CHAPTER 2:-

LITERATURE REVIEW

In my literature review I have studied near about 200 research papers and research theses. For
better understanding I divided these papers into four parts as;
PART: 1
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESS REVIEW:
Chatpalliwarl, Deshpande, Modak and Thakur (2011) described the brief overview of the
Biodiesel production plant. Various issues- sources, opportunities, challenges, plant design, and
evaluation etc. are discussed related to the Biodiesel production. Important contribution of the
presented work is- it discusses the important issues concerned with the Biodiesel production
plant design, it provides the fundamental details required for the formulation of Biodiesel plant
design problem, also it presents possible approach for the mathematical model to evaluate the
Biodiesel plant design [3].

Gulab N. Jham et al.(2009) research on wild mustard (Brassica juncea L.) oil is evaluated
as a feedstock for biodiesel production. Biodiesel was obtained in 94 wt.% yield by a standard
transesterification procedure with methanol and sodium methoxide catalyst. Wild mustard oil
had a high content of erucic(13(Z)-docosenoic; 45.7 wt.%) acid, with linoleic (9(Z), 12(Z)-
octadecadienoic; 14.2 wt.%) and linolenic (9(Z), 12(Z),15(Z)-octadecatrienoic; 13.0 wt.%) acids
comprising most of the remaining fatty acid profile. The cetane number, kinematic viscosity, and
oxidative stability (Rancimat method) of the methyl esters was 61.1, 5.33 mm2 s-1 (40 _C) and
4.8 h (110 _C), respectively. The cloud, pour and cold filter plugging points were 4, -21 and -3
_C, respectively. Other properties such as acid value, lubricity, free and total glycerol content,
iodine value, Gardner color, specific gravity, as well as sulfur and phosphorous contents were
also determined and are discussed in light of biodiesel standards ASTM D6751 and EN 14214.
In summary, wild mustard oil appears to be an acceptable feedstock for biodiesel production [9].

Hamed M. El-Mashad et al. (2008) investigated on Salmon oil, a by-product of salmon

processing, was used as a feedstock for biodiesel production via transesterification in a two-step
process. Two different types of salmon oil were tested: salmon oil extracted from acidified

4
salmon hydrolysate and salmon oil extracted from salmon by-products. Optimal amounts of
chemicals required to give the highest biodiesel yield from each oil were determined using batch
production procedures. It was found that due to the high acid value of salmon oil, alkaline-
catalysed transesterification was not an effective method for producing biodiesel from the
salmon oil. Therefore a two-step process was applied, in which a sulphuric acid-catalysed
pretreatment was used in the first step to reduce the acid value from 12.0 to 3mg [KOH] g [oil]_1
and then, in the second step, KOH-catalysed transesterification was applied. All experiments
were performed at a temperature of 5272 1C with a mixing intensity of 600 rpm. Based on the
total weight of salmon oil used, the maximum biodiesel yield of 99% was achieved using a total
methanol/molar ratio of 9.2% and 0.5% (w/w) KOH. Ester loss due to the formation of emulsion
during the washing and drying steps was 15% maximum. This loss could be reduced in practical
applications by better design of washing and drying techniques. A preliminary economic analysis
showed that the cost of biodiesel production from salmon oil was almost twice that produced
from soybean oil [10].
Hanifa Taher, et al.(2011) evaluated the microalgae oil extraction is a major step in the
overall biodiesel production process. Recently, supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) has been
proposed to replace conventional solvent extraction techniques because it is nontoxic,
nonhazardous, chemically stable, and inexpensive. It uses environmentally acceptable solvent,
which can easily be separated from the products. In addition, the use of SC-CO2 as a reaction
media has also been proposed to eliminate the inhibition limitations that encounter biodiesel
production reaction using immobilized enzyme as a catalyst. Furthermore, using SC-CO2 allows
easy separation of the product. In this paper, conventional biodiesel production with first
generation feedstock, using chemical catalysts and solvent-extraction, is compared to new
technologies with an emphasis on using microalgae, immobilized lipase, and SC-CO2 as an
extraction solvent and reaction media [11].
Md. Imran Kais, Farsad Imtiaz Chowdhury, Kazy Fayeen Shahriar (2011) research in
Bangladesh and focuses on algae cultivation in Bangladesh. A lab scale production of Chlorella
and Botroyococcus braunii was executed in open pond and bioreactor system. Then diesel was
produced by transesterification from collected algae oil. Later data was collected from this
experiment. Cost analysis was prepared to get a clear concept of the actual scenario of algae fuel

