
5. Particulate nature of matter: Structure of atoms/sub atomic particles, rules and principles
of filling electrons – aufbau, pauli and hund’s, electronic configuration of atoms using s,p,d,f
orbital configuration, formation of ions and valency.
6. The relative atomic masses of elements: definition of isotope and examples, calculation of
relative abundance of isotope.
7. Compounds: definition and examples, relationship between atoms, elements and
compound, classification of compounds into the three state of matter, using ion/valency of
atoms to form compounds.
8. IUPAC: nomenclature of chemical compounds, concept of oxidation number and uses
9. Mixture: Definition and examples, relationship between elements, compounds and
mixture, examples of mixture – heterogeneous and homogenous, standard separation
techniques, apparatus/properties/industrial application of each separation techniques.
10. Practical’s: on separation of mixture and other separation techniques.
11. Revision
12/13. Examination

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REFERENCE. TEXTS:
1.Comprehensive certificate chemistry for senior secondary schools by G N C Ohia.et al
2.Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools 1 by Magbagbeola O, et al; Melrose Books and
Publishers.
3.New school chemistry for senior secondary schools by Osei yaw Ababio
4.Revised edition understanding chemistry for schools and colleges by Godwin O. Ojokuku.

WEEK 1
TOPIC: Introduction to Chemistry
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of chemistry
2. Career prospects tied to chemistry
3. Application (i) Hospital (ii) Military (iii) Teaching (iv) Chemical and petrochemical
industries.
4. Adverse effects of chemicals, drug abuse, poisoning,
Corrosion and pollution.
5. Scientific methods.
PERIOD 1: MEANING OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry can be define as the composition, properties, uses and changes that matter
undergo during a chemical reaction. The word chemistry id derived from Egyptian word
‘Al-kemia’ transcribed to alchemy meaning turn leads into gold or turning a less valuable
substance to a more valuable substance. ‘Al-kemia’ or ‘Alchemy’ described as a chemist, later
the suffix (ry) was added to the word chemist(ry) to describe the act of chemist. Chemistry is
the study of matter: its structure, composition, properties and the changes it undergoes.
Chemistry is one of the three main branches of pure science, the other two being physics and
biology. Chemistry which probes into the principles governing the changes that matter
undergoes also deals with the composition, properties uses of matter. Some of the chemical
changes which matter undergoes include; lighting a match, cooking, burning fire wood,
making palm wine, rusting of nails, rotting of leaves. Chemical changes are otherwise known
as chemical reactions. The knowledge of chemistry helps us to subject some matter to
chemical processes thereby producing some materials for our every day today use. Such
materials include: soaps, detergents, hair cream, perfumes, oil, margarine and plastics
among others.
There are three main branches of chemistry: inorganic, organic and physical chemistry.

Career prospects tied to chemistry

Career prospects tied to chemistry simply mean the job opportunities that are available for
the students with knowledge of chemistry. Such students can be employed with private and
public sectors which include: Teaching service, health service, food processing, petroleum
and petrochemical industries, manufacturing industry, extractive industry, Agriculture and
Forestry.

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(i) Teaching services: Concern those who teach in primary, secondary schools, colleges of
education and universities and even the laboratory assistants in schools and universities.
(ii) Health service: Involves pharmacists, biochemists, chemists, nutritionists, dieticians,
doctors, nurses, medical assistants, laboratory assistants and dispensers.
(iii) Food processing: Food processing involves food technologists and research chemists.
(iv) Petroleum and petrochemical industries –Involves application of the following people;
research chemists, chemical engineers and laboratory assistants.
(v) Extractive industry- Involves chemists, mining engineers and geologists.
(vi) Manufacturing Industry: This involves research chemists and chemical engineers in the
wide variety of manufacturing industries such as iron and steel works and cement factories.
(vii) Agriculture-Involves agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists who
engaged in research to improve the quality and yield of crops and livestock’s, and to advise
farmers.
(viii) Forestry: Scientists engaged in research to preserve and improve forests and forestry
products.

EVALUATION
1.Define the term chemistry.
2.Mention five changes that matter undergoes.
3.Give the uses of chemistry in our day to day life.
4.List at least five career opportunities in chemistry
5.Explain any three of the career opportunities mentioned above.

PERIOD 2: APPLICATION/ USES OF CHEMISTRY

The knowledge of chemistry can be apply in the following areas; namely
1.Hospital: The knowledge of chemistry makes it possible for people to involve in chemical
research and technology which lead to production of medicine that we use today.
2.Military: The duty of the military is defense, to defend the territorial integrity of a nation or
state. Military cannot effectively do this without ammunition. Chemistry contributes to the
discovery and description of the theoretical bases for the behavior of chemical substances
such as explosives used by the military. The gun powder used in the earliest guns was made
by mixing sulphur, charcoal and potassium trioxonitrates(v), compounded by early chemists.
The manufacture of smokeless powder was based upon gun cotton, which is made from
cotton fibers soaked in a strong mixture of HNO3 and H2SO4.
3.Teaching- chemistry teachers and lecturers in secondary schools, polytechnics, colleges of
education and universities.
4.Chemical and petrochemical industries: Application chemists, research chemists, chemical
engineers and laboratory assistants.
5.Space science: chemistry is not out in space exploration. In our efforts to gain more
knowledge of the other planets and outer space around us, special rockets called ‘space
rocket’ are sent into space. The first rocket was sent into space on October 4, 1957 by Russia.
In July, 1969, Apollo II astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed on the moon.
These are made possible by science and technology.

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6.Agriculture: Agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists engaged in
research to improve the quality and yield of crops and livestock, and to advise farmers.
EVALUATION
1. Enumerate and explain five application of chemistry you know.
PERIOD 3- ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS
The adverse effects of existence of chemistry
The existence of chemistry brought about the existence of chemicals. The adverse effects of
chemicals include; drug abuse, poisoning, corrosion and pollution.
1.Drug Abuse: simply involves wrong usage of drugs. Some of these drugs include heroin,
cocaine and morphine which are used as addictive. Unscrupulous people produce and sell
them at huge profits. Drug addiction is a major problem in our society, especially among
young people. Many countries have imposed strict laws to control pollution and drug abuse.
However, the most effective control measure is education. We must use what we learnt to
improve our life and to control these abuses.
2.Poisoning: This is where chemicals are used to poison the food we eat. This happens when
the chemicals used as addictive probably as preservative are added more than required or
expired in the food stuff where it was added, then instead of the food stuff bringing health to
our body, it turns to poison.
3.Corrosion:Corrosion of iron can also be called rusting and requires the presence of water
and oxygen. Rusting can also be regarded as the slow deterioration of iron to iron (iii) oxide.
This iron (iii) oxide is permeable to both air and water and cannot protect the iron from
further corrosion of iron.

This rusting can be prevented by four methods.

(i) Application of protective coating.
(ii) Application of sacrificial metal.
(iii) Alloying.
(iv) Cathodic protection.
4.Pollution:Chemical industries through the action of production pollute our environment as
the smoke enters into the air, and dirts of different kinds enter into the water thereby
polluting the entire environment. Specifically chemical wastes from factories and oil
refineries and radioactive wastes from nuclear plants pollute our environment. Oil spillage,
exhaust from motor vehicles, pesticides, fertilizers and acid rain have made our environment
unclean and endangered plant and animal life. Human health is also being threatened by
environmental pollution. Presently, chemists are trying to come up with a fuel that will
reduce the air pollution problem. They are also modifying chemical processes to recycle
chemical wastes or change them to harmless products which can be safely discharged into
the surrounding.
PERIOD 4: SCIENTIFIC METHOD
This is the method the scientist used to produce different materials that exists as a result of
chemistry. In the light of this, the scientists use their senses to observe what is happening
around them. From a given set of observations, they see a certain pattern. This often leads to
a problem which they try to solve. They put forward a reasonable explanation or hypothesis

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and carry out appropriate experiments to test it. Then, they carefully record their
observations and the results of their experiments.
If the experiments support the hypothesis, they carry out further investigations. They discuss
the hypothesis and results with other scientists in the field so that the hypothesis can be
further tested. When a hypothesis has been tested and found to be correct within the limits
of available evidence. It becomes a theory. A scientific law or principle is established only
after the theory has been extensively tested and proven true without any exception. If the
experiments give negative results, then the scientist goes back to his hypothesis and either
modifies it or puts forward a new hypothesis. This way of studying a problem is known as the
scientific method. It is the very foundation of all scientific discoveries.
DRAWING OF LABORATORY APPARATUS

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TOPIC: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY AND APPARATUS
CONTENT:
(a) Introduction
(b)Chemistry laboratory apparatus and their uses
(C) Chemistry laboratory set-ups.
(d) Common laboratory accidents
(e) Safety precautions
SUB-TOPIC1-INTRODUCTION:
A Chemistry laboratory is a place, usually a room, where scientific experiments are
performed by the use of pieces of apparatus and chemical reagents.

