Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Course Outcomes

OUTCOMES- BASED TEACHING AND LEARNING (OBTL) PLAN IN
CPS 208: FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY
PROGRAM : BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PUBLIC SAFETY (BSPS)
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Professionalism
Cadets should be able to show and develop professional competence,

commitment, and character in the field of public safety endeavors for them to
become trusted and respected by the people.
Leadership
Cadets should be able to integrate themselves into different forms of leadership

in the context of servant, adaptive, changed, and bridging leadership.
Administration and Governance
Cadets should be able to enhance their administration and governance skills in

the context of public safety endowed with culture of Justice, Integrity and Service.
PNPA PHILOSOPHY
PNPA is committed to develop cadets into competent police, fire and jail officers
with management skills and leadership qualities, sound moral character and
personality befitting that of a professional “public safety officers with a heart” and
strongly adhering to democratic ideals and processes and respecting authority
and human rights.
PNPA VISION
For the glory of God, the Academy is the Center for the professionalization and
character development of public safety officers endowed with the culture of
Justice, Integrity and Service.
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COURSE CODE : CPS 208
COURSE TITLE : Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
CREDIT UNITS : 3 units lecture/2 units laboratory
COURSE PRE-CO REQUISITES : NONE
COURSE DESCRIPTION :
This subject deals with the introduction of the fundamental theoretical and
practical concepts of forensic chemistry and toxicology in aid to criminal investigation. It
introduces the concepts that are important to accurate forensic analysis and provides
detailed information about how the different evidence is collected and subsequently
assessed/evaluated and examined. The main topics to be covered include history and
development of forensic science; organization of crime laboratory in the Philippines;
collection, preservation and handling of physical evidence; biological evidence; trace
evidence; scope of forensic chemistry; chemistry of explosives; gunpowder and
gunpowder residues; arson and spontaneous combustion; chemistry of dangerous
drugs and its toxicity; forensic toxicology; forensic serology; concept of DNA; marks and
impression; shoeprints and tire impressions; glass and glass fractures; hairs and fibers;
ultraviolet examination; and macro-etching examination. The different topics that would
be tackled could assist the cadets as future public safety leaders in the field of
investigation.
COURSE INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (CILO):
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Recognize the importance of Forensic Chemistry/Toxicology as one

discipline of Forensic Science.
2. Classify the different physical evidence which needs physical and
chemical examination necessary in the prosecution of cases.
3. Employ the knowledge and skills acquired in the different aspect of
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology as aid in crime scene investigation.
4. Analyze the relevant/importance of the proper collection, preservation and
handling of physical evidence in crime scene investigation.
5. Manage the application of forensic chemistry and toxicology in
consonance with their task as future public safety leaders in the field of
investigation.
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BASIC READINGS:
Books
 Criminalistics – by Richard Saferstein

 The Forensic Casebook – N E Genge
 Forensic Science Handbook Volume II – Richard Saferstein
 General Welch USAF, Larry D et al, Explosive Ordnance Reconnaissance,
1981. US Army Adjutant General Publication Center, Baltimore, MD 21220.
 Kinney, Gilbert Ford, Explosive Shocks in Air, The Macmilla Company,
Macmillan, New York. 1962.
 Yinon, Jehuda and Zitrin, Samuel, Modern Methods and Applications in the
Analysis of Explosives. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York 1996.
 Charles O’ Hara and James Ostenburg, Introduction to Criminalistics
 D’ABRO, The Decline of Mechanism of Modern Physics
 Mitchell, The Use of Invisible Radiation in Criminology
 Meislich, Estelle K et al, 3000 Solved Problems in Organic Chemistry, Mc
Graw-Hill International Edition (Schaums Solved Problem Series) 1994.
 Kirk, Fire Investigation
 http://www.thefreedictionary.com
 Sunico, Lorenzo A, Forensic Chemistry. NBI Manila.
 http://medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/GUNS/GUNGSR.html
 http://www.securitymanagement.com/library/000360.html
 http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0957-0233/14/5/317/
 http://www.firearmsid.com/A_distanceExams.htm
Journals
 PNP Crime Laboratory Manual of Operation

 SOCO Journal
COURSE ASSESSMENTS/ GRADING SYSTEM:

(Extracted from 2008 PNPA Academic Guide)
A 10-point grading system must be used in all academic subjects where six (6) is the
Grade Point Score (GPS) considered as passing. In order to conform consistently to this
system, all raw scores obtained from all types of academic examination are converted
to a Grade Point System (GPS) ranging from 0.00 to 10.00 points.
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A. Prelim Grade Point Average:
PGPA = Sum of LE’s + 2 x PE
Number of LE’s
--------------------------------------
3
B. Midterm Grade Point Average:
MGPA = Sum of LE’s + 2 x ME
Number of LE’s
--------------------------------------
3
C. Final Grade Point Average:
FGPA = Sum of LE’s + 2 x FE

Number of LE’s
--------------------------------------
3
D. Overall Grade Point Average:
OGPA = PGPA + MGPA + FPGA

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E. Equivalent Grade:
EG = (OGPA -6 ) x 25 + 75
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Where:
PGPA -Prelim Grade Point Average

MGPA -Midterm Grade Point Average
FPGA -Final Term Grade Point Average
LE -Lesson Examination
PE -Prelim Exam
ME -Midterm Exam
FE -Final Exam
OGPA -Overall Grade Point Average
EG -Equivalent Grade
PROFESSOR CONTACT INFORMATION AND CONSULTATION ROOM :
PSUPT MARIA JULIETA G. RAZONABLE (Ret), RChE, MM 09285217361,

Forensic Laboratory and/or Office of the Department of Public Safety
Administration
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WEEK 1 – FIRST MEETING
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Lecture 1: Forensic Science
Forensic science may be defined as the application of various scientific

disciplines to aid the criminal justice system. It often shortened to forensics, the
application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal
system. The word forensic comes from the Latin adjective forensis, meaning "of or before the
forum.” During the time of the Romans, a criminal charge meant presenting the case
before a group of public individuals. Both the person accused of the crime and the
accuser would give speeches based on their side of the story. The individual with the
best argumentation and delivery would determine the outcome of the case. In other
words, the person with the best forensic skills would win.
Forensic science begins at the crime scene. Every forensic investigator has
to recognize physical evidence and properly preserve it for laboratory examinations.
Physical evidence is often necessary to prove that a crime had been committed.
However, no amount of sophisticated laboratory instrumentation or technical
expertise can salvage the situation if physical evidence is not collected properly
because destroyed physical evidence, regardless of how big or small, is of no use
and cannot be resurrected anymore.
History and Development of Forensic Science:
From the days of Sherlock Holmes, to the TV show CSI, the world is captivated
by forensic science. The use of science to catch criminals is not only captivating, but
also incredibly powerful. Forensic science is a very large field, with a long history of
application, and even in more recent times, development of increasingly sensitive and
specific analysis methods allow analysis of even the smallest traces of evidence.
The first recorded autopsy was that of Julius Caesar in 44BC, and it was in the
15th century that the first forensics textbook was produced. In that textbook is one of the
first uses of science to identify a murder weapon. A murder was committed and the trial
judge ordered all the sickles in the village be confiscated. Only one sickle attracted
flies, leading the judge to conclude it was due to the scent of the blood, and this was the
murder weapon.
In the 1540’s the French doctor Ambroise Paré laid the foundations for modern
forensic pathology through his study of trauma on human organs. The 19th century saw
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a forensic revolution. In the 1820s Eugène François Vidocq pioneered the first use of
ballistics and began taking plaster casts of shoe imprints. In the 1830s the chemist
James Marsh used standard scientific testing to determine that a man murdered his
grandfather by arsenic poisoning, and this assay is now known as the Marsh test.
The 1890s saw the first use of the Henry System for fingerprint
classification. Around the same time, Edmund Locard developed the 12 matching
points for fingerprint comparison. He also is responsible for one of the principle tenets
of forensic science, that of “every contact leaves a trace”. This is known as the Locard
Exchange Principle and has formed the foundation of trace evidence collection and
analysis for over a century and still plays a central role in 21st century forensic science.
The first method for determining ABO blood groups for dried bloodstains was
developed in 1910, which immediately became a useful tool for crime scene
investigations. In the 1920s, Dr Calvin Goddard used comparison microscopy to
compare shell casings from the scene of the St Valentine’s Day Massacre, which led to
a raid on Al ‘Scarface’ Capone’s home and the recovery of two of the weapons from the
crime.
The late 1980s and 1990s saw the development of DNA profiling, and the
establishment of DNA databases such as CODIS, which can be used for comparison of
DNA profiles recovered from crime scenes and suspects. As well as DNA, the last 10
years has seen improvements in fingerprinting methods, portable crime labs, and
increased use of chemical analysis for everything from explosive identification to
analysis of dyes and inks.
Forensic science owes its origins first to those individuals who developed the
principles and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence, and second
to those who recognized the necessity of merging these principles into a coherent
discipline that could be practically applied to a criminal justice system.
Today, many believe that Sir Conan Doyle had a considerable influence on
popularizing scientific crime-detection methods through his fictional character Sherlock
Holmes. It was Holmes who first applied the newly developing principles of serology,
fingerprinting, firearm identification, and questioned-document examination long before
their value was recognized and accepted by real-life criminal investigators. Holmes’
feats excited the imagination of an emerging generation of forensic scientists and
criminal investigators. Even in the first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet,
published in 1887, we find examples of Doyle’s uncanny ability to describe scientific
methods of detection years before they were actually discovered and implemented. For
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instance, here Holmes is probing and recognizing the potential usefulness of forensic
serology to criminal investigation.
“I’ve found it. I’ve found it,” he shouted to my companion, running towards
us with a test tube in his hands. “I have found a reagent which is
precipitated by hemoglobin and by nothing else. . . Why, man, it is the
most practical medico-legal discovery for years. Don’t you see that it gives
us an infallible test for blood stains? . . . The old guaiacum test was very
clumsy and uncertain. So is the microscope examination for blood
corpuscles. The latter is valueless if the stains are a few hours old. Now,
this appears to act as well whether blood is old or new. Had this test been
invented, there are hundreds of men now walking the earth who would
long ago have paid the penalty of their crimes. Criminal cases are
continually hinging upon that one point. A man is suspected of a crime
months perhaps after it has been committed. His line or clothes are
examined and brownish stains discovered upon them. Are they blood
stains, or rust stains, or fruit stains, or what are they? That is a question
which has puzzled many an expert and why? Because there was no
reliable test. Now we have the Sherlock Holmes test, and there will no
longer be any difficulty.
There are many who can be cited for their specific contributions to the field of
forensic science. The above-mentioned is just a brief list of those who made the earliest
contributions to formulating the disciplines that now constitute forensic science.
Forensic concepts:
 Scene of Crime Operation / Crime Scene Investigation
 Disaster Victim Identification
 Underwater Search and Evidence Response
 CBRN Response
 Radiological Event Response
 Air Crash Investigation
 Paranormal Investigation
 “UFOlogy”
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Forensic Specialties or Division of Forensic Science:
1. Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence.
2. Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal

setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human
remains.
3. Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological

techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.
4. Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial

constellations for forensic purposes.
5. Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding
possible crimes.
6. Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of chemistry which deals with the
application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in
connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the
elucidation of legal problems.
7. Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to
assist forensic examination.
8. Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating

to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence,
impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks),
controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark examination, and other
evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances, evidence is
processed in a crime laboratory.
9. Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.
10. Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in
order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic specialists
work in the field as well as in the lab.
11. Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers

questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and
methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document,
or components of the document, to a set of known standards. The most common
type of examination involves handwriting wherein the examiner tries to address
concerns about potential authorship.
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12. Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA
to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing or placing a
suspect at a crime scene, e.g., in a rape investigation.
13. Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and
products relating to their failure or cause of damage.
14. Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects in, on, and around
human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also
possible to determine if the body was moved after death.
15. Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and
petroleum.
16. Forensic limnology is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or
around fresh water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular,
diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.
17. Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic
expertise.
18. Forensic meteorology is a site specific analysis of past weather conditions for a
point of loss.
19. Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition better known as
the study of teeth.
20. Forensic optometry is the study of glasses and other eye wear relating to crime
scenes and criminal investigations
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21. Forensic pathology is a field in which the principles of medicine and pathology
are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal
inquiry.
22. Forensic psychology is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic
methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.
23. Forensic seismology is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals
generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by
earthquakes.
24. Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.
25. Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the
human body.
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LESSON PLAN
WEEK 1 (Second Meeting)
I. INTRODUCTION:
Preparatory Activities
1. Section Marcher’s Attendance Checking and Reporting
2. Announcement (Academic/Administrative)
Developmental Activities
1. Preparation of the learning equipment
2. Preparation of the lecture presentation
II. PRESENTATION:
The Role and Importance of A Crime Laboratory

-Development of the Scientific Crime Laboratory in the Philippines
-The Organization of a Crime Laboratory
-The PNP Crime Laboratory in Perspective
-Division of the PNP Crime Laboratory
Evidence
-Evidence
-Handling of Physical Evidence
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening and speaking skills and awareness on information
about the role and importance of a crime laboratory and evidence
IV. ASSESSMENT TASKS

Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and group
reaction.
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LESSON MANUSCRIPT
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the proper
administration of justice was made when the position of “Medicos Titulares” was created
in the Philippines by virtue of the Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain dated March 31, 1876.
For every province a Forensic Physician was assigned to perform public sanitary duties
and at the same time medico-legal aids to the administration of justice. On December
15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral
waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist. Realizing the
importance of this work, the government established in September 13, 1887 the
“Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the “Direccion General de
Administracion Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”. The functions of
the laboratory were to make analysis, not only of food, water and others from the
standpoint of public health and legal medicine, but also of specimens for clinical
purposes. Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after a competitive examination
in June 17, 1888. At present, there are five distinct laboratories in the Philippines, the
Technical Services of the National Bureau of Investigation, the Philippine Drug
Enforcement Agency, the Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory, the Public
Attorney’s Office and the University of the Philippines College of Biology.
The Organization of PNP Crime Laboratory
Historical Background
The PNP Crime Laboratory traces its origin from the Fingerprint Section of G-2
Division of the Military Police Command Armed forces in the West Pacific of the United
States Army (AFWESPAC), in May 19, 1945. Later on, it was upgraded into a branch
and renamed Crime Laboratory Branch of the Criminal Investigation Service (CIS), the
investigative arm of the Philippines Constabulary (PC).
The laboratory underwent several reorganizations and changes of names. It was

reorganized on May 26, 1959 as a separate unit of the Philippine Constabulary under
Table of Organization and Equipment 3-07 (TO & E) 3-07) of the AFP and was renamed
as PC Central Crime Laboratory and on June 28, 1961, it was activated as a separate
unit of the AFP pursuant to Special Order (SO) Number 453 GHQ AFP.
The National Headquarters of the Crime Laboratory in Camp Crame was

constructed during the term of Brig Gen Vicente Raval as PC Chief on December
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4,1968. The construction was finished on July 22, 1969, coinciding with its official
designation as the PC Crime Laboratory (PCCL) pursuant to Headquarters Philippine
Constabulary General Order Number 23.
The crime laboratory saw continuous improvement in the following years in order
to serve the people more effectively. In 1975, scientific equipment was acquired through
the War Reparations Program of the Japanese Government. Organizationally, the crime
laboratory was expanded in 1978, under the authority of HPC GO Nr. 23 wherein twelve
(12) regional units were established.
With the merging of the Philippines Constabulary and the Integrated National
Police (INP) on May 16,1985, PCCL was re-designated as Philippines
Constabulary/Integrated National Police Crime Laboratory Service as per HPC GO
Number 64 (PC/INPCLS).
By virtue of RA 6975 (PNP Law) enacted in 1990, the PC/INP was

abolished/deactivated, paving way to the creation of the Philippine National Police.
Consequently, the PNP Crime Laboratory Service was established as an Administrative
Support Unit on January 30, 1991. In 1996, NAPOLCOM Resolution Nr 96-058 spelled
out the streamlining program of the PNP and designated the PNPCLS as a National
Operational Support Unit. Likewise, it dropped the word Service from Crime
Laboratory’s name and would simply be known as the PNP Crime Laboratory.
The PNP Crime Laboratory in Perspective
The Vision statement of the PNP Crime Laboratory reads:
BY 2020, THE PNP CRIME LABORATORY SHALL BE A HIGHLY COMPETENT