5
probability. This study indicates high potentiality of algae based fuel to be used in Bangladesh
replacing diesel for energy production. It can be a model for any third world country to mitigate
the energy crisis with a greener solution [23].

Matt Johnston1 et al. (2011) examined both the magnitude and spatial variation of new
agricultural production potential from closing of ‗yield gaps‘ for 20 ethanol and biodiesel
feedstock crops. With biofuels coming under increasing pressure to slow or eliminate indirect
land-use conversion, the use of targeted intensification via established agricultural practices
might offer an alternative for continued growth. We find that by closing the 50th percentile
production gap essentially improving global yields to median levels—the 20 crops in this study
could provide approximately 112.5 billion liters of new ethanol and 8.5 billion liters of new
biodiesel production. This study is intended to be an important new resource for scientists and
policymakers alike—helping to more accurately understand spatial variation of yield and
agricultural intensification potential, as well as employing these data to better utilize existing
infrastructure and optimize the distribution of development and aid capital [22].

Piyanuch Nakpong and Sasiwimol Wootthikanokkhan (2009) was investigated the

production of biodiesel from three mixtures of vegetable oil and used cooking oil by alkali-
catalyzed transesterification. Three kinds of vegetable oils, including jatropha, roselle and
coconut oils were tested. The effect of used cooking oil content in oil feedstock (used cooking
oil/vegetable oil ratios of 0.03-0.2 v/v) on methyl ester formation was investigated and
optimized. The methyl ester content from each reaction condition was determined by gas
chromatography (GC). The optimum used cooking oil/vegetable oil ratio was 0.03 v/v for all
three kinds of oil feedstock. At this ratio, the methyl ester content of three kinds of biodiesel
were higher than the minimum limit set for Thai biodiesel (B100) specification. The measured
properties of three biodiesel products were within the limit prescribed by Thai standards, except
for the lower viscosity of biodiesel produced from coconut-used cooking oil mixture. However,
it was very close to that of Thai petroleum diesel [28].

S.L.Sinha And R.K.Yadav (2010) investigated, the bio-diesel produced from the jatropha
seeds have been considered as a potential alternative for running the compression ignition

6
engines. The different blends of bio-diesel and conventional diesel have been tested on the
engine. The experimental data obtained for various concentrations of bio-diesel blends have been
compared with base line data of conventional diesel. Significant improvement in engine
performance has been observed due to the use of bio-diesel. Acceptable thermal efficiencies of
the engine have been obtained with different blends of bio-diesel and diesel. It has been observed
that 20% of jatropha oil can be substituted for diesel without any engine modification and
preheating of the blends. The level of hydrocarbon emission and noise level have been found to
be reduced with the use of more bio-diesel content [32].

Sangat Johar and Kevin Norton(2011) describe the need for increasing renewable and
alternative energy in the global energy mix has been well recognized by Governments and major
scientific forums to reduce climate change impact for this living planet. Biodiesel has very high
potential for GHG emission reduction. An innovative process developed in Canada provides a
solution to mitigate the feedstock, yield and quality issues impacting the industry. The BIOX
process uses a continuous process which reduces reaction times, provides > 99% yield of high
quality biodiesel product. The process is feedstock flexible and can use cheaper higher FFA
nonedible feedstock providing a sustainable approach for biodiesel production [31].