Chemistry laboratory apparatus: Mostly all the apparatus are usually made up of glass such
as Pyrex (borosilicate)soda glass, beaker, test tube etc., metals, wood, plastics, and porcelain.
Some are improvised i.e. they are locally made such as bamboo for making measuring
cylinder, coconut shell for making beaker etc.

EVALUATION
i) What is the purpose of laboratory?
ii) List three materials that can be used to produce laboratory apparatus.
Sub-topic 2-CHEMISTRY LABORATORY APPARATUS AND THEIR USES
1. BEAKER: Commonly made of Pyrex glass. It has a flat bottom, cylindrical and graduated,
usually with lip for easy pouring.

Beakers
USE: Used to keep reagents for chemical tests.For holding and pouring liquids.it is also used
for measuring the volume of liquids.
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2.SEPARATING FUNNEL: Made of glass with ashort stem, stopcork,and a stoper. It may be
conical, cylindrical,or spherical.

USE:it is used in sepration of immiscible liquids,e.g.a mixture of kerosine and water.

EVAPORATING BASIN OR DISH: Is made of porcelain. It may be round –bottomed or flat-
bottomed, usually shallow, and with spout (lip).

USE: It is used in the evaporation of a liquid solution to dryness, or to concentrate a solution.

TRIPOD STAND, WIRE GAUZE AND BUNSEN BURNER:
i) TRIPOD STAND: Made of iron, has either a triangular or circular top. It is used as a support
for flask when heating.
ii) WIREGAUZE:Madeof iron mesh with asbestos center. It is usually placed on a tripod stand
as a support for flask or boiling tube when heating.
Iii) BUNSENBURNER: Used in providing heat (high temperature) by the combustion of
liquefied gas (propane or butane).It is composed of a metal tube with a wide metal base. It is
sometimes positioned in –between the legs of the tripod stand when heating.

RETORT STAND, WIREGAUZE, BUNSEN BURNERCOMBINED FOR HEATING

5. DISTILLATION FLASK: has a flat or round bottom made of glass with a slanting side arm.

USE: during distillation.

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6. MORTAL AND PESTILE: are made of porcelain or agate.

MORTAL AND PESTILE

USE: They are used in grinding or crushing solids into fine powder.
Chemistry Laboratory Common Equipment

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SUB-TOPIC 3:CHEMISTRY LABORATORY SET-UPS.
A laboratory set-up is the combination of two or more apparatus, which are arranged in such
a manner that the set-up is workable.
1. FILTRATION 2. SIMPLE DISTILATION

3.PAPER CHROMATOGRAPH 4. HOTPLATE WITH MAGNETIC STIRRER

5.FRACTIONAL DISTILATION

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 6.DESICCATORS

7.TITRATION 8.EVAPORATION OF A SOLUTION

SUB-TOPIC4: COMMON LABORATORY ACCIDENTS

Laboratory accidents are something unpleasant, undesirable or damaging that happens
unexpectedly or by chance in the laboratory.
Generally it could involve the inhalation of dangerous substances or physical injury as the
case may be. Most of the laboratory accidents occur as follows:
1. GLASS CUT:
Report the situation to your facilitator and let him help the injured person.
There is always a possibility of infection, even with the most minor injury. For this reason you
should report any cut or scrape, even if there is no visible blood.
If there is blood at any laboratory station, move to your seat in the classroom area until told
it is safe to return to the laboratory.
2. FIRES:
Laboratory burners are the source of most problems:
Bunsen burners have very few malfunctions. If a malfunction occurs, turn off the gas and
notify your facilitator- end of problem.
The flame from alcohol burners is hard to see. Pay close attention when using them.
Be aware when a burner is in use at your lab station. Be extremely careful during that time.
Paper is the most common type of fire in the lab.
This type of fire is cause by carelessness and easily prevented. Take only one lab sheet to
your station to follow your written procedures and record data. Leave all reference materials
at your desk. If you need to refer to reference material, leave the lab area to do so.
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If a paper fire occurs, push the paper into the lab sink and turn on the water - end of
problem.
Clothing or Hair is the most dangerous type of fire in the lab.
Don't panic!
If you are the one involved in a fire - stay where you are - help is coming. "Stop, drop, and
roll" is still the best course of action. If the fire is not at your lab station - stay away!
THE FIRE EXTINGUISHER IS LOCATED ON THE WEST WALL.
Only the science facilitator is authorized to use the fire extinguisher.
Fire extinguishers are classified according to a particular fire type and are given the same
letter and symbol classification as that of the fire.

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Our lab fire extinguisher is Type ABC, effective against Types A, B, and C.
The average fire extinguisher only operates about 10 seconds.
Do not waste it!
You must get close to the fire - as close as 5 or 6 feet!
To effectively operate an extinguisher, think P-A-S-S.
P -- Pull the pin
A -- aim the hose at the base of the fire
S -- squeeze the handle
S -- sweep the hose back and forth

3. ACID BURNS
4. INHALING TOXIC GASES
5. EXPLOSION
6. ELECTRIC SHOCK
7. SWALLOWING TOXIC CHEMICALS

SUB-TOPIC4: SAFETY PRECUTIONS

The following are the basic rules and regulations to guide your safety and hence prevent accidents in the
laboratory.
DANGER
(i)Always handle glass wares being fragile, with care to avoid glass cuts.
(ii)Never use sodium, potassium, phosphorus or concentrated (conc) acids and alkalis unless
you are specially instructed. These chemicals are corrosive. Always add concentrated acid to
water slowly, when diluting the acid, never add water to acid. This is to avoid acid burns,
explosion and fire.
(iii)Do not taste or drink any chemical, and never smell any chemical directly .This is to avoid
swallowing or inhaling toxic chemicals.
(iv)Do not mix chemicals aimlessly, or carry out any experiment except when instructed, to
avoid explosion or fire outbreak
(v)Do not put a glowing splint or a burning paper in the waste bin, to avoid fire outbreak.
(vi)Do not touch or hold any electric instrument with wet hands.
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(vii)All accident should be reported immediately to your facilitator.
(viii)Laboratory coats must be worn to protect clothing from soiling, damage from accidents
of various sorts.
CLEANLINESS AND EXPENSES
Pour liquids only down the sink or funnel, and never pour solids, to avoid blockage.

1. Clean the apparatus after use and replace them in their proper places.
2. Wipe down your bench and leave it clean and dry.
3. Do not light the Bunsen burner or other sources of heat until required. Turn it off when no
longer required.

Do not bring any food or drink in to the laboratory and avoid eating, drinking or smoking in
the laboratory.
No eating or drinking in the lab!

