Materials Research Express

PAPER

A comparative study on the microstructures and mechanical properties

between surfacing nickel-based superalloy and surfacing cobalt-based
superalloy
To cite this article: Yufeng Xia et al 2019 Mater. Res. Express 6 096589

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 Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 096589 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab30b2

PAPER

A comparative study on the microstructures and mechanical

RECEIVED
18 April 2019
properties between surfacing nickel-based superalloy and surfacing
REVISED
19 June 2019
cobalt-based superalloy
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
9 July 2019
PUBLISHED
Yufeng Xia1 , Li Jin, Qian Cheng, Jiajun Tong, Kemin Zhang and Jingyu Zhang
19 July 2019 School of Material Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, People’s Republic of China
1
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: June11523@163.com

Keywords: nickel-based superalloy, cobalt-based superalloy, surfacing, microstructure, mechanical properties

Abstract
Surfacing gradient layers using different materials on the surface of die is an efficient way to improve
its service life, especially under extreme high temperature and high pressure. To obtain superior high-
temperature stability, a cobalt-based superalloy welding material, JLCo32 and a nickel-based
superalloy welding material, CHN327 were both designed in this study as surface layers which welded
on the die manufactured by bimetal-layer surfacing technology. Arc surfacing of the two kinds of
superalloy was conducted on ferrous alloys matrix, and ten cycles of heating to 700 °C with a speed of
2 °C s−1 followed by water quenching were operated to simulate the temperature cycles of dies in
service. Changes of the microstructures before and after cycles of heating and water quenching were
characterized by means of optical microscopy (OM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive
spectrometer (EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicated that, after ten
cycles of heating and water quenching, the major precipitates of JLCo32 were carbides and there were
more γ″ phases in CHN327. The mechanical properties of the surfacing layer were investigated by
microhardness tests and shear tests. High-temperature tensile tests at different temperatures were
performed to examine the high-temperature behaviour of these two kinds of superalloy. Experimental
results showed that, compared with CHN327, JLCo32 exhibits higher microhardness and more
reliable bonding with ferrous alloy matrix. For the two superalloys, microhardness near the welding
line tend to increase after cycles of heating and water quenching attributed to the diffusion of
strengthening elements. Furthermore, in comparison to CHN327, JLCo32 own superior yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength but inferior ductility.

1. Introduction

Die plays a significant role in the forming of difficult-to-deformation material which is widely used in
manufacturing important components of aerospace, automotive, machinery and so on [1]. Improving the
service life of dies becomes particularly important due to extreme forging conditions including high
temperature and high pressure [2]. Surface strengthening technologies including physical vapor deposition
(PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (PACVD) now is
widely used in strengthening dies [3–5]. Nevertheless, all these methods shows inferior performance while
fabricating or refabricating large hot forging dies owing to the low manufacturing efficiency and exorbitant cost.
Zhou et al proposed a new method called bimetal-gradient-layer surfacing method to fabricate die [6], which has
been employed to upgrade dies’ service life through welding ferrous alloys with high strength on casting-steel
matrix. Compared to traditional die manufacturing method, it has specific advantages such as short
manufacturing cycle, low cost and long service life. However, the new problem has been found that the hardness
of die surface would decrease and surface crack may occur after taking service for several times at high
temperature. Additionally, long-term cycles of heating, isothermal holding and cooling that bring large thermal

