FALL 2017/2018

BONDING

Faculty of Engineering and Technology at Sampoerna

University
 General Course Learning Outcome
The student shall be able to explain concepts of ionic and covalent bonding, including the ability to
predict formulas, molecular shapes and infer properties due to shape, such as polarity.

Specific Learning outcome

4.1 Differentiate between ionic and covalent bonding modes, and compare and contrast the properties of ionic and
covalent substances.
4.2 Predict which combinations of elements tend to bond ionically and which tend to bond covalently.
4.3 Use the concept of valence electrons and the octet rule to construct ions and molecules from atoms. Write Lewis
structures for those ions and molecules.
4.4 Write resonance contributing forms and calculate formal charges.
4.5 Apply the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) to predict shapes of molecules from molecular formulas.
4.6 Predict the presence and direction of dipoles in covalent molecules.
4.7 Apply the valence bond theory to account for hybrid orbitals, multiple bond formation, and molecular geometry as
predicted by VSEPR.
4.8 (Optional) Apply the molecular orbital theory to write MO configurations for molecules and to calculate bond order
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
Chemical Bonding

Atom + Atom Molecule

Types of Bond:

 Ionic

 Covalent
Covalent Bond

 Two atoms share several (usually two) electrons

 Between non-metal atoms Example : HCl, H2O, NH3
Ionic Bond
 Transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another

 Between a metal and a nonmetal

Ionic Bond
Electron Configuration of Ion
Ions of main-group elements (groups 1A–7A) lose or gain electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration
Ionic Bond
Ion formation of transition Metal
Ionic Bond

Ionic radii
Atoms shrink or expand when electron is removed?

Na atom, for example, is 186 pm, but that of an Na+ cation is 102 pm
Ionic Bond
Ionization Energy of Atom
Energy necessary to remove the highest-energy electron from an isolated neutral atom in the
gaseous state
Ionization Energy
Higher Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity (Ea)

Energy change that occurs when an electron is added to an isolated atom in the gaseous state
Group 1A elements have a relatively low Ei1, so they tend to lose their ns1 valence-shell
electron easily when they react, thereby adopting the electron configuration of the noble
gas in the previous row of the periodic table.
• Group 2A elements have relatively low E i1 and
Ei2, so they tend to lose both their
ns2 valence-shell electrons easily when they react and adopt a noble-gas electron
configuration.
• Group 7A elements have a relatively large negative Eea, so they tend to gain one electron
easily when they react, changing from ns2 np5 to ns2 np6 and thereby adopting the
configuration of the neighboring noble gas in the same row.
• Group 8A (noble gas) elements are essentially inert and undergo very few reactions.
They neither gain nor lose electrons easily.
Octet Rule
Covalent Bond
sharing of electrons between two atoms
Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond

Bond Dissociation Energy

Energy that must be supplied to break a chemical bond in an isolated molecule
in the gaseous state—
Single bond has bond order of 1 and so on
……..
Polar Covalent Bond

Shared unequally between two atoms but are not completely transferred

Cl2 —Nonpolar Covalent The bond in a chlorine molecule is nonpolar covalent, the
bonding electrons attracted equally to the two identical chlorine atoms
Polar Covalent Bond

HCl—Polar Covalent The bond in a hydrogen chloride molecule is polar covalent

NaCl—Ionic The bond in solid sodium chloride is a largely ionic one between Na+ and Cl
Polar and Nonpolar, Ionic Bond

How can we use electronegativity to predict bond polarity?

Bonds between atoms with the same or similar

electronegativity are usually nonpolar covalent.

Bonds between atoms whose electro-negativities differ

by more than 2 units are largely ionic.

Bonds between atoms whose electro-negativities differ

by less than 2 units are usually polar covalent.
Ionic Vs Covalent
Electron Dot Structure: Octet Rule
Central Idea
bond that shares electrons to achieve a complete valence shell or noble gas
electron configuration
Octet Rule
Group 3A elements, such as boron, have three valence electrons and can therefore form
three electron-pair bonds in neutral molecules such as borane, BH3.