Vi) Contact lenses should NOT be worn in the laboratory

It is almost impossible to remove contacts after chemicals have been splased into the eye.
Chemicals trapped under contacts will damage the eye even more than normal.
The plastic used for some types of contact lensess is per meable to vapours found
in the laboratory.if these vapors found in the laboratory.if these vapour are
trapped behind the lens, extrnsiveirritationmay occur.
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EVALUTION
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1.You are provided with the folllowing laborary appratus give one use for each of
the following pieces of apparatus.
(a) Reagent bottle(b) Water bath(c) Combustion boat(d) Wash bottle(e)
Deflagratine spoon(f) Evaporating dish(g) Desiccator(h) Tripod stand (i) Test tube
rack(j) Liebig condezer(k)Beam balance.
2.With the aid of diagram,draw the laboratory apparatus/set –up for drying solids
in the laboratory.
3.Mention THREEbasic rules and regulations regarding safety in the laboratory.
4.Mention two laboratory accident and they can be prevented.
5.name two apparatus used during filtration process.
6.identfy the apparatus you would use to carry out the following in the
laboratory
i.Separatingtwo immiscible liquids
ii.Condenzing steamto liquid
iii.Drying a sample of residues
iv.Measuring a small quantity of liquid
EVALUATION
1.Mention five adverse effects of existence of chemistry in the world.
2.What do you understand by hypothesis?
3.Differentiate the terms hypothesis and theory
4.Explain fully what you understand by scientific method?
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1.Chemistry is defined as
A. a branch of knowledge which produces chemicals
B. the branch of science which deals with changes in matter
C. the oldest branch science
D. the branch of science which makes physics and biology career
2.Scientific approach to discoveries follows the order which includes:
A. Observation, hypothesis, and results
B. experiments, hypothesis and results
C.further experiments and problems solving
D. theory, negative and positive results and experiments

3.Chemical hypothesis is different from chemical law in that

A. hypothesis is a reasonable explanation to observations made while law is a statement
from a scientist.
B. hypothesis is a reasonable explanation to observations while law is a statement which
confirms the hypothesis after extensive tests.
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C.hypothesis is not reasonable while law is reasonable.
D. none of the above
4.Chemical changes around us includes all except;
A. rusting of iron nails
B. sieving
C. fading of coloured cloth
D. decomposing of green leaves in a compost
5.One of these professions has no need for chemistry
A. Miners
B. Engineers
C. Philosophers
D. Geologists
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1.Give five reasons why chemistry is important in your life.
2.Explain in detail two of the reasons given above.
3.List three adverse effect of existence of chemistry in this world.
4.Explain two of those adverse effects mentioned above.
5.Explain the term scientific method full.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
PRE- READING ASSIGNMENT
Read aboutphysical and chemical changes and differentiate them.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Explain fully what you understand by the following terms.
Atoms, Molecules, Constituents of atoms.
REFERENCE:
1. New school chemistry for senior secondary schools by Osei Yaw Ababio revised by L.E.S.
Akpanisi Herbert Igwe.

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WEEK 2
Topic: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
CONTENTS:
(1) Physical and chemical changes
(2) Elements and their symbols.
(3) Atoms, molecules, atomicity
(4) Dalton’s atomic theory
PERIOD 1: DEFINITION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has a rest mass and volume, in other words matter is anything that
has mass and occupies space. The three elementary particle of matter are atom, molecule
and ion, while the three state of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
Characteristics of solid state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have fixed volume
3. They have fixed shape
4. They are incompressible
5. Particle vibrate and rotate about a fixed position
6. They are very dense.
Characteristics of liquid state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have fixed volume
3. They have no fixed shape, it takes the shape of it container
4. They are incompressible
5. Particle vibrate, rotate and move about within a restricted space
6. They are less dense.
Characteristics of gaseous state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have no fixed volume
3. They have no fixed shape
4. They are compressible
5. Particle moves about constantly at great speed and at random
6. They are least dense.
Physical Properties:
This are properties associated with physical changes. E.g boiling point, melting point, density,
hardness, malleability, crystalline, colour, odour and taste.
Chemical Properties:
Are those properties which are involved when matter undergo a change to form new
substance. E.g rusting, rotting etc.

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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
PHYSICAL CHANGES:
DEFINITION: A Physical change is one which is easily reversed and in which no new
substances are formed.
Examples:
i. Melting of solids to liquids.
ii. Freezing of liquids to solids.
iii. Vaporization of liquids to gases.
iv. Liquefaction of gases to liquids.
v. Sublimation of solids to vapour.
vi. Magnetization and demagnetization of iron
vii. Separation of mixture by evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, sublimation,
crystallization
CHEMICAL CHANGE:
DEFINITION: A chemical change is one which is not easily reversed and in which a new
substance is formed.
Examples:
i. Burning of substances.
ii. Dissolution of metals and limestone in acids.
iii. Chemical decomposition – like digestion of food.
iv. Rusting of iron.
v. Charring of sugar.
vi. Dissolution of metals in acids.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
1. Easily reversible Not easily reversible
2. No new substance is formed New substance is formed
3. No change is mass. There is a noticeable change in mass.
4. Not accompanied by heat Change Usually accompanied by heat change.

EVALUATION:
1. Mention three familiar process/changes which you know to be:(a) Physical changes (b)
chemical changes.
2. List three differences between physical change and chemical change.
3. Classify each of the following as physical change or chemical change.
(a) Boiling of egg (b) Burning of kerosene (c) Melting of wax (d) Rusting of iron(e)
Digestion of glucose (f) Dissolving iron in an acid.
4. State with a reason in each case whether each of the following is physical or chemical
change.
(a).Dissolving common salt in water.
(b).Burning of petrol.
(c).Digestion of glucose.
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WEEK 3:
ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS
An element is a substance that cannot be broken into simpler substances by any chemical
methods. Examples of elements include: Iron, tin, aluminum etc.
There are about 118 known elements of which 92 are naturally exiting elements and the rest
are artificially made.
Symbols are modern ways of representing atoms of elements by using abbreviations. The
modern symbols were developed by Berzelius in 1814.
First, He used the first letter in the name of the element.
Examples
ELEMENT SYMBOL
Hydrogen H
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Iodine I

The second principle uses the first two letters.

Examples:
ELEMENTS SYMBOL
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Neon Ne
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Argon Ar
Calcium Ca
Bromine Br
Barium Ba

The third principle is when the first letter and another letter in the name are used.
Example:
ELEMENTS SYMBOL
Magnesium Mg
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr
Manganese Mn
Zinc Zn
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The fourth principle is the elements that derived symbols from their Latin names.
Example:
ELEMENT LATIN NAME SYMBOL
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb

First twenty elements with their symbols.

Atomic Element Symbol

Number
1 Hydrogen H
2 Helium He
3 Lithium Li
4 Beryllium Be
5 Boron B
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
8 Oxygen O
9 Fluorine F
10 Neon Ne
11 Sodium Na
12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminum Al
14 Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulphur S
17 Chlorine Cl
18 Argon Ar
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca

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 Periodic table of elements

PERIOD 2: ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY

ATOMS
DEFINITION: An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.
STRUCTURE AND CONSITITUENTS OF AN ATOM
An atom is made up of the three sub-particles known as protons, neutrons and electrons as
shown in the diagram below. Their characteristics are also summarized in the table below:

Electron
Nucleus

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUB-PARTICLES

SUB- LOCATION RELATIVE RELATIVE SYMBOL
PARTICLE CHARGE MASS
Proton Nucleus + 1 p
Electron Outside _ 0.005 e-
nucleus
Neutron Nucleus Zero 1 n

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PERIOD 3: ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER)
ATOMIC NUMBER:
DEFINITION: Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element.
The atomic number of an element is a whole number and is designated z. In a neutral atom
the number of protons must be equal to the number of electrons(since protons are positively
charged and electron are negatively charged).
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons in their nuclei (i.e.
they have the same atomic number). NO two elements have the same number of protons in
their atoms.
DEFINITION:
MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER): The mass number is the sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom of an element.
Mass number is represented by the letter A.
Mass number A = Number of protons + number of neutrons.
i.e. A = p + n. Where p=protons, n= neutrons.
Or number of neutrons n =A – Z.
An atom of an element can be described by writing its symbol together with its atomic
number and mass number.

Examples: The atom of carbon, oxygen and sodium can be written as 126C, 168O and2311Na
respectively.
EVALUATION:
(1) Define the following: (a) Atomic number (b) Mass number.
(2) Describe the atoms of the following elements using their symbol, atomic number and
mass number: (a) Phosphorus (b) Silicon (c) Calcium

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 WEEK 4: ELEMENTS CONTINUE
MOLECULES
DEFINITION: A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that normally exist alone and
still retain the chemical properties of that substance be it an element or a compound.
Some molecules can exist independently as single atoms e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Xe etc. Some
molecules may be made up of atoms of the same element e.g. a molecule of hydrogen is H2,
that of chlorine is Cl2, Oxygen is O2, phosphorus is P4, Sulphur is S8.Some molecules may be
made up of different elements e.g. a molecule of water is H2O, Methane is CH4, ammonia is
NH3, carbon (iv) oxide is CO2 etc.