AND TRUSTED FORENSIC SERVICE
MISSION
TO PROVIDE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT TO

THE PNP OFFICES, OTHER INVESTIGATIVE AGENCIES, AND THE PUBLIC,
THROUGH FORENSIC EXAMINATION, FIELDWORK, SCENE OF CRIME
OPERATIONS, TRAINING AND RESEARCH.
CORE VALUES: INTEGRITY, CREDIBILITY, ACCURACY
Its’ functions are:
1. Conduct Forensic examination of all physical evidence:
a) Medico-Legal Examinations
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b) Firearms Identification
c) Fingerprint Identification
d) Forensic Photography
e) Document Examination
f) Polygraph Examination
g) Physical and Chemical Examinations
2. Conduct forensic research and training in criminalistics
3. Provide expert testimony in court
4. Provide Scene of Crime Operation
5. Provide other related functions as instructed by higher headquarters.
It upholds the creed that:
“If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science. You have no
victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear
witness within the limits of science” (Brouardel).
There are eight (8) forensic disciplines/divisions at the PNP Crime Laboratory but will
give emphasis on Forensic Chemistry and Physical Identification
1. Medico Legal Division
a. DNA Branch, Medico Legal Division
FUNCTION AND CAPABILITIES
1. PROVIDES FORENSIC DNA FINGERPRINTING/ANALYSIS TO MATCH THE

SUSPECT OF THE CRIME IN CASES OF:
A. Alleged raped and other sexual crimes wherein biological sample are
recovered
B. Alleged murder/ homicide to established identity of perpetrator
C. Found dead bodies where standard manner of identification could not

establish identity
2. Identifies Victims of Mass Disasters such as in:
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A. Plane Crashes
B. Ship wreckage
C. Fire Disasters
3. Establishes paternity/maternity in child custody conflict and inheritance lawsuits to

link consanguinity
2. FORENSIC CHEMISTRY DIVISION

Functions and Capabilities
 Conduct Qualitative and Quantitative Examination of Dangerous Drugs under RA
9165 as well as volatile substances under PD 1619.
 Conduct examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients. (PD 1866)
 Conduct examination of Firearms and Paraffin casts for the presence of
Gunpowder Nitrates.
 Conduct Chemico-Toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric
contents, blood water and food sample and other substances.
 Conduct examination of fake products in case of unfair trade competition.
(fundador, cement, SMB, cigarette, chlorox)
 Conduct blood alcohol determination.
 Examine urine and other body fluids for the presence of dangerous drugs.
 Conduct researches and training related to the cases being examined.
 Give lectures on Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology to various schools,
universities, police training centers and other investigative units.
 Respond to queries of all investigative units and render expert opinion regarding
matters related to the application of chemical principles for the purpose of
assisting investigators in developing investigative leads.
 Conduct Field laboratory work and clandestine laboratory investigation.
 Respond to queries of all investigative units and render experts’ opinion
regarding matters related to the application of chemical principles for the purpose
of assisting investigators in developing investigative leads.
 Testify and give expert opinion in court.
 Perform all other official duties assigned by the Director of PNPCL and his duly
authorized representatives.
3. PHYSICAL IDENTIFICATION DIVISION

Functions/Capabilities
 Conduct analysis and comparison of specimen to determine its nature,

composition, quality or source such as hair, fibers, debris, metals, paints, woods,
restoration of serial numbers of motor vehicles and firearms, ultraviolet
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examination in entrapment and buy-bust operations, bullet trajectory in shooting
incidents and casting and molding of different types of impressions and tool
marks examination.
 Assist investigators in the proper collection, handling and preservations of
physical evidence.
 Conduct researches before their adaptation, give lectures, technical opinion and
testimony in both civil and criminal courts.
 Perform all other official duties assigned by the Director of PNPCL and his duly
authorized representatives.
4. FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION DIVISION
5. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION DIVISION
6.QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION DIVISION FUNCTIONS/ CAPABILITIES
7. POLYGRAPH DIVISION FUNCTIONS/CAPABILITIES
8.FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY DIVISION FUNCTIONS/CAPABILITIES
What is Evidence?
Evidence is the means of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth

respecting a matter of fact. (Section 1, Rules on Evidence)
Evidence is defined as that which is legally submitted to a competent tribunal as

a means of ascertaining the truth of any alleged matter of fact under investigation before
it. Evidence is also anything which a suspect leaves at a crime scene or takes from the
crime scene, or which may be otherwise connected with the crime. Evidence can be
anything that tends to prove or disprove an issue in questioned. Is evidence
admissible?
Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is not excluded by the
law or by the Rules on Evidence. Evidence must have such a relevance the fact in issue
as to induce belief in the existence of non-existence. Evidence on collateral matters
shall not be allowed, except when it tends in any reasonable degree to establish the
probability or improbability of the fact in issue.
Scientific evidence, likewise, may be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of

ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein
scientific knowledge is necessary.
Types of Evidence:
Evidence can be divided into two types namely testimonial evidence and real,
or what is commonly referred to as physical evidence.
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Testimonial evidence is comprised of evidence that is provided in the form of a
statement of testimony provided under oath. Testimonial evidence is usually subjected
to questioning and additional clarification.
Physical Evidence is any type of evidence having an objective existence, that is, any
dimension, size or shape. Physical evidence can take almost any form and can be as
minute as a microscopic fiber in a rape case, or an odor of a flammable liquid at the
scene of a fire, or as large as an automobile involved in a hit and run accident. It
encompasses any and all objects that can establish that a crime has been committed or
can provide a link between a crime and its victim or a crime and its perpetrator.
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Real of Autoptic evidence – It is that evidence which is addressed to the

senses of the court. It is not limited to that which can be known by the sense of
vision, but extends to those which are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste,
smell or touch.
Testimonial evidence – An expert may be placed on the witness stand and
answer all questions to be propounded by both parties in the case. It is a solemn
declaration made orally by a witness under oath in response to interrogation by a
lawyer.
Experimental evidence – An expert witness may be required to perform certain
experiments to prove a certain matter of fact. The court, however, in its own
discretion may or may not allow this kind of evidence.
Documentary evidence – Any written evidence presented by an expert in court
which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules
of Court. Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates and dispositions are
included in this group.
WITNESS – One who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or

experience of something. A person, other than the suspect who is requested to
give information concerning an incident or person. He may be a victim,
complainant, an accuser, a source of information and an observer of an
occurrence. A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
An ordinary witness is one who states facts and may not express his
opinions or conclusion. He may testify to impressions of common experience
such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a man, woman or
child. Beyond this is closely limited.
As ordinary witness, the Rules of Court requires that the person must have the
following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
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2. The perception gathered by his organ can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by the law, Sec.
26, Rules 123, Rules of Court.
An expert witness is one who possesses a special skill be it in art, trade

or science or one who has special knowledge in matters not generally
known to men of ordinary education and experience. He is a person
skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses
information not within the common knowledge of man.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORDINARY AND EXPERT WITNESS
1. An ordinary witness can only state what his senses have perceived while an
expert witness may state what he has perceived and also give his opinions,
deductions or conclusions to his perceptions.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he is testifying while an
expert witness must be skilled in art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived
except those provided by law while an expert witness may testify on things
which he has not seen by giving his opinions, deductions or conclusions on
the statement of facts.
PROBATIVE VALUE OF EXPERT TESTIMONY – Whether court are, or are not bound
by the testimony of an expert, depends upon the nature of the subject of inquiry. If the
subject comes within the general knowledge of the judge, the latter will not feel bound
by the conclusion of the expert as for example when the question of the genuineness of
a handwriting as compared to a standard is in issue. (Paras vs. Narcisio, 35 Phil 244;
Dolor vs. Diancin, 55 Phil. 479). When, however, the subject of inquiry is of such a
nature that a layman can have no knowledge thereof, as for example, in the
determination of parentage by blood test, the court must be dependent on expert
evidence.
In weighing the testimony of an expert, all the circumstances of the case must be
taken into consideration, among them (a) the degree of learning of the witness; (b)
the basis and logic of the conclusion; and (c) the other proof of case.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Introduction:
Physical evidence is any evidence introduced in a trial in the form of a physical

object intended to prove a fact in issue based on its demonstrable physical
characteristics. Physical evidence can conceivably include all or part of any object.
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In a murder trial for example (or a civil trial for assault), the physical evidence
might include DNA left by the attacker on the victim’s body, the body itself, the weapon
used, pieces of carpet spattered with blood, or casts of footprints or tire prints found
at the scene of the crime.
The value of physical evidence is determined by how useful it is in verifying that a

crime has been committed, identifying the person or persons who did it, and
exonerating all other persons who may be under suspicion.
Physical evidence speaks for itself. It doesn’t forget, or become flustered on the
stand. Eyewitnesses often see things differently and seldom do two witnesses provide
identical observations. Frequently, witnesses will fill in gaps in their testimony when they
didn’t really see everything. Additionally, with time and under cross-examination
witnesses freeze and fail to provide the testimony they previously offered. This never
happens with physical evidence.
Common terms in naming physical evidence
a. Exhibit- an object or document used as evidence to be presented in court

b. Specimen- a usual term of chemist in the laboratory, composed of the whole bulk of
evidence.
c. Sample- part of selected from evidence for laboratory examination.
Classification of examining physical evidence
Identification- determination of physical and chemical identity of a substance.