© 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd

Mater. Res. Express 6 (2019) 096589 Y Xia et al

shock and stress shock adversely affect the forming accuracy because of the poor high-temperature performance
of surface material [7].
Cobalt-based and nickel-based alloys are believed as appropriate surfacing materials due to their excellent
high-temperature stability, good wear and corrosion resistance [8, 9]. A range of cobalt-based superalloys and
nickel-based superalloys have been developed to meet the needs for high-temperature performance and applied
in surfacing technology extensively. Furthermore, a lot of efforts have been done to investigate the effects of
process and microstructure on these two superalloys. Oliveira et al found that PTA deposits exhibited better
microstructural stability than laser deposits through conducting a temperature cycling at 1050 °C on the cobalt-
based alloys deposited by PTA welding and laser cladding respectively [10]. Zhao et al have investigated the
microstructural stability of the new nickel-based superalloy, INCONEL alloy 740, and the results demonstrated
that the microstructure of this alloy maintained good thermal stability to at least 750 °C and the new alloy
exhibited higher ductility and higher tensile strength compared to NIMONIC alloy 263 [11]. High temperature
tensile properties and fracture behavior of cast nickel-based K445 superalloy was investigated by Yang et al
finding that the K445 alloy exhibits anomalous yield strength at medium high temperature and the secondary
hardening effect results in the high yield strength and fracture strength with better ductility [12]. However, most
studies on cobalt-based superalloys and nickel-based superalloys are based on casting, laser cladding, brazing,
and etc, and there is a lack of assessing the high-temperature performance of the two superalloys made by
surfacing technology.
In this paper, an improved method, ‘fist-like’ structure of forging die manufacturing, based on bimetal-
gradient-layer surfacing is put forward, aimed to solve the problems mentioned above. Through surfacing a
relatively soft material (as the ‘skin’) on the available forging die (as the ‘bone’) made by bimetal-gradient-layer
surfacing, the ‘fist-like’ die is obtained. It is expected that the ‘bone’ can support the whole structure under huge
load and the ‘skin’ can bear the high temperature which usually reaches 650 °C. Previous ferrous alloys surfaced
on the casting-steel matrix can be used for ‘bone’ because of their pretty stiffness. To select an appropriate
surface material for the expected die with ‘fist-like’ structure, a cobalt-based superalloy welding material,
JLCo32 and a nickel-based superalloy welding material, CHN327 were both designed as the ‘skin’ layers. This
cobalt-based superalloy was welded on the matrix through two layers of ferrous alloys with different hardness to
simulate the fabrication of the ‘fist-like’ die. The same process was done to this nickel-based superalloy. Heat
treatments were conducted to simulate the heating and cooling of dies in service. By studying the
microstructures and mechanical properties of two superalloys before and after heat treatments, their high-
temperature stability as well as the combination with ferrous alloy was assessed.

2. Experiment procedures

2.1. Materials and surfacing process

A block of casting steel with the size of 240×240×150 mm were applied for the matrix of the die with ‘fist-
like’ structure, on which a ferrous alloy (RMD142) with a hardness of about 300 HV and a ferrous alloy
(RMD248) with a hardness of about 500 HV were welded using gas metal arc welding (GMAW) by a ZX5-250
type DC welder with a welding speed of 3 mm s−1 in turn. Argon and carbon dioxide with a 4:1 ratio were
employed as the protective atmosphere and the welding preheating temperature of the matrix is 300 °C. Two
groups of surfacing samples were prepared on the same matrix. Subsequently, on the basis of the two groups of
‘bone’ layers, a cobalt-based superalloy welding material, JLCo32 and a nickel-based superalloy welding
material, CHN327 were welded separately, as shown in figure 1. The chemical composition of RMD248, JLCo32
and CHN327 is listed in tables 1–3 respectively. Then an isothermal holding at 550 °C for 1 h followed by cooling
in furnace was performed as post-weld heat treatment (HT 1). HT 1 is the normal heating treatment for dies
fabricated by bimetal-layer surfacing technology [13]. Ten cycles of heating to 700 °C with a speed of 2 °C s−1
followed by water quenching (HT 2) was conducted to simulate the temperature cycles during service process of
dies. The experimental scheme is based on the highest temperature of the large hot forging die in service and the
cooling effect of lubricant on the die.

2.2. Microstructural experiment and mechanical properties test

To investigate the microstructural changes of the two superalloys before and after HT 2, metallography samples
of cobalt-based superalloy and nickel-based superalloy were cut from the ‘fist-like’ dies model and were
polished, then the cobalt-based superalloy and the nickel-based superalloy were etched in HCl:H2O2 solution in
volume ratio of 4:1 and in HNO3:HCl solution in volume ratio of 2:1, respectively. Microstructure of the ‘skin’
layers and their fusion line with ‘bone’ layer before and after HT 2 were characterized by an OLYMPUS GX-41
type microscope. The alloys phases were identified using a Rigaku D/max 2500PC x-ray diffractometer with
CuKα radiation in the 2θ range of 10°–90°. A distribution feature of some of the elements near the fusion line

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram and dimensions of surfacing sample.