Ulf Schuchardt et. al. (1998) reviewed the transesterification of vegetable oils with
methanol as well as the main uses of the fatty acid methyl esters. The general aspects of this
process and the applicability of different types of catalysts (acids, alkaline metal hydroxides,
alkoxides and carbonates, enzymes and non-ionic bases, such as amines, amidines, guanidines
and triamino(imino)phosphoranes) are described. Special attention is given to guanidines, which
can be easily heterogenized on organic polymers. However, the anchored catalysts show leaching
problems. New strategies to obtain non-leaching guanidine-containing catalysts are proposed.
Finally, several applications of fatty acid esters, obtained by transesterification of vegetable oils,
are described [34].

Yii-Der You et al. (2007) the economic costs of three biodiesel plants with capacities of
8000, 30 000, and 100 000 tons year-1 were analyzed and assessed. The plants employ

7
continuous processes using an alkali catalyst and the raw material of soybean oil. Six major
economic cost factors were computed and examined. These include the fixed capital cost (FCC),
total capital investment cost (TCC), total manufacturing cost (TMC), net annual profit after taxes
(NNP), after-tax rate of return (ARR), and biodiesel break-even price (BBP). The NNP and ARR
of plants with capacities of 8000, 30 000, and 100 000 tons year-1 are -24 × 103, 1975 × 103,
and 8879 × 103 U.S. dollars (USD), and -10.44, 40.23, and 67.38%, respectively. The values of
BBP of the three plants are 862, 724, and 678 USD ton-1 (price in July 2007). The plant with a
capacity of 100 000 tons year-1 is economically feasible, providing a higher NNP and more
attractive ARR with a lower BBP. Among the system variables of the plants examined, plant
capacity, price of feedstock oil and diesel, and yields of glycerine and biodiesel were found to be
the most significant variables affecting the economic viability of biodiesel manufacture. In
summary, this study aims at the need to obtain useful information for economic cost analysis and
assessment of the production process of biodiesel using soybean oil [37].

PART: 2
BIODIESEL STABILITY REVIEW:

P Shinoj, S S Raju And P K Joshi (2011) analyzed the economic viability and long-term
sustainability of bioethanol production from sugarcane molasses and commercial feasibility of
biodiesel produced from tree-borne oilseeds like jatropha. Based on the analysis the paper
observed that, given the slow growth in area and yield of sugarcane on the one hand and rising
demand for sugar, potable and industrial demand of ethanol on the other, it is highly unlikely that
the blending targets of ethanol with petrol would be met as planned by the government. To
ensure long-term sustainability and economic viability of bioethanol production, it is imperative
to diversify the feed-stock basket by including more crops like sweet sorghum and tropical sugar
beet and encourage research on industrial production of second generation biofuels. The
commercial feasibility of jatropha based biodiesel largely depends on development of a proper
supply chain by augmenting marketing of jatropha seeds, upgrading processing infrastructure
and up-scaling biodiesel distribution [27].