ATOMICITY: Atomicity is the number of atoms in each molecule of an element.

Atomicity of some molecules
Element Formula of Atomicity
molecule
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 2
Ozone O3 3
Phosphorus P4 4
Sulphur S8 8
Chlorine Cl2 2
Neon Ne 1
Argon Ar 1
Tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid H2SO4 7
Amonium (NH4)2SO4 15
tetraoxosulphate(vi)

PERIOD 2: DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

In 1808 John Dalton proposed the following Atomic theory.
1. All elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed
3. Atoms of the same element are alike in every aspect, and differ from atoms of all other
elements.
4. When atoms combine with other atoms, they do so in simple ratios.
5. All chemical changes result from the combination or the separation of atoms.
MODIFICATIONS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
The following are the modifications to Dalton’s atomic theory.
1. All matter is made up of small particles, protons, neutrons and electrons.
2. An atom can be destroyed and created; when radioactive atoms disintegrate with the
emission of particles, new atoms are produced.
3. The atoms of the same elements are not all alike, but may have different masses as proved
by the phenomenon of isotopy.
4. In large organic molecules, such as proteins, fats and starch, the combining ratio are in
large whole number.
24
EVALUATION:
1. What are the three fundamental units of all matter? Give their relative masses and
charges.
2. Describe their relative positions to one another in an atom.
3. Name the two main part of an atom?
4. Mention the three subatomic particles in an atom.
5. Which particles are found in each part of the atom?
6. List three sub atomic particles with their corresponding charges.
7. State four Dalton’s atomic theory with their modifications.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. The simplest unit of Matter that retains its properties is called.
(a) an atom (b) an element (c) an hydroxide (c) a molecule
2. Of the basic particles that make up an atom, the one with the smallest mass is? (a) a
proton (b) a neutron (c) an x- particle (d) an electron
3. The following are physical changes except: (a) melting of candle wax (b) Dissolving
common salt in water (c) Freezing of water (d) Rotting of leaves.
4. Which of the following is not a molecule of the same element. (a) O2 (b) P4 (c) S8 (d)CO2
5. The atomicity of O3 is (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d )4
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Write four examples in each case of (a) Physical change (b) Chemical change
2. Define the following giving two examples in each case. (a) Atom (b) Ion
3. Write the symbols for proton, electron and neutrons.
4. Define atomicity giving two examples.
5. Write four Dalton’s atomic theory.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Write the electronic configuration of the first twenty element using the concept of K,L,M,N
and the sub-energy atomic level configuration i.e. s,p,d,f.

25
WEEK 5
TOPICS: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
CONTENTS:
1. Electronic configuration
2. Atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)
3. Relative atomic mass based on C-12 isotope
4. Isotopy of elements
PERIOD 1: ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electrons are found revolving around the nucleus of an atom in circular paths known as rings,
orbits, energy levels or shells. Each shell contains electrons with similar energy.Those with
the lowest energies being nearest to the nucleus.

3 (M shell)
Nucleus
2(L shell)
1 (K shell)
Thus, the arrangement of electrons in the atom according to energy is called ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION. Letters and figures are associated with these orbits or shells as shown
above. The maximum possible number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by the formula:
Nmax= 2n2. Where Nmax = Maximum no of electron. n= no, of shell.
Thus K- shell can contain 2 × 12 = 2 electrons.
L- Shell can contain 2 × 22 = 8 electrons.
M- Shell can contain 2 × 32= 18 electrons etc
The electron structures of the atoms of the first twenty elements are given in the table
below.

Element Symbo Number of protons(or Number of electrons

l atomic number) and their distribution
in the shells.
K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7
Neon Ne 10 2 8
26
 Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8
Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2

The electronic configurations of some elements are shown below:

Hydrogen, H (atomic number 1)
Electron k1
Nucleus

Helium, He(atomic number 2)

Electrons k2

Nucleus

Lithium, Li (atomic number 3).

K2 L1

Neon, Ne (atomic number 10)

K2L8
2,8

Sodium, Na (atomic number 11)

KLM
2 81

2, 8, 1
27
Argon, Ar (atomic number 18 )
K L M
2 8 8

2,8,8
Potassium, K (atomic number 19) KLMN
2881

2, 8, 8, 1
Calcium, Ca (atomic number 20)
K L MN
2 8 8 2

2,8,8,2
EVALUATION: Draw the electronic configuration of the following elements.
(a)Carbon (b) Fluorine (c) Aluminium (d) Nitrogen

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF ELEMENTS

The periodic table consist of some elements which are arranged in some pattern with respect
to certain properties. This order of arrangement is atomic number and which tells the
number of electrons contain in any atom. So, the element in the periodic table are arranged
in order of their atomic number.
The mode and pattern of arrangement of these electrons within each of the elements is
known as electronic configuration.
Since electrons occupies certain space called shell, and maximum number of electron in a
shell is 2n2 where n are whole numbers, the following types of shell can be obtained

When n = 1 = K shell
When n = 2 = L shell
When n = 3 = M shell
When n = 4 = N shell

28
The numbering of the shell starting from the innermost 1 and towards outside, that is, the
shell closest to the mulens is assigned number 1.
The electronic configuration of the first twenty elements in the periodic table is shown
below.

Element Symbol Atomic No Electronic Configuration

Hydrogen H 1 1S1
Helium He 2 1S2
Lithium Li 3 1S2 2S1
Beryllium Be 4 1S2 2S2
Boron B 5 1S2 2S2 2P1
Carbon C 6 1S2 2S2 2P2
Nitrogen N 7 1S2 2S2 2P3
Oxygen O 8 1S2 2S2 2P4
Fluorine F 9 1S2 2S2 2P5
Neon Ne 10 1S2 2S2 2P6
Sodium Na 11 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1
Magnesium Mg 12 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2
Aluminium Al 13 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P1
Silicon Si 14 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P2
Phosphorus P 15 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P3
Sulphur S 16 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P4
Chlorine Cl 17 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5
Argon Ar 18 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6
Potassium K 19 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S1
Calcium Ca 20 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2

However, for charged ion (cation and anion) there electronic configuration will be slightly
different from those of their corresponding neutral atoms. E.g
23 2 2 6 1
11 Na = 1S 2S 2P 3S (neutral)
23 + 2 2 6
10 Na = 1S 2S 2P (cation)

32 2 2 6 2 4
16 S = 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P (neutral)
32 2- 2 2 6 2 6
18 S = 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P (Anion)

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
This principle state that the filling of electrons into atomic orbital’s, orbital with the lowest
energy is filled first, followed by orbital with higher energy value.
The aufbau approach to the filling of electrons into orbital involves the use of a model which
enable someone to write down the electronic configuration of any atom for which the
atomic number is known.

29
 1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f
7s 7p 7d 7f

ORBITALS AND THEIR SHAPES

Further sub-divisions of shells or orbits or energy levels is known as orbitals which is located
within the energy levels of the atoms, that is the shell in the atom having orbitals within
them e.g

TYPES OF SHELL TYPES OF ORBITALS PRESENT

K 1s
L 2s 2p
M 3s 3p 3d
N 4s 4p 4d 4f

QUANTUM NUMBER
This is the location of an electron in any orbital. There are four types
1. Principal Quantum number (n): this explains the energy level in which electron is located.
The value are K,L,M,N 1,2,3,4 …….n where n= whole numbers
2. Azimuthal Quantum number (L): this governs the shape of the orbitals. S-orbital, p-orbital,
d-orbital and f-orbital
3. Magnetic Quantum number (m): this described the orientation in space of the orbital.
S-orbital – has one(1) degenerate orbital, hence 2e (two electron)
p-orbital - has three(3) degenerate orbital, hence 6e (six electron)
d-orbital - has five(5) degenerate orbital, hence 10e (ten electron)
f-orbital - has seven(7) degenerate orbital, hence 14e (fourteen electron)
4. Spin Quantum number: this describes the spin of electrons in the orbital and have value of
+ 1/2 or – 1/2 or ± 1/2

SHAPE OF ORBITALS
s- orbital: it is spherical in shape and has no orientation in space.

30
p-orbital: the orbital has a shape in which three possible orientations in space can be
obtained. It consist of three types of degenerate orbital with possible orientations of px, py
and pz called sub-orbital.