Table 1. Chemical composition of RMD248 (wt%).

C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo Al W V Fe

0.25 1.61 0.72 0.013 0.004 1.5 5.51 1.69 0.21 1.04 0.24 Bal.

Table 2. Chemical composition of JLCo32 (wt%).

C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo Fe W Co

0.21 1 1 0.016 0.007 2.35 27.5 8.75 1.58 0.1 Bal.

Table 3. Chemical composition of CHN327 (wt%).

C Mn Si P S Cu Cr Mo Nb+Ta Fe Ni

0.034 2.64 0.37 0.003 0.009 0.02 15.89 1.3 3.2 7.74 Bal.

was analyzed and the fracture surfaces of tensile specimens were observed using a TESCAN VEGA 3 LMH
scanning electron microscope equipped with the Energy Dispersive Spectrometer and a TESCAN VEGA 3 LMH
scanning electron microscope, respectively.
Vickers microhardness of each superalloy before and after HT 2 was tested within the range of 5 mm from
the fusion line with the load of 1000 g and the dwell time of 10 s by an HVS-1000z type hardness tester in
accordance with ISO 6507-1: 2005. The spacing distance between two indentations is 0.25 mm within the range
of 2 mm from the fusion line, 0.5 mm in other regions. The shear strength between ‘skin’ layer and ‘bone’ layer
before and after HT 2 was assessed by shear tests on a CMT5105 universal tester in accordance with ISO 8749:
1986. The shear position is at the fusion line of the two materials. High-temperature tensile tests of each
superalloy were conducted by a WDW-100 type universal tester at 600 °C, 650 °C, 700 °C, 750 °C and 800 °C
with a strain rate of 0.01/s in accordance with ISO 783: 1989.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microstructure morphology

3.1.1. Microstructure of cobalt-based superalloy
The microstructures of cobalt-based superalloy are shown in figure 2. Figure 2(a) is the microstructure
morphology of JLCo32 after HT 1. Typical dendritic structure was recognized. The prime phase is γ matrix and
carbides which are the major strengthening phases, disperse in the grains and grain boundaries. Figure 2(b)

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Figure 2. Microstructure of JLCo32: (a) after HT 1; (b) after HT 2; (c) fusion line between JLCo32 and RMD248 after HT 1; (d)
columnar grain structure.

Figure 3. XRD patterns of JLCo32 before and after HT 2.

shows the general view of the cobalt-based superalloy after HT 2. After the cycles of high temperature heating
and water quenching, more carbide chains are observed in interdendritic regions. XRD patterns of the cobalt-
based superalloy before and after HT 2 are shown in figure 3. According to the XRD results, the main phase in
JLCo32 treated by HT 1 is identified as M7C3 and M23C6. After HT 2, it is found that multiple times of high
temperature heating below melting temperature and water quenching lead to the transformation from M7C3 to
M23C6 solid solution and the increase of carbides. Besides, recrystallized grains can be clearly seen in the picture.

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Figure 4. Changes of the contents of strengthening elements in JLCo32: (a) Cr; (b) Mo.

The occurrence of recrystallized grains suggests the presence of thermal stress during the HT 2, leading to a high
density of dislocations which is the driving force for recrystallization [14].
A general view of fusion line between ‘skin’ layer (JLCo32) and ‘bone’ layer (RMD248) after HT 1 is displayed
in figure 2(c). It is distinctly seen that interface between ‘skin’ layer and ‘bone’ layer is uneven and the
interpenetration of alloys happens. It is thought that smaller difference in the atomic radius of Co (1.25 Å) and
Fe (1.26 Å) contributes to a lighter lattice distortion caused by atom replacement between Co and Fe, bringing
about a secure metallurgical bonding between these two alloys [15]. Figure 2(d) shows that the growth direction
of some dendrites is perpendicular to the interface appreciably owing to the cooling effect of matrix. Although
the preheating of matrix eases the directional growth of dendrites to some extent, heat mostly dissipates in the
normal direction of the interface. The microstructures of surfacing layer essentially depend on the solidification
rate Vs and temperature gradient at the solid/liquid interface G, and G/Vs is the critical controlling parameter to
determine the feature of solidification microstructure [16]. During the solidification of surfacing layer, the closer
the region is to the interface, the faster the heat dissipation and temperature gradient G in the normal direction
will be. The region near the interface prefers to form the columnar grain structure since the ratio of G/Vs is
rather great and the region where the ratio of G/Vs is relatively small tends to form the equiaxed grain structure.
Thus finer equiaxed grains can be found as the distance to the interface increases.
Figure 4 presents the EDS analysis result of JLCo32 in an area 2 mm off the welding line before and after HT
2. According to the results, limited element diffusion is identified. This area is found to undergo a marked rise of
the content of Cr and Mo after HT 2, and Cr and Mo are deemed to have a positive effect on the strength and
hardness of alloys. During the high-temperature heating, the atoms of Cr, Mo and other alloying elements in
alloys can diffuse more easily with the increase of atomic activity. During the process of surfacing, the difference
in strengthening element concentration between the two alloys caused a lower content of strengthening element
in the region near the interface in superalloy compared to other regions. These strengthening elements with
higher concentration in other regions would move towards the interface, causing the increase in Cr and Mo near
the interface.