This employ standard and specific test.
Comparison- done by subjecting questioned specimen and control specimen to the
same test for the purpose of determining whether or not they have the same
origin
Considerations in Establishing of Physical Evidence
1.Individual characteristics- attributed from a common source with an extremely high

degree of certainty. The following are example of evidence with individual characteristic.
 Striation markings of bullet made by the gun barrel and tool marks
 Ridges of fingerprint
 Footwear impression
 Handwriting
“probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations of human comprehension”
-Victor Baltazar
20
2.Class characteristics- property of evidence that can only be associated with a group
and never with a single source. Evidence that can only be identified by placing it into a
particular class, regardless of the amount of thoroughness of examination. A definite
identification as to its source can never be made, since there is possibility of more than
one source for this evidence. The property is the same throughout the whole group not
by a single specimen. The following are example of evidence with class characteristic;
 Layers of paint
 Blood
 Hairs and fibers
The problem with class characteristic is that when the forensic examiner cannot
distinguish one evidence from the group to which that evidence belongs.
By experience, most evidence collected possess class than individual

characteristics. Thus, when dealing with more than one type of Class evidence, their
collective presence yields a high certainty that they originated from the same source.
Such condition can serve as corroborative evidence which the investigator can use in
establishing a case. In cases involving evidence with class characteristics, the
following are desirable:
a. A preponderance (prevalence, majority) of such evidence

b. Probability
c. Rarity
d. Theory of Transfer
“EVERY CONTACT LEAVES A TRACE” – Dr. Edmond Locard
“When two objects come into contact, there will frequently be a transfer of small
amounts of material from one to the other. Thus, when suspects come in contact
with the victim and object at the crime scene, they frequently leave behind traces of
themselves and take with them traces of any objects touched. This also applies to
police officers, and crime scene specialists.
e. Comparisons
Purpose of Physical Evidence

1. Proves theory to a case (To prove that a crime has been committed, or
establish key elements of the crime).
Example: Fire investigators might collect pieces of carpeting at the scene of a
house fire and have it tested for the presence of flammable liquids. If such a
21
substance was presence of flammable liquids. If such a substance was present
inside the home, such physical evidence could be used to prove that the fire was
deliberately set. This would establish one of the elements of arson.
2. To link a suspect with the victim or with the crime scene.

Example: The suspect in a burglary might be apprehended shortly after the crime
and subjected to a seizure of his clothing. A laboratory examination of a clothing
could reveal hairs identical to those of the victim, or pets in the home, or even
carpet fibers originating from the scene of the crime.
3. To establish the identity of persons associated with a crime.

Example: A serial rape suspect may be subjected to DNA testing and be
positively linked to each of the rapes.
4. To exonerate the innocent.

Example: A store clerk claimed that she was sexually assaulted by her store
manager after closing. She tells the authorities that she was drugged, passed out
and then awoke to discover that she had been sexually abused. When the police
analyzed her urine the results did not indicate the presence of any type of drugs.
When later confronted, she confessed that she had made up the story to get
back at her boss for his mean behavior towards her.
5. To corroborate victim’s testimony.

Example: A suspect in a serious assault case was positively identified by the
suspect as the perpetrator. During the attack, the victim as severely beaten and
forced to kiss the suspects feet and beg for mercy. When the suspect was
arrested minute traces of the victims’ blood was later identified on his shoes,
thereby corroborating his testimony.
6. Negative evidence can help provide proof.

Example: A homeowner submits a large claim to the insurance company for a
burglary. In the claim the homeowner asks for reimbursement for various jewels,
electronics and other high priced belongings. When confronted with the obvious
lack of forced entry and no receipts, the homeowner confesses to the fraudulent
scheme.
7. Physical evidence can be more important than eyewitnesses’ testimony.

8. To satisfy the general rules of evidence.
9. Identify property or contraband connected with a crime, or proving
involvement by the suspect/s.
10. Develop modus operandi (methods of operation or show similar MO’s)
11. To induce a suspect to make admissions, or even confess.
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Example: A suspect in a murder was told that his particular brand of cigarette
had been discovered at the scene of the murder, along with his saliva,
identified through DNA testing. The suspect had steadfastly denied ever
being at the victims’ home, faced with this convincing physical evidence, the
suspect immediately changed his alibi and admitted that he had been at the
suspects home prior to the murder.
Sources of Physical Evidence
1. The Crime Scene

2. The Victim
3. The Suspect and his/her Environment
What are the implications of proper evidence processing to forensic
examinations?
1. Proper handling or physical evidence is necessary to obtain the maximum

possible information upon which scientific examination shall be based and
to prevent its exclusion as evidence in competent court.
2. Specimens which truly represent the material evidence found at the crime
scene, and remain unaltered, unspoiled, or otherwise unchanged, in the
course of handling, would provide more and better scientific information
upon examination.
Chain of Custody – Generally, in order for evidence to be admissible in a court of law,

strict accountability must be established to show where, when and how an item of
evidence was collected. In addition, sufficient testimony must be presented to establish
the “chain of custody”. The chain of custody of an item of evidence shows the
entire history, starting with its initial discovery, collection, packaging,
transportation, examination, storage, and presentation in court.
The chain of custody of an item is detailed history of everything that took place
concerning a particular piece of evidence. In order for the evidence to be admissible in
court, there must be an absolute accounting for its whereabouts and access by every
person from the time of recovery to its presentation in court.
When is the collection of evidence accomplished?
This is accomplished after the search is completed, the rough sketch is

completed and the rough sketch finished and photographs taken.
Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence
Handling physical evidence means recognition, identification, collection,

preservation, and the appropriate manner of packing an evidence. Evidence must be
protected to its utmost care to prevent contamination and deterioration especially
those that are fragile in nature.
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Essentially at crime scene, the process at proper handling the physical evidence
is very important. Objects which truly represent the material found at the scene of
the crime as unaltered, unspoiled or otherwise unchanged in handling will furnish a
better information upon examination. Physical evidence once identified, properly
collected, preserved and packed would provide convenience and ease for the
forensic analysts in their routine of examination. Results from various scientific
examination performed into an evidence could illustrate the possible re-enactment of
how the crime was committed and prevent exclusion as exhibit in court. Courts
require legal ramification of accounting of evidence from the time it is collected until
it is presented as exhibit.
What are the principles to be observed in handling all types of physical evidence?
1. The evidence should reach the laboratory as much as possible in same condition
as when it is found.
2. The quantity of specimen should be adequate. Even with the best equipment
available, good results cannot be obtained from insufficient specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard specimen for comparison purposes.
4. Keep each specimen separate from others or there will be no intermingling or
mixing of known and unknown material. Wrap and seal in individual packages
when necessary.
5. Mark or label each piece of evidence for positive identification as the evidence
taken from a particular location in connections with the crime under investigation.
6. The chain of custody of evidence must be maintained. Account for evidence form
the time it is collected until it is produced in court. Any break in this chain of
custody may make the material inadmissible in court.
What are the evidence collection and preservation guidelines in handling for the
following types of evidence?
• Biological Evidence • Trace Evidence

1. Blood and Blood Stains 4. Hairs
2. Semen and Seminal Stains 5. Fibers
3. Saliva 6. Glass
Fractures/Fragments
7. Paints
8. Arson Evidence
9. Explosive Evidence
 Other Physical Evidence
11. Seized Drugs 10. Tool Marks
12. Poisons
24
LESSON PLAN
WEEK 2 (First Meeting)
I. INTRODUCTION:
3. Recapitulation of previous lessons learned.
1. Preparation of the learning equipment
2. Preparation of the lecture presentation
II. PRESENTATION:
Biological Evidence
-Blood
-Semen/Seminal Stains
-Vaginal fluids
-Saliva
-Urine
-Perspiration
-Tissue, epithelial (skin) cells
-DNA Evidence
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET
on the role and importance in the proper collection, preservation and handling of
biological evidence in the field of investigation.

Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and short
quiz.
25
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
1. Blood – can be grouped and examined for its DNA pattern. The examination of
blood evidence can also determine if an offender is a secretor or non-secretor
A. Liquid Blood Samples
• a. Blood that is in liquid pools should be picked up on a gauze pad or

other clean sterile cotton cloth and allowed to air dry thoroughly at room
temperature.
• b. Do not dry the blood stained materials directly under the sunlight or
with the use of electric fan.
• c. They should be separately placed in a paper bag and brought to the
laboratory as quickly
• d. Bring along with the stained questioned material unstained portion to
serve as control in the analysis to be conducted
B. Dried Blood Stains
a. On clothing, if possible, wrap the items in clean paper, place the article in a
brown paper bag or box and seal and label container. Do not attempt to remove
stains from the cloth.
b. On small solid objects, send the whole stained object to the laboratory, after
labeling and packaging.
c. On large solid objects, cover the stained area with clean paper and seal the
edges down with tape to prevent loss or contamination.
d. If impractical to deliver the whole object to the laboratory scrape the stained
onto a clean piece of paper which can be folded and placed in an envelope. Get
also unstained portion of the specimen as control.
e. Do not scrape dried bloodstain directly into evidence envelope. Scrape blood
from objects using a freshly washed and dried knife or similar tool. Wash and dry
the tool before each stain in scraped off. Seal and mark the envelope.
f. Do not mix dried stain. Place each stain in a separate envelope.
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g. Never attempt to wipe dried stain from an object using a moistened cloth or
paper.
2. Semen/Seminal Stains – is the male reproductive fluid. Not only can DNA
analysis of semen provide positive personal identification of the source, it can
also serve as corroborating evidence when recovered at the crime scene or from
the victim or victim’s clothing. When wet, semen is grayish-white in color and
bears a chlorine-like odor. When dry it is stiff and starch like in consistency.
a. Relates the laws pertaining to HIV testing for the offender(s). These forms usually
will outline the applicable laws relating to the mandatory taking of samples from
suspects in sex related crimes. These forms also usually indicate when this information
can be released and to whom.
b. Swabs to collect oral, vaginal, anal, cervical, and bite mark/licking samples.
c. Allow seminal stains found on clothing, blankets and sheet to air dry.
d. Wrap in paper and package them in paper bags.
e. Do not use plastic bags.
3. Vaginal fluids
Vaginal swabbing is examined for comparative value as well as to determine the

presence of spermatozoa or seminal fluid within the vaginal cavity or anal tract.
4. Saliva – Known saliva samples for both the victim and offender(s) should be obtained
and submitted for serologic examination. Saliva can provide invaluable evidence
concerning the blood type of its depositor, for later DNA analysis. At the crime scene,
saliva can be found on cigarette butts, cups, glasses, toothpicks and other items placed
in the mouth.
6. Urine – Analysis of a urine sample may for example verify a victim’s assertion that
he/she was drugged prior to the crime. Is ordinarily associated with some sex offenses
and breaking and entering. If sufficient quantity exists, it is possible to distinguish
between animal and human origin, as well as the alcohol content of the contributor.
7. Perspiration – Perspiration is difficult to analyze for blood group substances.

Essentially it is treated the same as urine and it is identified and typed in the same
manner as urine.
8. Tissue, epithelial (skin) cells – Fingernail scrapings are a form of evidence

collection, for they have the potential of revealing the presence of tissue and epithelial
cells retained during a struggle or assault. Epithelial cells are skin cells that comprise
27
the uppermost layer of the skin and are easily sloughed. Both epithelial and tissue cells
can be forensically examined and grouped into DNA patterns.
DNA Evidence
• Biological Samples for DNA Analysis • Quantities
a. Whole blood/Blood stains 1-2 ml/1 gram
b. Saliva/Buccal Scrapings 4 cotton buds
c. Semen/Seminal Stains 3 swabs
d. Urine 100 ml
e. Hairs w/ Follicies or Root 2-5 pcs
f. Muscle Tissue and Cells 15 mg each
g. Bones and Organs 1-5 grams
h. Sperm cells 3 swabs
i. Dried Tissues 100 mg
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LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
1.Recapitulation of Previous Lessons
2.Preparation of the lecture presentation
II. PRESENTATION:
Trace Evidence
-Hair Strands
-Fibers
-Glass Fractures/Fragments
-Paint
-Arson Evidence
-Explosive Evidence
-Tool Marks
Other Pieces of Physical Evidence

a. Seized Drug Evidence
b. Toxicological (Poisons) Evidence
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on the
role and importance of proper collection, handling and preservation of trace evidence in
the field of investigation
Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and quiz.
29
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
TRACE EVIDENCE
One of the most common types of physical evidence that an investigator and/or
crime scene specialist will encounter will be trace evidence. Trace evidence is a
generic term for small, often microscopic material. It is material found at a crime
scene or accident scene in small but measurable amounts. This is important as it can
definitively link an individual or object to the scene. Trace evidence is based on Locard's
exchange principle which contends that every contact no matter how slight will leave a
trace. The trace is normally caused by objects or substances contacting one another,
and leaving a minute sample on the contact surfaces. Material is often transferred by
heat induced by contact friction. The paramount importance is the basic rule- avoid
contamination of evidence. There must be ensured that evidence gathered from the
suspect and the victim are not intermingled. Both must be individually collected,
properly marked, placed on a clean piece of paper, which is folded and put in a clean
container, and properly separated during packing for transmittal to the laboratory.
Locard's exchange principle
The Locard exchange principle, also known as Locard's theory, was

postulated by 20th century forensic scientist Edmond Locard.
Locard was the director of the very first crime laboratory in existence, located in
Lyon, France. Locard's exchange principle states that "with contact between two items,
there will be an exchange" (Thornton, 1997).
Essentially Locard's principle is applied to crime scenes in which the

perpetrator(s) of a crime comes into contact with the scene, so he will both bring
something into the scene and leave with something from the scene. Every contact
leaves a trace.
“Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even

unconsciously, will serve as a silent witness against him. Not only his
fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he
breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he
deposits or collects. All of these and more, bear mute witness against him. This is
evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment.
30
It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical
evidence cannot be wrong, it cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent.
Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value”.
- Professor Edmond Locard
Examples of typical trace evidence in criminal cases include hairs, fibers, glass,
paint chips, soils, botanical materials, gunshot residue, explosives residue, and volatile
hydrocarbons (arson evidence). For such evidence to be useful, it must be compared to
similar items from suspects, but particular care is necessary to ensure a thorough
analysis.
Ladder feet often leave a trace pattern on the ground, so showing how the ladder
moved and caused an accident to the user. Skid marks from tires are often critical in
determining the sequence of events before and during a car crash. Vehicular accident
reconstruction relies on such marks to estimate vehicle speed before and during an
accident, as well as braking and impact forces.
1. Hair strands – Each hair found at the crime scene must be compared with a
standard sample obtained from all possible sources. Head and pubic hairs have
great evidentiary value and should be collected from all sources. Hair can be
used both for comparison analysis as well as DNA analysis.
Search, Collection of Hair as Evidence
1. Searching for Hair:
The most difficult task faced by crime scene specialist is to initially locate hair
evidence at the crime scene. The search for hair at the crime scene must be thorough,
detailed and exact.
Other areas to search include the following:
Victim’s body (especially in sex crimes, underneath the fingernails and any
upholstered surfaces such furniture and car seats.
Head gear and clothing with special attention given to lining, pockets and
underwear.
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2. Collection of Hair:
• Hair discovered at the crime scene should be carefully removed or pick with the
use of fingers or a pair of tweezers;
• It should be placed in a clean container, such as a pill box, paper bindles or coin
envelopes which should then be folded and sealed in larger envelopes. Care
should be taken during folding to avoid kinking the hair. Label the outer sealed
envelope.
• If a pill box is used, the entire length of the hair is in the box and it is not crushed
when the lid is put on;
• If hair is attached, such as in dry blood, or caught in metal or a crack of glass, do
not attempt to remove it, but rather leave hair intact on the object. If the object is
small, mark it, wrap it, and seal it in an envelope. If the object is large, wrap the
area containing the hair in paper to prevent loss of hairs during shipment.
• After collecting all visible items of evidence at the crime scene, the premises are
swept with a vacuum sweeper that has filter attachment. The contents of the
vacuum will then be placed in plastic bags and properly labeled.
• Avoid contamination of the evidence. Hair evidence is particularly susceptible to
cross contamination.
• Hair evidence gathered from the suspect and from the victim must not be
intermingled.
• Have the person from where the hair strands are collected, bend over a large
sheet of clean paper, rubbing or massaging their hands through the hair so that
loose hair will fall out on the paper. All of the hair in questioned specimens
should be submitted but do not mix hairs at different places.
• When collecting hair standards from a live victim or suspect, the head and pubic
areas should first be combed. Pulling is the recommended method for collecting
hair samples from all persons living or dead.
• More hair should then be gathered by plucking them from representative areas
all over the head using the finger or tweezer. A total of 50-100 hair strands with
roots is desired.
• Do not cut the hair. In rape cases, the victim’s pubic region should be combed
for comparison with unknown specimen. Don’t mix known samples of hair from
different parts of the body.
• Obtain known hair samples from the victim, suspect or any other possible
sources for comparison with unknown specimen.
• The same method may be used to collect hairs from other parts of the body,
when the person is a suspect, hair should be gathered from all parts of the body
even though there may only be an interest in hair from the head at that particular
time.
• If hair is attached such as in dry blood or caught in metal or a crack of glass do
not attempt to remove the hair. In vicious assault and murder cases, obtain the
clothing of the victim from the hospital or morgue to avoid the loss of evidence by
careless handling and to prevent the clothing from being destroyed.
• If the object is small, wrap it and seal it in an envelope. Do not secure the hair
samples to a piece of paper with scotch tape because this will damage the hair.
32
• If the object is large, wrap the area containing the hair in paper to prevent loss of
hair during shipment.
• All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen.
Fragmentary hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable for examination.
• Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane or paper
taped over the area before wrapping the object for transmittal to laboratory.
3. Obtaining Hair Standards:
• Hair standards should be taken from the victim and all possible suspects.
• Standard hair samples are taken from multiple areas of the head (top, side and
back) to ensure representative shade and range of the hair.
• When collecting hair standards from the live victim or suspect, the head and
pubic areas should first be combed before hair samples are collected.
• Pulling is the recommended method for collecting hair samples from all samples,
living or dead.
• If for some reason the hair samples are cut, the cut should be made as close to
the skin as possible.
• If pets or fur are involved in the investigation, hair standards should also be
obtained from them.
In rape cases, the victim’s pubic region should be combed prior to collecting
standards. Obtain known hair samples from the victim, suspect, or any other possible
sources for comparison with unknown specimens. The recommended method for
collecting head hairs is to start by having the person from whom they are being
collected bend over a large sheet of clean paper, rubbing or massaging their hands
through the hair so that loose hair will fall out on the paper. More should then be
gathered by plucking them from representative areas all over the head. A total of 50-100
hairs is desired. Do not cut the hair. This same method may be used to collect hairs
from other parts of the body. 30-60 pubic hairs are required. When the person is a
suspect, hair should be gathered from all parts of the body even though there may only
be interest in hair from the head at that particular time.
New comb and/or clean tweezers or scissors should be used in taking hair
standard sample to avoid contamination
2. Fibers – The location and collection of fiber evidence at a crime scene can be a
difficult task. Due to their minute size and composition, fibers must be sought out in a
thorough, detailed and exacting fashion. Search on clothing, headgear, and pay
particular attention to linings, pockets, and cuff. The general crime scene itself should
be carefully searched for all fiber evidence, particularly any location that may have been
the site of a struggle or assault.
a. If threads or large fibers are found they can be picked up with the fingers and placed
in a paper packet which in turn is placed in another paper envelope which can be
sealed and marked.
33
b. Never place loose fibers directly into a mailing envelope
c. Avoid contamination of evidence. Fiber evidence is susceptible to cross