8
Roman M. Balabin, Ravilya Z. Safieva Gubkin (2011) found an effective calibration model of
biodiesel fuel properties prediction, based on near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy data and an
artificial neural network (ANN), was built. Biodiesel samples were derived from multiple
sources and prepared using multiple experimental parameters. Four different fuel properties,
including fractional composition, were accurately predicted. The root mean- square errors of
prediction (RMSEPs) on an independent sample sets for the end boiling point (50% v/v), the end
boiling point (90% v/v), the iodide value, and the cold filter plugging point were 1.73 _C, 1.78
_C, 0.90 g I2/100 g, and 0.77 _C, respectively Multiple linear regression (MLR), principal
component regression (PCR), partial least-squares (projection to latent structures, PLS)
regression, (kernel) polynomial and spline versions of partial least-squares regression (Poly-PLS
and Spline-PLS), and ANNs were compared for the prediction of biodiesel properties. Data
preprocessing techniques and calibration model parameters were independently optimized for
each case. The ANN approach was superior to the linear (MLR, PCR, and PLS) and ―quasi‖-
nonlinear (Poly-PLS and Spline-PLS) calibration methods. The ANN approach was a factor of
7.5(1.9 more efficient than MLR and a factor of 2.6 ( 0.9 more efficient than PLS (according to
RMSEP ratios).We confirmed that biodiesel is a highly ―nonlinear‖ object. Nine data
pretreatment (preprocessing) methods (mean centering, mean scattering correction, standard
normal variate, Savitzky_Golay derivatives, range scaling, etc.) were tested. The first/second-
order Savitzky_Golay derivative, followed by Mean Centering plus Orthogonal Signal
Correction, was found to be effective for biodiesel NIR data preprocessing [29].
Y.C. Sharma, B. Singh, S.N. Upadhyay.(2007) described the four ways viz. direct use and
blending, micro-emulsions, thermal cracking and transesterification, most commonly used
method is transesterification of vegetable oils, fats, waste oils, etc. Latest aspects of development
of biodiesel have been discussed in this work. Yield of biodiesel is affected by molar ratio,
moisture and water content, reaction temperature, stirring, specific gravity, etc. Biodegradability,
kinetics involved in the process of biodiesel production, and its stability have been critically
reviewed. Emissions and performance of biodiesel has also been reported [36].

PART: 3

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OUTPUT REVIEW:

9
Avinash Kumar Agarwal (2009) reported the technical feasibility of using straight vegetable oils
(Jatropha oil), into a constant speed direct injection compression ignition engine. Vegetable oils
have very high viscosity, which make their direct usability in engines questionable. In this
investigation, SVO‘s were preheated by using waste heat from engine exhaust, in order to reduce
their viscosity. The effect of using these oils on typical engine problems such as injector coking,
piston ring sticking, lube oil dilution etc. was investigated in detail. Long-term endurance test
(For a duration of 512 hours) of SVO fuelled engine vis-à-vis mineral diesel fuelled engine was
executed and the results are compared [4].
Charles L. Peterson and Joseph Thompson (2005) evaluated locally developed yellow mustard
cultivars, experiment with the biodiesel made from them through stationary engine and on-road
testing and to sponsor and host the tenth biennial bioenergy conference. A 2001 Volkswagen 1.9
L TDI beetle and a 1999 Cummins powered Dodge diesel pickup truck continue to run on 100
percent yellow mustard biodiesel (MEE). The beetle has accumulated a total of 12,210 miles,
and the Dodge, 27,230 miles. No operational problems have been noted. Oil analysis results have
all been normal. The Vandal Trolley has been has been running on B20 to document the long-
term effects of biodiesel on stop-and-start drives. Stationary engine tests include the completion
of a 200-hour EMA durability test with a 24 hp, 3 cylinder, Yanmar DI engine running on MEE.
During the durability test MEE power averaged 6.0 percent lower; fuel consumption was 2.2
percent higher and BSFC (hp-hrs/gal) was 8 percent higher than when operated on diesel. The
Tenth Biennial Bioenergy Conference, Bioenergy 2002, ―Bioenergy for the Environment,‖ was
held in Boise Idaho, at the Center on the Grove, the downtown conference center, from Sept. 22
– 26, 2002 [5].
Juergen G. Krahl et. al. (2000) reported Cummins engine with 100 % methyl-ester soybean oil
(biodiesel) for more than 172,545 km (107,215 mile). The 1991 pickup has been driven 89,888
km (55,854 mile) and the 1992 pickup has been driven approximately 82,658 km (51,361 mile).
Fueling the 5.9 L (360 in3) engines with 100% biodiesel initially increased engine power by 3%
(1991 engine) and reduced power by 7% (1992 engine). However, both pickups produced less
power while fueled on biodiesel during the latest series of chassis dynamometer testing. The
pickups averaged 6.9 km/L (16.6 mile/gal). Analysis of engine lubrication oil showed that the
engines were wearing at a normal rate. Black exhaust smoke normally observed when a diesel

10
engine accelerates was reduced when the diesel engine was fueled with 100% biodiesel.
Increased EPA exhaust emissions requirements for diesel engines have created much interest in
the use of biodiesel as a fuel for diesel engines [14].