2px 2py 2pz

Differences between p-orbita and d-orbital

s/n p-orbital d-orbital
1 They have two lobes They have four lobes
2. They can accommodate They can accommodate ten
six electrons electrons
3. They have three They have five degenerated
degenerate sub-orbital sub-orbital
4. There lobes all lies on the There lobes do not lie on the
axis axis

HUND’S RULES
This state that in the filling of electrons into orbital, the orbital of the same energy are filled
first with single electrons before pairing can further takes place in them.
It can also be define as the maximum number of electron in any orbital must not be more
than two and each must point in opposite direction, that is, opposite spin.
It is the pictorial representation of electron arrangement into orbital. e.g
12 2 2 2
6 C = 1S 2S 2P

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz

23
11 Na = 1S2 2S2 2P6 3s1

1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s1

This rule however may not be strictly followed for the group O elements because they always
have complete OCTET SHELL

HYBRIDIZATION
This is the mixing of atomic orbital and electrons which are in the same energy level or shell
but not in the same type of orbital. The concept of hybridization of electron can purely

31
understood by using the pictorial representation of electrons distribution into orbitals
according to HUND’S RULE.
12 2 2 2
6 C = 1S 2S 2P
Ground state configuration

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

Excited state configuration
12
6 C

1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1

SP3 hybridization
14
7 N = 1S2 2S2 2P3
Ground state configuration

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

Excited state configuration
14
7 N

1s2 2s1 2px2 2py1 2pz1

SP2 hybridization

16
8 O = 1S2 2S2 2P4
Ground state configuration

1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1

Excited state configuration
16
8 O

1s2 2s1 2px2 2py1 2pz1

SP hybridization

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

State that no two electrons in the same atoms can have the same value for each of the four
quantum numbers. This principle further implies that no two electrons in any one atom
behave in exactly equal manner.

FORMATION OF IONS, VALENCY AND RADICALS

DEFINITION:
An ion is any atom or group of atoms which possess an electric charge.
Some substances are not built of atoms or molecules but are made up of charged particles
called ions. Ions are formed when an atom losses or gains electron.
32
There are two types of ions. The positively charged ions or cations e.g. K+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Al3+ etc.
they are formed when atoms loss electrons and negatively charged ions or anions which are
formed when atom gain electrons e.g. Cl-, N3-, O2-, S2- etc.
RADICALS: These are groups of atoms of different elements that come together and react as
a unit. These radicals are charged, that is, they either carry a positive or a negative charge.
An acid radical is thus a small group or cluster of atoms carrying a negative charge that keeps
its identity. These groups of atoms originate from the acids which have formed the salts. For
examples
Radical Symbol Valency Oxidation No
+
Ammonium ion NH4 1 +1
-
Hydroxyl ion OH 1 -1
2-
Trioxocarbonate (iv) CO3 2 -2
Tetraoxosulphate(vi) SO42- 2 -2
-
Trioxonitrate(v) NO3 1 -1

EVALUATION:
1. Differentiate between ions and radicals.
2. List four examples each of ions and radicals.
3. State the valences of the following radicals: (a) PO43-(b) MnO4-(c) C2O42-

33
WEEK 6:
ISOTOPY AND RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
Definition: Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby atoms of an element exhibit different mass
number but have the same atomic number.
Mass spectrometric studies show that the atoms of most elements exist in more than one
form. This is due to the difference in number of neutrons present in these atoms. Such atoms
are known as isotopes. Isotope of an element is represented by the original symbol of the
element with the mass number and atomic numbers. For example 126C, 136C, 146C represent
atoms of the isotopes of carbon. For each atom, the number of neutrons can be obtained by
finding the difference between the mass number A and the atomic number Z i.e. A – Z. Each
isotope of an element has its own mass known as isotopic mass.
Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties because neutrons
contribute only to the mass of an atom and not its chemical behavior. But isotopes of an
element exhibit the same chemical properties because the number of valence electrons in an
atom of an element determines its chemical behavior (properties) and since isotopes have
the same number of valence electrons they will be chemically alike.
NOTE:
(i) An analysis of the chlorine isotopes.
Isotope 3517Cl Isotope 3717Cl
Mass number, A 35 37
Atomic number,Z 17 17
Number of protons 17 17
Number of electrons 17 17
Number of neutrons (A-Z) 35 – 17=18 37 – 17=20
Abundance in nature (%) 75 25

ISOTOPES OF THE SAME ELEMENTS.

Element Carbon Oxygen
12 13 16 17 18
ISOTOPES 6C 6C 8O 8O 8O
ABUNDANCE IN NATURE (%) 98.9 1.1 99.76 0.04 0.20

(ii) The names of the isotopic forms of hydrogen

1
1H --- Protium (or hydrogen)
2
1H--- Deuterium (or heavy hydrogen or D)
3
1H--- Tritium or T
(iii) The relative atomic mass, RAM of an element which exhibits isotopy is the average mass
of its various isotopes as they occur naturally in any quantity of the element and they are not
usually in whole numbers.

34
CALCULATION INVOLVING ISOTOPY.
WORKED EXAMPLE:
Determine the relative atomic mass of element X from the data below
ISOTOPE MASS %ABUNDANCE
24X 24 78.70
25x 25 10.13
26
x 26 11.7

(24 × 78.70) + (25 × 10.13) + (26 × 11.17) = X

100

1888.8 + 253.25 + 290.42 =𝑋

100

2432.47 = 𝑋
100

∴ 𝑋 = 24.3247

≅ 24

1. An element X has two isotopes of 2010X and 2210X in the ratio 1:3. What is the relative
atomic mass?
Add ratio of occurrence together. 1 + 3= 4
(20 × 1) + (22 × 3) = 𝑋
4
20 + 66 = 𝑋
4
86 = 𝑋
4

X = 21.5
2. Isotopes of an element X have isotopic masses 65 and 63 respectively. If the relative
atomic mass of X is 63.60. Find the relative abundance of each isotope of the element.
Let the relative abundance of element X be y and Z respectively.
Z +Y =100
∴ Z = 100 – y....... (i)

(65 × 𝑦) + (63 × 𝑦) = 63.60

100
65y + 63z = 63.60 × 100
65y + 63z = 6360 ......(ii)
65y +63(100 – y) = 6360
65y – 63y + 6300 = 6360
2y = 60
35
 60
Y = = 30
2
Y= 30
Z = 100 – y= 100 – 30 = 70
Y = 30, Z = 70
The relative abundance of X = 30% 0f 65X and 70% of 63X

EVALUATION:
(a) How many neutrons are present on the isotopes of 4119X (45%) and 4019x(55%)
(b)Calculate the relative atomic mass of X.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES BASED ON C-12 ISOTOPE

Definition: The Relative Atomic Mass of an element is the number of times the average mass
of an atom of the element is heavier than one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon -12
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑓𝑋
RAM of an element= 1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
2
Thus the atom of carbon -12 is adopted as the standard for defining the relative atomic mass
of the other elements and is given a basic mass value of 12units.
The relative atomic mass of each element has been determined accurately with the aid of the
mass spectrometer. This instrument measures the masses of the isotopes of the elements
and their abundance and the relative atomic mass is calculated from the data.
Relative atomic masses of the first twenty elements in the periodic table
Element Atomic number Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen 1 1.008
Helium 2 4.0026
Lithium 3 6.939
Beryllium 4 9.0122
Boron 5 10.81
Carbon 6 12.011
Nitrogen 7 14.0067
Oxygen 8 15.9994
Fluorine 9 18.9884
Neon 10 20.183
Sodium 11 22.9898
Magnesium 12 24.312
Aluminum 13 26.9812

36
 Silicon 14 28.086

Phosphorus 15 30.9738
Sulphur 16 32.06
Chlorine 17 35.453
Argon 18 39.948
Potassium 19 39.102
Calcium 20 40.08
The relative atomic masses of the first twenty elements in the periodic table are given in the
table below.
EVALUATION: From the complete periodic table of elements write out the relative atomic
masses of (A) Magnesium (b) Oxygen (c) Chlorine (d) Carbon
GENERAL EVALAUATION
OBJECTIVES TEST :
1.The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the M-shell is. (a) 18 (b)
8 (c) 2 (d) 32
2.The atomic number of chlorine is (a) 17 (b) 18 (c) 20 (d) 7
3.Which of the following is an isotope of hydrogen?
(a)41H (b) 51H (c) 31H (d) 01H