contamination. The crime scene specialist must ensure that evidence gathered from the
suspect and from the victim are not intermingled.
d. Both evidence must be individually collected, properly marked, placed on a clean

piece of paper, which is folded and put in a clean container, and properly separated
during packing for transmittal
d. When fibers or threads are recovered, always send all clothing of persons from
which they might have originated to the laboratory for comparison purposes.
3. Glass Fractures/Fragments
a. Shoes and clothing of suspects or other objects contaminated with glass

should be wrapped in paper and submitted to the laboratory for examination.
b. All glass found in a hit-and-run scene should be recovered. The search

should not be limited to the point of impact since headlight glass maybe dropped off at
some distance away as the car leaves the crime scene.
c. In cases where the direction of the breaking force is required, pieces left
undisturbed in the window must be marked as to inside, outside, top, and bottom, and
all available glass must be submitted so that enough pieces can be fitted together to
identify the radial cracks near the point of impact, and the point of impact.
d. Glass from different locations should be kept in different containers.
e. Particles of a broken glass form hit-and-run vehicle are often present on the
victim’s clothing and consequently, broken glass from the accident may also be found
embedded in the driver’s shoes.
f. Place small glass fragments in paper packet, then in pill boxes or film cans
which can be marked and completely sealed.
g. Place large glass fragments in boxes.
Collection of Glass as Evidence
Where pieces are large enough to fit together, all available glass must be
submitted to increase the probability of matching edges.
Large fragments of glass must be placed in large containers that will prevent
further breakages.
34
In cases where the direction of the breaking force is required, pieces left
undisturbed in the window must be marked as to the inside, outside, top, and
bottom, and all available glass must be submitted so that enough pieces can be
fitted together to identify the radial cracks near the point of impact, and the point
of impact.
Particles of broken glass from a hit-and-run vehicle are often present on the
victim’s clothing. Many times, the driver of a hit-and-run vehicle will emerge from
the vehicle to determine what was hit, or how seriously the victim was injured.
Consequently, broken glass from the accidents may also be found embedded in
the driver’s shoes.
A suspect’s clothing and shoes should be collected in a similar manner to the

collection of fiber evidence.
Tools, shoes, and other evidence connected with the suspect should be packaged
separately and sealed
4. Paint – When one thinks of a paint, the first identifying characteristics that comes to
mind is usually color. Color is determined by the use of various dyes or granules of
pigment in the paint. Aside from color, paint also has a wide variety of other
distinguishing characteristics. These include its general composition, i.e. oil-based,
acrylic, water-based (latex), etc., as well as its texture and finish, such as flat, semi-
gloss or gloss. All of these characteristics combined create a very unique paint
signature.
a. Paint if found on the garment of the hit-and-run victim must not be removed.
The garment must be properly marked and carefully wrapped by rolling it in paper and
send it to the laboratory.
b. Obtain samples for comparison from all areas showing fresh damage on
suspected vehicles. This is very important since the paint may be different in Type or
composition in different areas, even if the color is the same.
c. If the paint can be flaked-off by bending the metal slightly, remove it in this
manner. If not, scrape or chip the paint off, using a clean knife blade. Carefully wipe the
blade before collecting each sample. Collect all layers down to the metal.
d. Place each sample in a separate container.
e. When cross transfer of paints occurs in hit and run cases of two or more
vehicles and the transfer are smeared on the surfaces, flake off chips or scrape paint
35
from the vehicle, including the transferred paint as well as the top layers of paint
originally on the car.
f. Keep all transfers recovered from different areas in separate containers. Do not
place samples directly into envelope-place into paper packet or pill box first.
g. Generally paint as evidence may be collected in one of the following forms:

small flakes or chips, traces of oxidized (chalking) paint, smears from fresh paint, and
intact painted surface or item.
h. In order to make a comparison, standards or samples of paint that have known

origin must be taken. When samples are collected from any painted surface, the paint
should be chipped rather than scraped off.
5. Arson Evidence
a. For arson debris, collect materials from the lower layer of the fallen debris,
which may appear to have traces of gasoline or any other incendiary. See to it that all
materials collected from separate areas of the house be packed in separate containers.
Two to three quartz of ash and soot debris must be collected at the point of origin of a
fire.
b. Specimens should be immediately packed in an airtight container. Use new

clean paint cans with friction lids because they are airtight, unbreakable. Wide-mouthed
glass jars can be used provided they contain airtight lids. Leave an air space in the
container above the debris.
c. If volatile liquids are found in open containers, pour a small amount of the
materials into a clean glass vial with an air tight seal so no loss will occur. Do not use
any rubber-lined lids on plastic container.
d. Small sample of soils, woods, cloth, rags or paper etc, should be placed in
small clean metal cans and sealed immediately to prevent loss of additional volatile
components by evaporation. The container should be marked.
e. Collect clothing of the suspect/perpetrator and place in a separate airtight

container. Freeze sample containing soil or vegetation.
6. Explosive Evidence
CONDUCTING A CRIME SCENE SEARCH
a. Principles- Processing a bombing crime scene, in spite of often massive

destruction, must be conducted on the theory that everything at the crime scene, prior to
the explosion, is still present unless it has been vaporized by the explosion.
36
b. Safety Issues -Prior to processing a bomb scene, the damaged area should
be checked by bomb disposal technicians for unexploded bombs and secondarily by
engineers for hazardous structural conditions. All damaged utilities should be identified
and turned off before starting the processing operations. Safety conditions should be
evaluated on a continuing basis throughout the search.
c. Handling Explosives – Bombs or other explosive devices should only be

handled by qualified bomb disposal personnel. Undetonated explosive residues, spilled
explosives, and explosive devices left behind by the suspect must not be touched. Even
a small amount of explosive residue can be detonated and cause a serious explosion.
d. Protection of the Crime Scene – Adequate safeguards should be taken to