Group 4A elements, such as carbon, have four valence electrons and form four bonds, as
in methane, CH4.
Octet Rule
Group 5A elements, such as nitrogen, have five valence electrons and form three bonds, as in
ammonia, NH3

Group 6A elements, such as oxygen, have six valence electrons and form two bonds, as
in water, H2O

Group 7A elements (halogens), such as fluorine, have seven valence electrons and form
one bond, as in hydrogen fluoride, HF
Octet rule

Group 8A elements (noble gases), such as neon, rarely form covalent bonds because
they already have valence-shell octets
Single vs Multiple Bond
Drawing Electron Dot Structure
Step 1. Find the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion
add one additional electron for each negative charge in an anion, and subtract one
electron for each positive charge in a cation

Step 2. Decide what the connections are between atoms, and draw lines to represent the
bonds.
 The central atom is typically the one with the lowest electronegativity (except H).
 Hydrogen and the halogens usually form only one bond.
 Elements in the second row usually form the number of bonds given in Table 7.4.
 (Octet Rule Exception) Elements in the third row and lower often have an expanded octet, as they form more bonds than predicted by
the octet rule.
 (Octet Rule Exception) Elements in Group 3A, such as B and Al, are frequently electron deficient, meaning they are
surrounded by less than eight electrons
Drawing Electron Dot Structure
Step 3. Subtract the number of valence electrons used for bonding from the total number
calculated in Step 1 to find the number that remain. Assign as many of these remaining electrons
as necessary to the terminal atoms (other than hydrogen) so that each has an octet

Step 4. If unassigned electrons remain after Step 3, place them on the central atom.

Step 5. Form multiple bonds to fulfill an incomplete octet on the central atom. If no
unassigned electrons remain after Step 3 but the central atom does not yet have an octet,
use one or more lone pairs of electrons from a neighboring atom to form a multiple bond
(either double or triple). Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur often form multiple bonds
Electron Dot Structure and Resonance

Resonance Theory
Two or more electron-dot structures and considering the actual molecule to
be a composite of these two structures
Electron Dot Structure and Resonance
Formal Charge

Calculated as the difference between the number of valence electrons around an atom in a given
electron-dot structure compared to the number of valence electrons in the isolated atom
Formal Charge

When evaluating the relative importance of different resonance structures, three criteria
are frequently employed.
• Smaller formal charges (either positive or negative) are preferable to larger ones. Zero is
preferred over -1, but -1 is preferred over -2.
• Negative formal charges should reside on more electronegative atoms.
• Like charges should not be on adjacent atoms.
Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model

The shape of a molecule is determined by the electronic structure of its atoms

That shape can often be predicted using what is called the valence-shell electron-pair
repulsion (VSEPR) model
Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model
Step 1. Write an electron-dot structure for the molecule, as described in Section 7.6, and count the number of
electron charge clouds surrounding the atom of interest.
A charge cloud is simply a group of electrons, either in a bond or in a lone pair, that occupy a region of space
around an atom

Step 2. Predict the geometric arrangement of charge clouds around each atom by assuming
that the clouds are oriented in space as far away from one another as possible
Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model

Two Charge Clouds

Three Charge Clouds

Four Charge Clouds
Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model
Five Charge Cloud
Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model

Six Charge Clouds

Polar Covalent Bond and Dipole Moment

dipole moment (μ),

The measure of net molecular polarity

the charge on an electron is 1.60 * 10^-19 Coulomb . Thus, if a proton and an electron were
separated by 100 pm (a bit less than the length of a typical covalent bond), then the dipole

moment would be 1.60 * 10^-29C . m, or 4.80 D:

Polar Covalent Bond and Dipole Moment
 References:

1. James Brady, Neil Jespersen, Alison Hyslop. Chemistry. 7th edition . John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd. 2012

2. John E. McMurry, Robert C.Fay, Jill K. Robinson. Chemistry. 7th edition. Pearson Education, Inc. 2004

3. John Mc Murry, Mark Castellion, David S. Ballantine, Carl A. Hoeger, Virginia E. Peterson. Fundamentals
of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. 6th edition. Pearson Education, Inc. 1992