ESSAY QUESTIONS
(1) Chlorine exists in two isotopic mixtures. The first has 17protons and 18 neutrons while
the second isotope has 17 protons and 20 neutrons. If the two isotopes are present in ratio
3:1 respectively, calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
(2)Show the electron structure of the following.
(a) Calcium (b) Magnesium (c) Sodium (d) Oxygen
(3) If the numbers of charged and unchanged particles in the centre of an atom are 6 and 7
respectively, what is the mass number of the atom?
(4) Calculate the number of neutrons in
(a) 2311Na (b) 3717Cl
(5) (a)What is an ‘isotopy’?
(b) Explain briefly why the chemical properties of isotopes of an element are similar.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT: Read about the topic ‘’mass spectrometer’’
WEEK ACTIVITY:
(a) Draw a labelled structure of a mass spectrometer showing its basic features. (b) Write
two features of a mass spectrometer.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read the topic ‘’symbols of elements’’ page 26 of New school Chemistry. By Osei Yaw
Ababio.
37
Week 7
PERIOD 1:COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
COMPOUND
A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined
together. A compound is formed as a result of a chemical change. It is a new substance with
entirely different properties from those of substances from which it is formed. For example
water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen chemically combined in the ratio 2:1 by mass
respectively. Other example of mass are sound, limestone, common salt, petrol, kerosene
etc.

VALENCY OF ELEMENTS
VALENCY
The valency of an element is the combining power of the element. It is defined as the
number of atoms of hydrogen that will combine with or displace one atom of the element in
chemical reactions. Some elements have more than one valency. For example.
First twenty elements with their valencies show this character.
Atomic Element Symbol Valency
Number
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He Nil
3 Lithium Li 2
4 Beryllium Be 2
5 Boron B 3
6 Carbon C 2 or 4
7 Nitrogen N 3 or 5
8 Oxygen O 2
9 Fluorine F 1
10 Neon Ne Nil
11 Sodium Na 1
12 Magnesium Mg 2
13 Aluminum Al 3
14 Silicon Si 2 or 4
15 Phosphorus P 3 or 5
16 Sulphur S 2, 4 or 6
17 Chlorine Cl 1
18 Argon Ar Nil
19 Potassium K 1
20 Calcium Ca 2

38
USING OF ION/VALENCY OF ATOMS TO FORM COMPOUNDS
Ca2+ + O2- - calcium will donate two electrons to oxygen while oxygen accept two
electrons to form CaO.
Al3+ + O2- - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Al2O3
C4+ + H+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
C1H4 ( CH4)
Mg2+ + Cl- - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Mg1Cl2 (MgCl2)

NO3- + Ca2+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Ca1(NO3)2 or Ca(NO3)2

SO42- + H+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
H2SO4

EVALUATION:
1. What do you understand by the word chemical symbol?
2. Define valency of an element.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Find out the valency of the following element.
(i)Gold (ii) Silver (iii) Zinc and copper

39
WEEK 8
OXIDATION NUMBER OF ELEMENTS
To be able to write correctly chemical formulae for compounds, a system of small whole
numbers, related to the combining ratio of element has been developed on the basis of
arbitrary rules. Such numbers are called oxidation numbers or oxidation states.
Rules for assigning oxidation number
1.The ON of an uncombined free element, whether monoatomic or polyatomic is zero; e.g.
Noble gases (He, Ne, etc), metals (Na, Zn, etc),solid non-metals (O3, N2, F2,etc)
2.The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal in magnitude and sign to its ionic
charge; e.g., the ON of bromide ion, Br-1, is -1; that of F+3, is +3.
3.The ON of hydrogen atom is +1 in its compounds, except in hydrides of metals (e.g. NaH),
where it is -1
4.For any neutral compound the sum of the ONs of all the atoms adds to zero.
5.The ON of oxygen in a compound is always -2 except in peroxides, H2O2, Na2O2, where it is -
1
6.In any radical, the sum of the ON of all the atoms is equal to the charge on its ion.
Worked examples on oxidation numbers
1.Calculate the ON of copper in Cu2O
Solution
Let y represents the ON of each copper atom.
ON of one hydrogen atom, O is -2.
In a neutral compound, sum of all ON is zero.
Therefore, in Cu2O: Cu2O
2y + (-2) = 0
2y = +2
y = +2/2 = +1
Thus, ON of a copper atom in Cu2O = +1

2.Determine the ON of X in X2O72-

Solution
ON of each O atom = -2
The net charge on the ion = -2
Therefore, in X2O72-
2X + 7(-2) = -2
2X – 14 = -2
2X = -2 + 14 = + 12
X = + 12/2 = +6
Therefore, ON of each X in X2O72- is +6
EVALUATION:
1. What do you understand by the term “oxidation number”.
2. States four rules guiding the derivation of oxidation number of elements.
3. Determine the oxidation number of the boldenedatoms in the following: (a) H2SO4
(b)Cr2O7(c)Fe2O3 (d) MnO4-
40
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
Chemical formula can be defined as a collection of two or more symbols to represent one
molecule of the compound. For example, the formula of tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid is H2SO4.
This formula shows that in a molecule of tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid, there are two atoms of
hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen.
The table below contain examples of compounds with their formulae
Compounds Formulae
Oxygen molecule O2
Hydrogen molecule H2
Hydrogen chloride HCl
Potassium chloride KCl
Magnesium MgSO4
tetraoxosulphate(VI)
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Bromine Molecule Br2
Ozone O3
EVALUATION
Write the chemical formulae of the following:
(1) Sodium oxide, Calcium oxide, aluminium oxide,
(2) Carbon(IV) oxide, iron(II) oxide, copper(I) oxide
(3) Sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI), Calcium trioxonitrate(V), magnesium trioxocarbonate(IV).

IUPAC SYSTEM OF NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Chemical compounds are named according to the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) system. In order to understand the basic principles behind the IUPAC
system, a good knowledge of the concept of Oxidation Number (ON) is very essential.
Concept of oxidation number
An oxidation number (ON) is a positive or negative number assigned to an atom according to
a set of rules. It is sometimes called Oxidation State.
Naming of inorganic compounds
1. Binary compounds. Binary compounds contain two elements only. The metal is named
first, followed by the name of the second element ending with –ide. If the metal is one that
has variable valencies, the valency exhibited will be written in Roman numeral examples are
given below:
Name of compounds
Formula Conventional Name IUPAC Name

Na2O Sodium oxide

Fe2O3 Iron (III) oxide
CO Carbon monoxide Carbon (II) oxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide Carbon (IV) oxide
N2O Nitrous oxide Dinitrogen (I) oxide
41
2. Radicals. In naming radicals, the last element is mentioned first with its number of atoms
given as mono (1), di (2), tri (3), tetra (4), penta (5), etc. The other element’s name ends with
–ate.
Formula Name

CO32- trioxocarbonate (iv) ion

MnO4- tetraoxomanganate (vii) ion
SO42- sulphate (vi) ion
NO3- Trioxonitrate (iv) ion

EVALUATION
Define oxidation number and, determine the ON of sulphur in SO32-
Give the IUPAC name of the following: (i) Al(NO3)3 (ii) MnO2 (III) CuSO4 .5H2O
What is the correct IUPAC name for NO2-?
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1.Which of these are found in the nucleus of an atom?
A. electrons and protons B. electrons and neutrons C. protons and neutrons D. photons and
electrons E. photons and neutrons.
2.The type of bond between two atoms of an element with atomic number 7 is? A. ionic B.
covalent C. hydrogen bond D. metallic bond E. coordinate covalent bond.
3.The ON of phosphorus, P in PH3is? A. +2 B. -3 C. -1 D. +3
4.Give the IUPAC name of the compound NO2. A. nitrogen dioxide B. nitrogen monoxide C.
nitrogen (II) oxide D. nitrogen (iv) oxide
5.Atomic number, Z, is the number of __________ in one atom an element. A. protons B.
neurons C. electrons D. atoms

ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. By means of a diagram, show the arrangement of electrons in one atom of Sodium.
2. The electronic configurations for the metal calcium, the non-metals silicon and chlorine
can be represented as:
Ca : 2, 8, 8, ; Si : 2, 8, 4 ; and Cl : 2, 8, 7. (a) Explain, in terms of electrons, the formation of
calcium chloride and silicon chloride. (b) Give two (2) differences in physical properties you
would expect between calcium chloride and silicon chloride.
3. Compare the characteristics of ionic with those covalent compounds.
Use this fig. to answer questions 4 and 5.