protect the crime scene. Unlike most crime scenes, the scene of explosion frequently
attracts a large number of people such as police, fire department personnel, medical
personnel, utility companies, property owners, the media and on-lookers. Any
individuals who are not needed at the crime scene need to be removed. Since most
residues remaining after detonation of an explosive are water soluble, the crime scene
should be protected as much as possible from exposure to moisture, such as rain,
snow, broken pipes, etc.
e. Extent of the Crime Scene – The extent of the crime scene must be
identified. The site of the explosion can be a focal point, and the location farthest from
the site where fragments from the explosion were located can define the outer perimeter
of the scene. A buffer area should be added and should be equal to approximately half
the distance from the site to where the most remote piece of evidence was located.
Evidence has been found up to several blocks away from a large explosion.
The initiation of the search normally starts at the site of the explosion and works
outward. If the bomb crater is in earth, obtain soil samples from the perimeter, sides and
bottom of the crater. Soil samples should also be taken away from the scene for
comparison purposes.
SEARCHING THE SCENE FOR EVIDENCE
The search for evidence at a bombing scene is critical. The crime scene will contain
important evidence for identifying the suspect and assist in the successful prosecution
of the crime. The exact method of searching will depend on various uncontrollable
factors.
a. Investigation of the scene of a bombing is a time-consuming task that requires

a considerable amount of physical work and attention to minute pieces of physical
evidence. The search is also dirty work and will require the crime scene specialist to sift
through large quantities of debris to locate items of evidence.
37
b. One person should be placed in charge of the collection of evidence from the
various collectors. Valuable evidence may not be admissible in court if a proper “chain
of custody” cannot be established. The location where any evidence is recovered must
be documented.
c. The search for evidence should not be concentrated on only obvious

explosive-related physical evidence such as safety fuse, blasting caps, timing
mechanisms, pieces of wire, batteries, and other explosive residues. This may cause
other valuable evidence to be overlooked. Other evidence to look for include:
1. Fingerprints 5. Metals
2. Hairs and fibers 6. Writing paper, printing, cardboard, leather, and wood
3. Soil, blood, paint, plastic and tape 7. Tire thread and shoe print impressions
4. Tools and/or tool marks
d. The search of the crime scene should not be stopped after a few items have
located. The search must be well-organized and thorough to prevent the necessity of a
second search.
e. The probable flight path of the bomb components should be determined to

prevent needless searches. Trees, shrubbery, telephone poles, and the roofs, ledges
and gutters of nearby buildings need to be searched. A search pattern should be
established for large areas. A satisfactory method is a line of searchers who move
forward. The areas to be searched should be chartered to ensure a thorough search
pattern.
f. Any items that are foreign to the scene and items that the searchers cannot
identify need to be retained. Small debris should be sifted through a ¼” wire screen onto
and insect-type screen. These screens are usually place onto 2 foot square wooden
frames constructed from 2 x 4 inches lumber.
g. Evidence log – Due to the large number of persons involved with the bomb
scene search and the amount of evidence to be collected, an evidence log should be
kept to detail each item collected, including the date, time, and name of the person who
collected the material. Using this log facilitates establishing a chain of evidence and
makes the inventory of all the evidence easier.
38
7.Tool Marks
Preservation and Packaging of Tools
All areas on recovered tools should be wrapped in paper and packaged to

prevent the prying blades or cutting edges from contacting any other surface or object.
Attempts should never be made to fit tools into questioned marks or to make test
marks prior to Laboratory examination.
a. Preserve the tool marks as they were found at the crime scene. Secure the
intact object bearing the tool marks and submit this to the laboratory.
b. If you cannot submit the whole intact object bearing the tool marks, detach that
portion of the intact object bearing the tool mark as fender of a car or a doorjamb and
submit this to the laboratory. But before a portion of the intact object bearing the tool
marks is removed, take a photo of the entire object. Submit this photograph along with
the detached portion of the intact object to the laboratory.
c. If removal of the portion bearing the tool marks is possible, then make a
casting of the impression with any applicable reproduction material and submit the
same to the laboratory.
d. Fasten an evidence tag and mark it with your initials, the date and exhibit
number.
OTHER PIECES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
a. Seized Drug Evidence
a. Do not mix drug specimens in a single bag even if they were found close to
each other or even if they are similar in appearance.
b. Within 24 hours upon seizure, drugs must be submitted to a Forensic

Laboratory for examination.
-Actual weighing of bulk evidence must be witness by requesting party.
-Initial laboratory report is available after 2 hours of receipt of request.
c. Drugs submitted for examination come in powders/crystals, tablets and

capsules, living plants or dried vegetable matter and liquids.
d. Drug describing physical evidence
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- number of articles
- manner of packaging
- container
- markings
-contents
Manner of Packaging before submission of evidence to the laboratory
a. Tape-sealed carton box

b. Heat-sealed transparent plastic bag
c. Self-sealing transparent plastic bag
d. Knot-tied
b. Poisons
COLLECTION OF SPECIMEN
a. Collect all left over food and empty containers and place them in separate
containers.
b. Never add any preservative to the samples which will be subjected to

toxicological examination in order to obtain conclusive results.
c. The toxicological evidence contained in a glass bottle with lid should be kept in
an ice-filled container during shipment to the laboratory.
PRESERVATION OF SPECIMEN FOR TOXICOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

1. Blood – Place in a test tube with sodium oxalate or anticoagulant.
2. Refrigerated with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) good for 72 hours.
3. Chemical preservatives – 100 ml of ethyl alcohol (95%) for each 100 grams of
sample and extra 250 ml for analysis.
4. Do not use denatured alcohol, rubbing alcohol or similar preservative since
denaturants will give false and misleading results in the analysis.
Checklist for submitting evidence to the Laboratory
Before submitting the evidence to the laboratory, the following checklist should be
conducted: (The answer to each question should be yes)
1. Did I collect all the available evidence in this case?
40
2. Did I collect sufficient amount of each type?
3. Was I careful not to alter the material in handling and in preparing it for
transmittal to the laboratory?
4. In packing:
a. Did I properly label each piece of specimen individually and make references
that I can identify later?
b. Did I wrap the various specimens separately to prevent contamination?
c. Did I pack the specimen properly?
d. Did I use a clean container for the specimen?
e. Did I secure properly the specimen in the container?
f. Did I seal it in such a manner as to prevent its being spilled opened by

accident?
g. Did I address the package properly?
In order for the laboratory examiners to perform and render their reports
promptly, a ready reference of information about the case is necessary that should be
reflected in the “evidence tag”.
=Date when the evidence was collected. This may not be the same date
as when the offense was committed.
=Names of victims and suspect, with their addresses.
=Names of the officer and office submitting the material.
=Type of examination and desired for each specimen submitted
=A brief history of the facts of the case under investigation.
=A list of the specimen submitted and in each instance a brief but
comprehensive description of.
1.) Where the specimen was found in relation to other objects at the crime scene
and peculiarity in any respect.
2.) Any changes in the nature of the evidence which the investigator may have
made either accidentally or unintentionally; and
3.) The exact location on the specimen of spots, stains, marks or areas which
are of primary interest in the case.
*** END of LECTURE 2***
41
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
3. Recapitulations of Previous Lesson
4. Distribution/Critiquing of Lesson examination result
1.Preparation of the learning equipment
II. PRESENTATION:
Forensic Chemistry
-Definition of Forensic Chemistry
- Scope of Forensic Chemistry
-Practice of Forensic Chemistry
-Role of Forensic Chemist/Forensic Chemical Officer in Scientific Investigation
Chemistry of Explosives
- Principles of Explosives
-Classification of Explosives
III. APPLICATION:
different scope of Forensic Chemistry as one of discipline in forensic science and
its’ role in the field of investigation

Class discussion and the cadets will have a case study analysis.
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LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Definition of Forensic Chemistry
Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of chemistry which deals with the
application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection
with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the elucidation of legal
problems.
Is a branch of chemistry that deals with the application of chemical knowledge and
principles in the solution of legal problems in connection with the administration of
justice.
It is an interdisciplinary field of Chemistry tasked to solve cases that can only be

explained or resolved by applying analytical method of investigation and instrumentation
with chemistry as the main core of discussion.
Practice of Forensic Chemistry in the Philippines

In August 1937, the Manila Police Department appointed Miss Marcelina Villanos
as Detective-Chemist detailed at Department of Legal Medicine of University of the
Philippines. She performs laboratory examinations for both Manila Police Department
and Department of Justice.
In December 1937, by virtue of Commonwealth Act 181, the Division of

Investigation, now known as the National Bureau of Investigation were created
with medico-legal section they employed two medico-legal officers and a chemist.
43
In October 1939, Philippine Constabulary established its own Medico- legal
Section with Chemistry Laboratory for the purpose of assisting criminal investigation in
their own jurisdiction.
Current Forensic Chemistry Laboratories in the Philippines;
 Chemistry Division, PNP Crime Laboratory