3.1.2. Microstructure of nickel-based superalloy

As shown in figure 5(a), the microstructures of CHN327 after HT 1 are mainly consisted of γ phases, on which
fine carbide particles a few γ″-Ni3Nb phases are dispersed. Significant changes in the microstructures of
CHN327 after HT 2 can be estimated in figure 5(b), the number of dispersed γ″ phases increases significantly.
And there is no appreciable change in the number of carbide particles. And according to the XRD results shown
in figure 6, the carbides are identified to be M7C3 and M23C6. Figure 5(c) depicts the fusion line between ‘skin’
layer (CHN327) and ‘bone’ layer (RMD248) after HT 1, where a straight dividing line between the two alloys can
be distinguished, and no obvious interpenetration is observed.
The EDS results of CHN327 obtained from an area 2 mm off the welding line are shown in figure 7. More Cr
element is detected and a slight rise of Mn element takes place after HT 2, indicating that the reason for the
accumulation of strengthening elements of nickel-based superalloy in the area near the welding line is similar to
that for cobalt-based superalloy.

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Figure 5. Microstructure of CHN327: (a) after HT 1; (b) after HT 2; (c) fusion line between CHN327 and RMD248 after HT 1.

Figure 6. XRD patterns of CHN327 after HT 2.

3.2. Mechanical properties

3.2.1. Microhardness and shear strength
Surface hardness is an important factor to determine the wear resistance of die, which depends on both the
composition and the microstructures of surface material [17]. The Vickers microhardness distribution of the
two ‘skin’ layers in an area 5 mm from the welding line under different condition are shown in figure 8. It can be
confirmed that the microhardness of this cobalt-based superalloy is higher than the nickel-based superalloy
whether before or after HT 2. The data shown in figure 8(a) indicates that the average microhardness value of the

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Figure 7. Changes of the contents of strengthening elements in CHN327: (a) Cr; (b) Mn.

Figure 8. Changes of Vickers microhardness of ‘skin’ layers: (a) JLCo32; (b) CHN327.

JLCo32 welding material before HT 2 is 327 HV and the microhardness near the interface is lower appreciably
than other regions. To some extent, it can be deemed that the rapid solidification rate of alloy near the matrix
inhibits the precipitation of carbides (M7C3, M23C6) which are the main strengthening phases of cobalt-based
alloys during surfacing, leading to the difference of microhardness in different areas. In addition, the increasing
microhardness of ‘skin’ layer (JLCo32) can be attributed to the increase of carbides after multiple high
temperature heating and water quenching, in which situation dislocation is obstructed by carbide particles [18].
Meanwhile, according to the EDS analysis results discussed above, the diffusion of the strengthening elements,
Cr and Mo from other regions causes the increase of microhardness of ‘skin’ layer near the welding line.
As it can be seen in figure 8(b), the average microhardness value of the CHN327 welding material before HT
2 is about 200 HV. The microhardness of ‘skin’ layer (CHN327) in an area 2 mm from the welding line raises
approximately by 10% after HT 2, which can be attributed to the diffusion of alloy elements, including Cr, Mn,
and etc. The other microhardness tests results indicate that the microhardness of the ‘skin’ layer within the range
of 2 mm to 5 mm from the ‘bone’ layer (RMD248) is not sensitive to the HT 2. Although the precipitation of the
γ″-Ni3Nb phase can enhance the hardness of nickel-based superalloy for CHN327 [19], the precipitation of the γ
″ phase would consume the Nb element which have significant impact on the solution strengthening of alloys.
This may be the reason why no obvious improvement of microhardness can be observed.
Shear tests were utilized to evaluate the bonding strength between ‘skin’ layer and ‘bone’ layer. For these two
superalloys, the bonding behaviors with ferrous alloy display different responses to the HT 2, as shown in
figure 9. As expected, the shear strength of the interface between JLCo32 and RMD248 before HT 2 is superior
apparently than that between CHN327 and RMD248. It is because that the interface between CHN327 and
RMD248 is uneven, where ‘skin’ layer and ‘bone’ layer interpenetrates each other, compared to the other one. In