K. Anbumani and Ajit Pal Singh (2010) observed the feasibility of using two edible plant oils
mustard (Brassica nigra, Family: Cruciferae) and neem (Azadirachta indica, Family: Meliaceae)
as diesel substitute a comparative study on their combustion characteristics on a C.I. engine were
made. Oils were esterified (butyl esters) before blending with pure diesel in the ratio of 10:90,
15:85, 20:80, and 25:75 by volume. Pure diesel was used as control. Studies have revealed that
on blending vegetable oils with diesel a remarkable improvement in their physical and chemical
properties was observed. Cetane number came to be very close to pure diesel. Engine (C.I.) was
run at different loads (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 kg) at a constant speed (1500 rpm) separately on
each blend and also on pure diesel. Results have indicated that engine run at 20% blend of oils
showed a closer performance to pure diesel. However, mustard oil at 20% blend with diesel gave
best performance as compared to neem oil blends in terms of low smoke intensity, emission of
HC and NOx. All the parameters tested viz., total fuel consumption, specific energy

consumption; specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency and cylindrical peak pressure
were improved. These studies have revealed that both the oils at 20% blend with diesel can be
used as a diesel substitute. Further, esterified mustard oil at 20% blend satisfies the important
fuel properties as per ASTM specifications of biodiesel as it lead to an improvement in engine
performance and emission characteristics without bringing any modifications in the engine [15].
Jomir Hossain, Saikat Biswas, and Asif Islam (2011) investigated on mustard oil
properties are determined in the fuel testing laboratory with standard procedure. An experimental
set-up is then made to study the performance of a small diesel engine in the heat engine
laboratory using different blends of bio-diesel converted from mustard oil. It is found that bio-
diesel has slightly different properties than diesel fuel. It is also observed that with bio-diesel, the
engine is capable of running without difficulty but with a deviation from its optimum
performance. Initially different blends of bio-diesel (i.e. B20, B30, B50 etc,) have been used to
avoid complicated modification of the engine or the fuel supply system. Finally, a comparison of

11
en- gine performance for different blends of bio-diesel has been carried out to determine the
optimum blend for different operating conditions [13].
Leon G. Schumacher et. al. (1993) described the qualitative and quantitative biodiesel
fueling performance and operational data have been collected from urban mass transit buses at
Bi-State Development Agency in St. Louis Missouri. A total of 10 vehicles were selected for
fueling; 5 - 6V92 TA Detroit Diesel engines have been fueled with a 20/80 biodiesel/diesel fuel
blend and 5 - 6V92 TA Detroit Diesel control vehicles have been fueled on petroleum based low
sulfur diesel fuel (LSD). The real-world impact of a biodiesel blend on maintenance, reliability,
cost, fuel economy and safety compared to LSD will be presented. In addition, engine exhaust
emissions data collected by the University of West Virginia Department of Energy (DOE)
sponsored mobile emissions laboratory will be presented. Operational data from Bi-State
Development Agency is collected by the University of Missouri and quality control procedures
are performed prior to placing the data in the Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC). The AFDC
is maintained by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado [16].
Leon G. Schumacher et al. (1995) noted A 6V92TA Detroit Diesel Corporation diesel
engine was fueled on blends of 10, 20, 30, and 40 percent soydiesel/diesel fuel. The engine was
tested in an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) certification test cell. This cell was capable
of operating the EPA heavy-duty engine test cycle. A 2000 cfm DPF-CVS dilution tunnel,
gaseous bench and particulate bench provided full gaseous and particulate emissions data [17].
Leon G. Schumacher (1995) observed that biodiesel was first used in the late 1800s by
Rudolph Diesel as he demonstrated the compression engine that he had designed- the diesel
engine. Petroleum based diesel fuel has been the fuel of choice for the compression ignition
engine designed by Mr. Diesel for many years. However, methyl esters of animal and vegetable
oils (biodiesel), due to their cleaner burning tendencies in the compression ignition engine, are
again being evaluated for use as a fuel for modern diesel engines [18].Leon G. Schumacher
(1996) noted several universities, government, and private sector research laboratories have
actively investigated the use of biodiesel as a fuel for use in diesel engines during the last decade.
The National Biodiesel Board has utilized input from these entities to develop a market plan for
the commercialization of Biodiesel as a transportation fuel in the United States. The procedures