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Y W
J X
Q M Z

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(a) Which of the following pairs of letters denotes elements containing the same number of
electrons in their outermost shell?
(b) What letter presents an element that participates in covalent rather than ionic bonding?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio;
PRE–READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about States of matter, its kinetic theory and application.

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Week 9
MIXTURE:
A mixture is made up of two or more substances which can be mixed together, mechanically,
in any proportion. It can be said to contain two or more constituents which easily be
separated by physical method. Examples are air, soil, well water, tap water, milk, sweat,
blood etc.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
COMPOUNDS MIXTURES
1. Constituents are present in a Constituents can be mixed in any
fixed proportion by mass proportion
2. Constituents are joined by No chemical bond between
chemical bonds constituents
3. It is always homogeneous It may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous
4.The properties differ entirely The properties are the sum of those of
from those of its components its individual constituents
elements
5. Constituents of compounds Components of mixtures can be
cannot be separated by physical separated by physical means
means
EVALUATION:
1. Define and give one example of(a) homogeneous mixture (b) heterogeneous mixture
2. Describe an experiment to show that sea water is a mixture.
3. Explain why air is regarded as a mixture
PERIOD 2: SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS
They following methods are employed in the separation of a mixture of two solids:
1. Sieving
2. Magnetic separation
3. Sublimation
1. SIEVING: This is a method used to separate a mixture of two solids of different sizes. The
mixture is placed on a sieve with a mesh of a particular size. Particles smaller than the mesh
size of the sieve will pass through the sieve while the bigger particles remain on the sieve.
Sieving method is applied in the mining industries, gari making industries etc.
2. Magnetic separation: To separate magnetic solids from non-magnetic ones. This method
is used in the steel industry and to remove magnetic impurities from tin ore.
3. Sublimation: Solids which sublime are separated from other solids that sublime (i.e. they
turn directly from solid to gas and from gas to solid without turning to liquid) example are
Ammonium chloride, Aluminum chloride, Camphor, Iodine crystals, Solid CO2 (dry ice)

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Purification by sublimation

EVALUATION
1. (a) Define sublimation (b) Give three examples that can sublime
2. Give three applications of sieving as separation technique.

PERIOD 3: SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF AN INSOLUBLE SOLID AND A LIQUID.

1. DECANTATION: The mixture is allowed to stand for some time until it separates into two
distinct layers and an upper clear liquid layer. The clear liquid can be carefully poured or
decanted into a second container.
2. CENTRIFUGATION: This involves the use of a centrifuge to separate solid particles from a
liquid as shown in the diagram below. As the centrifuge spins the mixture, the solids
separates and settles at the bottom of the test tube while the liquids on the top layer can
easily be decanted.

3. FILTRATION:As shown below, the mixture is poured into s porous material (filter paper)
folded inside a funnel. The solid particle thatremains inside the liquid that drips through the
filter paper is known as the filtrate.

45
EVALUATION:
1. Explain briefly, how a mixture of sand and water can be separated.
2. Explain how plasma can be separated from blood.

PERIOD 4: SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID

1. Evaporation: Evaporation method is used to recover a solid solute from a solution in which
it is soluble to give a solution. The method is suitable if the solid has a high melting point i.e.
cannot be decomposed by heating.
Evaporation is based on the large different between the boiling points of the solid and
solvent. For example common salt can be recovered from its aqueous solution by complete
evaporation of water. The solvent(liquid) is usually sacrificed.

Evaporation process
Note: Evaporation method is not suitable for salts that can easily be destroyed by heating.
2. Crystallization: Crystallization is a method used to separate salts which decompose easily
on heating from their solutions. The salt solution (the mixture) is heated to drive away some
of the liquid (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) until
solution becomes concentrated or saturated. The concentrated solution remaining is allowed
to cool slowly resulting in the formation of crystals. Crystal formation can be induced by (i)
adding crystals of the same salt to serve as seed. (ii) Scratching the inside of the vessel
containing the solution.
Note: If all the liquid is evaporated a powder will be obtained and not crystals. This powder
might also contain impurities which otherwise would have remained in the solution and not
contaminate the crystals. Many crystals formed on cooling saturated solution contain water
which is chemically combined and loosely bonded to the crystals. This water is called water
of crystallization. Salts which contain water of crystallization are said to be hydrated. Those
which do not are anhydrous. Those are often powders.
EVALUATION:
1. Outline the processes involved in recovery of salt from its aqueous solution.
2. State one difference between crystallization and evaporation to dryness.
3.Give two ways of inducing the recovery of salt by crystallization.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A mixture of gari and stones can be separated by (a) filtration (b) centrifugation
(c) sieving (d) sublimation
2. A mixture of iodine crystals and common salt can be separated by. (a) Sublimation
(b) filtration (c) sieving (d) centrifugation
46
3. Sieving is a technique used to separate mixtures containing solid particles of (a) small sizes
(b) large sizes (c) the same sizes (d) different sizes
4. Which of the following methods can be used to separate a mixture of iron fillings and
sulphur? (a) Filtration (b) magnetization (c) sublimation (d) centrifuging
5. The following are subliming substances except (a)Ammonium chloride (b) sulphur
(c) Sodium chloride (d) Camphor
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Draw a clearly labeled diagram to illustrate separation of a mixture of chalk suspension.
2. Explain how a centrifuge machine works.
3. Explain using diagram how you would separate a mixture of sand and ammonium chloride.
4. List all the methods that can be used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
5. Fill in the gaps.
A porous material like _________ can be used to separate ______ particles from
___________. After separation the liquid is called ________ while the particles are called
____________.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about the industrial applications of distillation and fractional distillation.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
Mix sand and water together in a container. Allow it to stand for some minutes. What
method would you use to separate the sand from the water?

47
WEEK 10
TOPIC: STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURE
CONTENT:
1. SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID,
2. SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE LIQUIDS,
3. SEPARATING FUNNEL
4. CHROMATOGRAPHY

PERIOD 1: SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID:

1. FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZION:
This is a method used to separate a mixture containing different soluble solid solutes in a
liquid. The solubility of the different solid solutes in the given solvent must differ at different
temperatures. The process of separation is the same as in crystallization process. While
cooling the solution crystals of the relevant solid solutes will come out of the solution leaving
behind the others which are still within their limits of solubility.
2. PRECIPITATION (PHYSICAL): There are physical and chemical separation techniques
involving precipitation.
In physical precipitation, two solids that are soluble in the same solvent are separated by the
addition of another solvent in which one of the solids is insoluble, e.g. an aqueous solution of
common salts (sodium chloride) and green vitriol( a compound of iron). It is a method used
to separate a solid which has a difference in solubility in two different miscible liquids. For
example, ethanol and water are two miscible liquids. Iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) is soluble
in water but not in ethanol. On addition of ethanol to a solution containing a mixture of
iron(II)tetraoxosulphate and water, the iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) will be precipitated out
and can be separated by filtration.

PERIOD 2: SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE LIQUIDS

1. DISTILLATION
Distillation is the evaporation of water or other liquids from a solution and its recovery on a
pure state by condensation. The method of distillation is used to recover a solvent (liquid
from a solution mixture). That is, a pure liquid from an impure liquid(mixture). The apparatus
used are shown in the diagram below.
(a) Simple distillation process
A mixture of two liquids with widely differing boiling points can be separated by evaporating
one from the other and re-condensing it in a separate vessel. The process is called simple
distillation.
Distillation is carried out by condensing the vapour, using a condenser. The vapour which is
condensed and collected in a separate vessel is called the distillate.
At the end of the distillation process the liquid that is collected at the end of the Liebig
condenser is called the distillate. The solutes and other impurities are left behind in the
distillation flask.