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Figure 9. Changes of shear strength between ‘skin’ layer and ‘bone’ layer: (a) JLCo32; (b) CHN327.

addition, the shear strength of the interface with ferrous alloy of both two superalloys rises approximately by
11% after HT 2. In terms of EDS results, limited element diffusion during HT 2 enhances the strength of material
near the interface through improving the distribution of alloy elements which play an active role in solid solution
strengthening and carbide dispersion strengthening. It is the reason why the bonding strength with ferrous alloy
of both two superalloys has a trend to increase under the effects of HT 2.

3.2.2. High-temperature tensile tests results

To assess the mechanical properties of two superalloys at high temperature, high-temperature tensile tests were
conducted and the variation trends of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation with temperature
are depicted in figure 10. As shown in figure 10(a), the yield strength of JLCo32 increases slightly with
temperature and gets a peak value of 614 MPa at 700 °C. It is believed that the presence of a number of fine
carbides (M7C3, M23C6) in JLCo32 could inhibit the sliding of grain boundaries at high temperature, bringing
about the excellent performance in yield strength [20]. Figure 10(b) shows that the ultimate tensile strength of
JLCo32 tends to increase with increasing temperature and reaches the maximum value at 700 °C before
decreasing again as the temperature increases further. Therefore, it can be concluded that the temperature at
which the optimum strength occurs for JLCo32 is near 700 °C. The increase in yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength from 600 °C to 700 °C is caused by the precipitation of more carbides which can perform as the
obstacles to suppress the dislocations during high temperature deformation. Then the aggravated softening of γ
matrix and dissolution of carbides with increasing temperature is responsible for the decrease of tensile strength
at higher temperature [21]. It is worthwhile mentioning that JLCo32 has terrible performance in tensile
elongation at 600 °C–800 °C, shown in figure 10(c). It can be deduced that the ductility of JLCo32 is particularly
poor during high temperature deformation. To investigate the reasons for low ductility of JLCo32 at high
temperatures, SEM images of fracture morphology are collected. Figure 11(a) shows the fracture surfaces of
tensile specimens tested at 600 °C, which is generally considered to be characteristic of intergranular fracture.
Carbide precipitates are dispersed in the matrix and grain boundaries are decorated with carbide particles which
contribute to the brittleness of grain boundaries. Voids are initiated around the precipitates, and their growth
and coalescence along grain boundaries lead to final cracks. The observation on the specimen tested at 800 °C
reveals that carbides are dissolved partially with the increase of temperature. The observation described above
demonstrates that carbide particles are possible reasons for the poor ductility of JLCo32. On the other hand, the
existence of carbides which make the movement of dislocation more difficult is beneficial for the production of
dimples and provides strong strengthen effect [22].
Figures 10(a) and (b) show that CHN327 does worse than JLCo32 in yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength, but has a similar variation tendency. For CHN327, the peak values of strength and ultimate tensile
strength are 355 MPa and 550 MPa respectively, both appearing in 650 °C. Most of investigations carried out
before suggest that the γ″-Ni3Nb precipitates is quite important to the strengthening of alloys. Because the
Burgers vectors of these dislocations in γ″ precipitates are bigger than those in other structures such as γ, the
dislocations prefer to bypass the γ″ precipitates. And it is believed that the strength of γ″ phase increases with rise
in temperature, which is similar to γ′ phase. The γ″ precipitates and some carbides (M7C3, M23C6) were