12
used to identify research that was needed for each market is identified and as well as the specific
research needed [19].
L. G. Schumacher, J. V. Gerpen(2000) in the Agricultural Engineering Department at the
University of Missouri-Columbia has monitored the fueling of 1991, 1992, 1996 and 1998
3
Dodge pickups equipped with the 5.9 L (360 in ) Cummins diesel engine from as early as 1991.
These pickups have been fueled with one, two and 100% blends of methyl-ester soybean oil
(soydiesel/biodiesel). Analysis of engine lubrication oil, taken when the oil was changed on the
vehicles, was compared to the analysis of oil samples pulled from 100% petroleum fueled diesel
engines. The findings suggested that the biodiesel and biodiesel blend fueled engines were
wearing at a normal rate [20].
L. G. Schumacher et al..,(2001)The University of Missouri-Columbia and the University
of Idaho have monitored 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995,1996, 1998, and 1999 Dodge pickups equipped
3
with the 5.9 L (360 in ) Cummins diesel engines from as early as 1991. These pickups have been
fueled with zero, one, two, 20, 50 and 100% blends of methyl-esters and ethyl-esters of soybean,
canola, and rapeseed oil (biodiesel). Analysis of engine lubrication oil, taken when the oil was
changed on the vehicles, was compared to the analysis of oil samples pulled from 100%
petroleum fueled diesel engines. The findings suggested that the biodiesel and biodiesel blend
fueled engines were wearing at a normal rate [21].
Ruslans Smigins, Aivars Aboltins (2010) was to find out the impact of biodiesel and its
blends on engine dynamical and economical parameters. A model for in-cylinder
thermodynamics is implemented for easy simulation of internal combustion engine performance.
The model is verified with the experimental data from an engine fuelled with biodiesel (RME).
The experimental investigation was carried out on a direct injection diesel engine XD2P with
industrial application located at the Engine Testing and Biofuels Laboratory. The tests were
performed using regular diesel fuel (DD), 5 %, 20 %, 35 % and 100 % biodiesel blends (5RME,
20RME, 35RME, 100RME). Biodiesel used for blending meets the EN14214 standard. The
present analysis reveals, via diagrams and formulas, how the main engine performance
parameters can be affected by the testing conditions and biodiesel addition quantity. The results
indicate that power for biodiesel and blends is lower than with ordinary diesel. The reduction in
the torque and increase in fuel consumption are also observed. The matching between the
13
experimental and predicted results is not higher than 3 %, with exception of some parameters at
different engine speeds. Another situation is according to the fuel consumption, which is more
affected by biodiesel addition, especially, when the addition exceeds 10 % [30].

PART: 4

GASEOUS EMISSION ANALYSIS REVIEW:

P.K. Sahoo et. al.(2006) results on non-edible filtered high viscous (72 cSt at 40 _C) and high
acid value (44 mg KOH/gm) polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) oil based mono esters
(biodiesel) produced by triple stage transesterification process and blended with high speed
diesel (HSD) were tested for their use as a substitute fuel of diesel in a single cylinder diesel
engine. HSD and polanga oil methyl ester (POME) fuel blends (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and
100%) were used for conducting the short-term engine performance tests at varying loads (0%,
20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%). Tests were carried out over entire range of engine operation
at varying conditions of speed and load. The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake
thermal efficiency (BTE) were calculated from the recorded data. The engine performance
parameters such as fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust
emissions (CO, CO2, HC, NOx, and O2) were recorded. The optimum engine operating
condition based on lower brake specific fuel consumption and higher brake thermal efficiency
was observed at 100% load for neat biodiesel. From emission point of view the neat POME was
found to be the best fuel as it showed lesser exhaust emission as compared to HSD [26].
Daniela Russi(2008) Biofuels are often presented as a contribution towards the solution
of the problems related to our strong dependency on fossil fuels, i.e. greenhouse effect, energy
dependency, urban pollution, besides being a way to support rural development. In this paper, an
integrated assessment approach is employed to discuss the social desirability of a large-scale
biodiesel production in Italy, taking into account social, environmental and economic factors.
The conclusion is that the advantages in terms of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, energy
dependency and urban pollution would be very modest. The small benefits would not be enough
to offset the huge costs in terms of land requirement: if the target of the European Directive
2003/30/EC were reached (5.75% of the energy used for transport by 2010) the equivalent of
about one-third of the Italian agricultural land would be needed. The consequences would be a
14
considerable increase in food imports and large environmental impacts in the agricultural phase.
Also, since biodiesel must be de-taxed in order to make it competitive with oil-derived diesel, the
Italian energy revenues would be reduced. In the end, rural development remains the only sound
reason to promote biodiesel, but even for this objective other strategies look more advisable, like
supporting organic agriculture [6].
Daniel Bichel (2007) analyzed the use of biodiesel in the agricultural industry and the
performance of biodiesel when used as a replacement fuel for conventional diesel. The
performance characteristics that are focused on are the production of the greenhouse gas oxides
of nitrogen and the fuels suitability for use in stationary engines. A computer model is developed
to simulate the formation rate of nitric oxide (the main component of oxides of nitrogen) and
analyse the affects of using biodiesel instead of the conventional diesel. It was found that
biodiesel produces a higher initial formation rate of nitric oxide for the same temperature and has
a higher adiabatic flame temperature across all the equivalence ratios analyse. It is also found
that the characteristic time increases as the compression ratio of an engine increases, and
increases as the temperature of the cylinder contents increases. From these results it was
established that biodiesel is a effective replacement for conventional diesel, with the formation of
oxides of nitrogen possibly reduced with the retarding of the fuel injection timing to an optimal
level, which should also reduce the brake specific fuel consumption as well as increasing the
efficiency and power generated from the engine [7].
G Lakshmi Narayana Rao ,S Sampath, and K Rajagopal (2008) Transesterified vegetable
oils (biodiesel) are promising alternative fuel for diesel engines. Used vegetable oils are disposed
from restaurants in large quantities. But higher viscosity restricts their direct use in diesel
engines. In this study, used cooking oil was dehydrated and then transesterified using an alkaline
catalyst. The combustion, performance and emission characteristics of Used Cooking oil Methyl
Ester (UCME) and its blends with diesel oil are analyzed in a direct injection C.I. engine. The
fuel properties and the combustion characteristics of UCME are found to be similar to those of
diesel. A minor decrease in thermal efficiency with significant improvement in reduction of
particulates, carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons is observed compared to diesel. The
use of transesterified used cooking oil and its blends as fuel for diesel engines will reduce
dependence on fossil fuels and also decrease considerably the environmental pollution [8].