48
Difference between evaporation and distillation
DISTILLATION EVAPORATION
Mainly obtaining the Mainly for obtaining
solvent salt from solution.
It involves boiling and It involves boiling only.
condensation
(b) Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation is a process used to separate or mixture of miscible liquids by a
repeated evaporation and condensation making use of fractionating column (as shown in the
diagram below)
Mixture of two or more miscible liquids are separated into, its component parts. The liquids
distil according to their boiling points starting with the liquid with the lowest boiling point.
The apparatus used is the same as in distillation except for the presence of a fractionating
column between the flask and the condenser.

Note: For efficient fractional distillation, the difference in the boiling points between
successive fractions must be more than 100c.
EVALUATION:
1. Explain briefly, the process of distillation.
2. Explain briefly, the process of fractional distillation.
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PERIOD 3.SEPARATING IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS (USING SEPARATING FUNNEL METHOD)
This a method used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids e.g. a mixture of petrol and
water. When the two liquids are added together they do not mix, instead they separate into
two distinct layers, a lower denser layer and an upper less dense layer in the funnel as below.

EVALUATION:
Draw a labeled diagram to show how you would separate a mixture of kerosene and water.
PERIOD 4: CHROMATOGRAPHY
Separating complex mixtures by chromatography: This is a method of separation of the
components of mixtures of solutes from a solution (mixture) using a solvent (liquid) moving
over a porous, adsorbent medium e.g. filter paper or gel. This method can be mixtures f
soluble substances. There are different types of chromatographic methods. Paper
chromatography (ascending paper chromatography), column chromatography, thin layer
chromatography and gas chromatography.
ASCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
As shown in the above diagram, the apparatus include: a glass jar with lid, filter paper, clips,
solvent (water or ethanol). The solution containing the mixture of solutes to be separated is
spotted unto the strips of paper near one end.

The paper is then suspended in a closed air- tight jar with the spotted end (but not the spot)
dipping into the solvent. As the solvent ascends the paper the different solutes in the mixture
gets dissolved and also more along the paper strip at different speeds and hence become
separated. The paper strip is removed from the jar when the solvent has moved about three-
quarters way up the strip. It is dried and if necessary sprayed with appropriate chemical
reagents to locate the positions of the various along the strip. Each solute can then be
50
identified by the distance it has traveled. This is done by comparing its distance with those of
known standard substances.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. Separating funnel is used to separate one of the following mixtures. (a) Ethanol and water
(b) Iodine and salt (c) petrol and water (d) sand and water
2. Fractional distillation of petroleum depends on differences in (a) Molar mass (b) densities
(c) freezing points (d) boiling point
3. Fractional distillation is used to separate (a) an insoluble substance from a soluble volatile
substance (b)substances which are absorbed differently and which differ in their solubility in
a solvent(c) Liquids with differing boiling points (d) Gas, Liquid or solid impurities from a
mixture
4. A mixture of sand, ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is best separated by.
(a) Sublimation followed by addition of water and filtration (b) Sublimation followed by
addition of water and evaporation (c) addition of water followed by crystallization and
sublimation.
5. Separating funnel is used for separating a mixture of (a) Liquids with different boiling
points (b) sediments of liquid. (c) Liquids with different colours. (d) liquids that are
immiscible
ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Name the most suitable physical method for each of the following. (a) Containing groundnut
oil from a mixture of the oil and water. (b) Obtaining pure water from sea water.
Draw the laboratory set up most suitable for each of the following. (a) Separating of a
mixture of palm oil and water (b) Separate of pure liquid from an impure liquid.
State one industrial application of each of the following methods of separation explaining
clearly the procedure. (a) crystallization (b) filtration (c) fractional distillation (d) evaporation
With the aid of a labelled diagram only show how pure sample of ethanol (alcohol) can be
obtained from a mixture of ethanol and water.
Why is sodium chloride solution regarded as a mixture? (b) Draw a labelled diagram to show
how pure sodium chloride can be obtained from its solution.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about recrystallization from page 5 of comprehensive certificate chemistry; write out
the procedures.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
Get some impure water in a container and try to purify it by using Alum. How will you
separate the pure liquid after the precipitating process?
FLOATATION:
Floatation method is based on the wide difference in the densities of the components of the
mixture. The method is used for the separation of a mixture of two solids in which one
component is light and the other is heavy. On the addition of a liquid in which neither is
soluble, one component sinks, while the other floats. e.g. a mixture of coarse sand and
wooden cork.

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PROCEDURE: Place the mixture in a beaker and add plenty of water. The sand particles sink,
while the wooden corks float.
FROTH FLOTATION (FROSTATION)
This method is specifically used to separate an ore of a metal from earthy impurities.
PROCEDURE: The ore is crushed into powder and then mixed with water containing
detergent, in order to cause frothing (foaming).
Air is then blown into the mixture so that the earthy impurities sink while the ore floats and
mixes with the foam. The ore is finally recovered from the foam
PURE AND IMPURE SUBTANCES: The following are the criteria for purity of chemical
substances.
DENSITY: The density of a pure substance is definite and constant, while that of an impure
substance higher than expected.
MELTING POINT: The melting point of a pure solid is sharp and definite. The presence of an
impurity lowers the melting point of a substance, and spread its melting point over a wide
range of temperature.

FREEZING POINT: The freezing point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite; the presence of an
impurity lowers the freezing point.
BOILING POINT: The boiling point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite. An impurity raises the
boiling point of a pure liquid.
PERIOD 4: TEST FOR PURITY
After separation of substances from mixtures, it is important to know if they are pure. A pure
solid should melt at a constant temperature. A pure liquid should boil at a constant
temperature. A pure dye should give only one spot on a chromatogram. The melting points
or boiling points of pure substances are fixed. These temperatures change if impurities are
present. To assess the purity of a substance its melting point (if it is a solid) or its melting

52
point ( if it is liquid) is determined (if the value obtained agrees with that given in a book of
data, then the substance is pure).
The apparatus below can be used to find the melting point of a solid.

The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes to liquid. The melting
point tube is very thin- a capillary tube- and the substance under test must be finely
powdered so that it can be packed into the capillary tube (melting point tube). The beaker
containing the oil is heated slowly and the oil stirred vigorously. If the solid is pure it will all
melt at a constant temperature. i.e. it will have a sharp melting point.
NOTE: If impurities are present the mixture will melt slowly over a range of temperatures
below the melting point of the pure solid.
EVALUATION:
1.How will you know that a given liquid is not pure?
DETERMINATION OF THE BOILING POINT OF LIQUIDS
(a) Flammable liquids (b) In flammable liquids
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.
The apparatus shown above can be used to find the boiling points of liquids.
A pure sample of liquid will boil at a fixed temperature and the reading on the thermometer
will remain constant. If the light is not pure it will boil over a range of temperature above the
boiling point of the pure liquid.
Impurities lower the melting point of a substance and raise its boiling point.
EVALUATION:
1.List five pieces of apparatus that are common to the determination of melting and boiling
points of a chemical substance.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The chromatographic separation of ink is based on the ability of the component to.
A: react with each other
B: react with the solvent
C: dissolve in each other in the column
53
D: move at different speeds in the column
2. The criteria to verify the purity of a solid substance are. I boiling point II melting point III
density IV refractive index
A: I, II B: II, III C: I, II, III D: I, II, III, IV
3. A pure dye will A: have a constant boiling point B: have many spots on a chromatogram
C:separate from camphor by evaporation method
4. A flammable liquid A: can be heated directly with flame when it is in a container.
5. The best method to separate a mixture of black ink is
A: floatation B: frostation C: ascending paper chromatography D: evaporation
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the term’ chromatography’. (b) Name the different types of chromatography
(c) Describe with the aid of a diagram how you would separate a mixture of inks.
2. (a) List three physical properties that are common criteria for purity of substances. (b) List
five pieces of apparatus that are common to the determination of melting and boiling points
of a chemical substances
3. (a) State the importance of the measurement of melting and boiling points. (b) Explain
briefly why salt is always sprinkled can the icy roads in countries where the temperature falls
below 273k.
4. Explain the following term briefly (i) floatation (ii) frostation
5. Draw a labelled diagram only to illustrate the determination of the boiling point of a
flammable liquid.

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