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Figure 10. High-temperature tensile performance of two superalloys: (a) yield strength; (b) ultimate tensile strength; (c) elongation.

generated during surfacing and HT 1. The increase in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength from 600 °C to
650 °C can be attributed to the beneficial strengthening effect of the γ″ precipitates during high-temperature
tensile that compensates the decrease in strength of the γ matrix. At a higher temperature, owing to similar
reasons as stated for JLCo32, adding the transformation from γ″ to δ-Ni3Nb phase during the tensile
deformation at high temperature [23], the stress along the grain boundary exceeded the bearability of superalloy.
Then the dislocations began to shear the γ″ phase simultaneously, so that the tensile strength decreased gradually
with the increase of temperature [12, 24]. On the other hand, the elongation of CHN327 shows an irregular
change between 600 °C and 800 °C. All elongation values are close to each other, which indicate that CHN327
performs a superior ductility in comparison to JLCo32 at high temperature. By means of observing fracture
morphology by SEM, the fracture mechanism of CHN327 tensile specimens is demonstrated. As illustrated in
figure 11(c), mixed-rupture characteristics of quasi-cleavage and dimples can be found in the specimen tested at
600 °C and 800 °C. This indicates that, the fracture mode of CHN327 at high temperature presents a mix of
ductile fracture and quasi-cleavage fracture. Figures 11(e) and (f) display the quasi-cleavage fracture and dimple
fracture of specimen tested at 800 °C, respectively. There is a trend that the dimples become bigger with
increasing temperature, and begin to polymerize between each other and formed larger holes.

4. Conclusions

In this work, a cobalt-based superalloy welding material, JLCo32 and a nickel-based superalloy welding material,
CHN327 were employed to fabricate the ‘skin’ layers of dies with ‘fist-like’ structure by arc surfacing. The
microstructures and mechanical properties of the ‘skin’ layers before and after ten cycles of heating to 700 °C
with a speed of 2 °C s−1 followed by water quenching were studied. High-temperature tensile tests were also
conducted to investigate the high-temperature behavior of these two superalloys. The main conclusions are
summarized as follows:

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Figure 11. High-temperature tensile fractures of two superalloys at different temperatures: (a) JLCo32 at 600 °C; (b) JLCo32 at
800 °C; (c) CHN327 at 600 °C, mixed-rupture characteristics of quasi-cleavage and dimples; (d) CHN327 at 600 °C, dimples; (e)
CHN327 at 800 °C, quasi-cleavage fracture morphology; (f) CHN327 at 800 °C, bigger dimples.

(1) After ten cycles of heating and water quenching, a mount of carbides precipitates (M7C3, M23C6) from the γ
matrix of JLCo32, and the γ″-Ni3Nb phases in CHN327 have a trend to increase. Limited element diffusion
happen in both two superalloys in an area 2 mm from fusion line under the effect of cycles of heating and
water quenching.

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(2) JLCo32 exhibits a superior microhardness than CHN327, and two superalloys have undergone a slight rise
of microhardness in an area 2 mm from fusion line after ten cycles of heating and water quenching due to
the diffusion of strengthening elements. The cycles of heating and water quenching also lead to an
improvement in microhardness of JLCo32 in other regions near the fusion line, whereas there was no
change on CHN327. JLCo32 exhibits a better combination with matrix (RMD248) than CHN327, and the
diffusion of strengthening elements lead to an increase of bonding strength with matrix for both two
superalloys.
(3) The high-temperature tensile tests results show that JLCo32 demonstrates higher yield strength and
ultimate tensile strength compared to CHN327 at all tested temperatures from 600 °C to 800 °C. However,
the ductility of JLCo32 is significantly inferior to that of CHN327. The yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength of both JLCo32 and CHN327 exhibit anomalous variation tendency in the high temperature range
600 °C to 800 °C that increase firstly and then decline due to the influences of precipitation phases.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully appreciate the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 51775068) and graduate research and innovation foundation of Chongqing, China (Grant No. CYB18007).

ORCID iDs

Yufeng Xia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1737-7344

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