15
 Janine Finnell et. al. (1998) given a comprehensive summary of relevant biodiesel and
biodiesel-related research, development, demonstration, and commercialization projects
completed and/or started in the United States between 1992 and 1997. This document was
designed for use as a reference tool to those evaluating biodiesel‘s potential as a clean-burning
alternative motor fuel. It encompasses federally, academically, and privately funded projects
[12].
Michael S. Graboski et al.(1999) important part of this study, data on emissions based on
the EPA heavy-duty transient cycle have been measured to demonstrate the sensitivity of engine
emissions to biodiesel ester composition. Regulated emissions for hot and cold start tests for
biodiesel produced from various feedstocks, as well as results for certain non-regulated
pollutants, have been acquired. To understand the impact of biodiesel composition on emissions,
the testing included a series of fuels consisting of nearly pure fatty acid esters. A detailed
analysis of the data was performed in an effort to determine what fuel properties are correlated
with the increase in NOx emissions observed for biodiesel here, and in most previous studies. In
total, 27 neat biodiesels and 3 B-20 blends (with EPA certification diesel) were tested. Seven
fuels prepared from various natural feedstocks were obtained from IGT, and three of these were
also tested as B-20 blends. Certification fuel runs exhibited a mean NOx emission level of 4.59
g/bhp-h (+/-0.3%) with no significant drift over the 4 month test program. PM emissions
averaged 0.261 g/bhp-h (+/-2.7%). A small downward drift in PM emissions was evident (11%
over the course of the project). Thus, no correction for drift was applied to the NOx emissions
data but a correction was applied to the PM data. Regression analysis of the results indicated that
emissions could be correlated by one parameter, either density of cetane number (which were
highly correlated with each other). PM reduction was proportional to oxygen content for
biodiesels with a cetane number of greater than about 45 (density greater than 0.89). For fuels
with cetane number less than 45 PM reduction was less. NOx emissions were also well
correlated with biodiesel density or cetane number. These results suggest that neat biodiesels
with cetane numbers greater than about 60 may produce NOX emissions equal to or less than
certification fuel [24].
N.R. Banapurmatha A, P.G. Tewaria A, R.S. Hosmath B (2008) described the best way to
use vegetable oils as fuel in compression ignition (CI) engines is to convert it into biodiesel.

16
Biodiesel is a methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acids made from vegetable oils (both edible and non-
edible) and animal fat. It can be used in CI engines with very little or no engine modifications.
This is because it has properties similar to mineral diesel. They presents the results of
investigations carried out on a single-cylinder, fourstroke, direct-injection, CI engine operated
with methyl esters of Honge oil, Jatropha oil and sesame oil. Comparative measures of brake
thermal efficiency, smoke opacity, HC, CO, NOX, ignition delay, combustion duration and heat
release rates have been presented and discussed. Engine performance in terms of higher brake
thermal efficiency and lower emissions (HC, CO, NOX) with sesame oil methyl ester operation
was observed compared to methyl esters of Honge and Jatropha oil operation [25].

V P Sethi, K S Salariya (2004) research on a 4-stroke 5 hp diesel engine was tested with two
different fuel blends. In the first case, diesel kerosene blends (with 10% to 40% kerosene
blending by volume) and in the second case, air-liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mixture (15% to
25 % LPG mixing by volume) along with diesel was tested at constant engine speed of 1700
rpm. Different engine exhaust emissions, namely, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbon monoxide
(CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) and
unused oxygen (O2 ) were compared using pure diesel, diesel-kerosene blends and air-LPG
mixtures. With diesel-kerosene blends minimum exhaust emissions were observed at 30%
kerosene blend. Exhaust gas emissions, namely, CO, UHC, and SO2 reduced by 40%, 18% and
19%, respectively, when compared with pure diesel emissions. Slight increase in the NOx
exhaust emission (2.4%) was observed. With air-LPG mixtures, minimum exhaust emissions
were observed at 20% LPG mixing. Exhaust gas emissions, namely, CO, UHC, and SO2 reduced
by 80%, 71%, and 21%, respectively. However, 19% increase in NOx exhaust emission was
observed. Engine performance improved and specific fuel consumption (SFC) was observed to
be minimal at 30% kerosene blending and decreased by 3.7% as compared to pure diesel value at
the same brake power output. SFC was also observed to be minimal at 20% LPG mix and
decreased by about 20% as compared to pure diesel value at the same brake power output. The
fuel operating cost also reduced by 3.6% at 30% kerosene blend and further reduced by 9.6% at
20% LPG mixing with air [35].

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