 Forensic Chemistry Division, NBI
 Laboratory Service, PDEA
Scope of Forensic Chemistry
Forensic chemistry gains its recognition as the central discipline in understanding other
branches of criminalistics such as forensic ballistics, questioned documents, legal
medicines, forensic serology, dactyloscopy, forensic photography, trace analysis and
forensic DNA.
The following are the major scope of Forensic chemistry and physical identification
1. Dangerous drugs
2. Explosives examination
3. Gunshot residue (paraffin casting, distance determination and firearms examination)
4. Forensic Toxicology
5. Blood Alcohol and drug test
6. Examination of fake products for unfair trade competition
7. Arson investigation
8. Number restoration (macro etching)
9. Bullet trajectory
10. Ultraviolet examination
11. Tool marks and other marks
12. Blood and other body fluids
13. Trace evidence
44
Generally, this subject aims to describe the different practices of Criminalistics based on
chemical principles involved in the examination of physical evidences.
PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY – The work of forensic chemist is divided into

four stages, namely (1) collection or reception of the specimen to be examined; (2)
the actual examination; (3) the communication of results of the examination; and
(4) court appearance.
I. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined.

It is most important that whenever possible the chemist should personally collect all
the specimens necessary for the examination. Unless this is done, something essential
to the elucidation of the problem may be omitted and in some cases questions
regarding the collection and transit of the specimen are raised during trial. Furthermore,
the collection, preservation, and transportation of specimens are very essential in the
investigation of a crime. If the chemist will not personally collect the specimen it is
possible that the articles may be taken, handled, or packed in such a way as to render
them almost useless for purposes of examination. Sometimes it is necessary that the
chemist who examines the specimen should know not only the condition but even the
precise position in which the object was found and this can only be done if he is called
at the commencement of the investigation and before anything is removed or disturbed.
The chemist who is assigned to assist in the investigation of a crime should go to the
scene of the crime, make a detailed examination, take notes and measurements, make
sketches if necessary and if possible, take a photograph of the place. He should equip
himself with all necessary containers for the collection of specimens for laboratory
examination. This, however, is not always practicable and, even when practicable, the
necessary is not appreciated. The expert must therefore depend upon the intelligent
assistance of the investigators who must, in the performance of this delicate task, be
guided by the following principles:
a) SUFFICIENCY OF SAMPLES: Police are usually incline to be niggardly in

taking samples probably because they have an unqualified belief in the magic of
such analytical instruments as the microscope and spectrograph. This mistake
should be avoided. If an error is to be committed, let it be in the side of
generosity.
b) STANDARD FOR COMPARISON: If the evidence in question is found in the

presence of foreign substance, a sample of the foreign substance must be
submitted for analysis. For example, if blood is found on a linoleum, a sample of
the unstained linoleum must be submitted together with stained portion. In cases
of adulteration or unfair competition, a genuine sample must be submitted for
comparison. In the examination of hair, textile fibers, soil, etc., samples to be
used as standards for comparison must always be submitted.
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c) MAINTENANCE OF INDIVIDUALITY: Each evidence must be collected and
preserved as a separate sample. There must be no mixing or intermingling of
unknown with known.
d) LABELLING AND SEALING: Evidence will have no value in court in spite of

the good report of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified and possibility
of tampering excluded. Each sample must be labeled. Small fragments should be
enclosed in specimen boxes and the boxes are then sealed, preferably with
sealing wax and thumb mark imprinted on the sealing wax while still warm.
Labels may be placed on the boxes although it is recommended that string tags
must be used whenever possible. The label should include information
concerning the nature and source of the sample, date and time of collection,
case number, if any and name of the person collecting the sample.
II. The actual examination of the specimen:
The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write
down in the laboratory notebook a complete description of its external appearance
including the manner in which it is secured and particulars of the sealing. If possible,
take a photograph of the specimen. The specimen is now opened and any inner
wrappings should be described. Finally, a detailed description of the appearance of the
contents of the package should be given. All wrappers should be kept and sealed,
preserved since questions concerning them may be raised in court during trial.
The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and all
measurements and weights should be entered in the laboratory notebook. The
specimen is then divided into several portions, one to be kept in its condition for further
reference and production in court. If the specimen is a court exhibit, written permission
from the court is necessary before its condition may be changed.
The third step is the chemical, microscopical or physical testing, whichever is

indicated. The detailed procedure of the analysis will be described in the following
chapters for each subject.
Whenever a chemical analysis is made care should be taken that all the
apparatus used are clean, reagents are pure and that all precautions against possibility
of contamination are taken. Blank and control experiments should be made whenever
possible. At every stage of the analysis full notes should be entered in the notebook.
After the examination is finished, the remaining portion of the article or the article
itself should be sealed securely and either kept for production in court or handed over to
the requesting party. It is recommended that the chemist should retain the articles he
examined and should himself produce them in the court.
III. Communication of the results of the examination:
46
The results of the examination conducted will be communicated to the requesting
party in the form of a written report which must include an enumeration of the articles
received for examination with detailed description of the packing, sealing and labeling,
date of receipt and from whom received, the purpose of the examination, the findings
and conclusion. The findings should include a brief but sufficient record of all the
significant facts noted during the examination. It is not, as a rule, necessary to mention
how the analysis has been conducted. Reference to some well-known and established
methods may be allowed. If a quantitative analysis was made it is not necessary to
report the results to more than one decimal point except in cases of poisoning where
the results may be given to tenths or even hundredths of milligram. The conclusion
should be stated definitely and without ambiguity. All opinions should be supported by
the evidence on which they are based. As a rule, the report must be concise and clear,
but efficiency should not be sacrificed for brevity. If photomicrographs or photographs of
the specimen have been made, copies should be attached to the report stating clearly
on the photographs what they represent.
IV. Court appearance:
The written report of the chemist is usually supplemented a later date by oral
evidence if the case is brought to court or fiscal’s office. Since the oral evidence may be
given weeks, months or even years after the work has been made and the written
report, it is not only permissible but necessary that chemist should refresh his memory
by reference to his laboratory notebook before presenting himself in court. It is not
sufficient that these should be consulted for a few minutes immediately before going to
court or while waiting to be called but they should be studied well beforehand. The
chemist should have a thorough knowledge of his subject and of the collateral matters
relating to it. He must anticipate and prepare himself to answer likely questions having
reference to the case and should be prepared to state the degree of accuracy attained.
He should also know the weakness, if any, inherent in the methods and employed and
be ready to meet adverse criticism directed against them. All answers to questions and
all opinion should be definite and free from ambiguity and should be given in simple
language. Lengthy explanation should be avoided as this may weaken the evidence and
raise points that can be used by the opposite party to cast doubts upon it. The witness
must be composed and as much as possible avoid being irritated by up braiding of the
opposite counsel. He must be swayed by passion. He should avoid allowing his
interest in a case or belief in the correctness of his own conclusions to make him an
advocate or partisan. He appears in order to present any facts he may have discovered,
to interpret these and other facts to help the court with his opinions and his evidence
should be given without bias to either side. As Brouardel said, “If the law has made
you a witness, remain a man of Science. You have no victim to avenge, no guilty
47
or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear witness within the limits of
Science.”
ROLE OF FORENSIC CHEMIST/FORENSIC CHEMICAL OFFICER IN SCIENTIFIC

INVESTIGATION
A Forensic Chemist/Forensic Chemical Officer is responsible for applying the

natural and applied sciences to the investigation of crimes by learning to perform
laboratory examinations of physical evidences submitted to the Crime Laboratory.
Methods used by a Forensic Chemist/Forensic Chemical Officer
To examined, evaluate and identify physical evidence, the forensic

chemist/forensic chemical officer utilizes the following:
1. chemicals
2. microscopes
3. chromatographic technique
 Gas Chromatography (GC)
 High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
 Liquid Chromatography
 Paper Chromatography
 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
 Reversed-phase
4. spectroscopic methods
 Infrared (IR)
 Ultraviolet and Visible (UV-Vis)
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

5. Comparative technique
Two General Type of examination in Forensic Chemistry
1. Qualitative examination – identification of substance present in the sample.
2. Quantitative examination – determining the percent purity of the substance.
Explosives under RA 7183 and PD 1866
48
- PD 1866: regulating firearms, ammunition or explosives and its manufacturing
instruments.
-RA 7183: Firecracker and Pyrotechnic Law
The Crime Laboratory does not only examine explosive confiscated from some lawless
elements of society that they utilize for criminal purposes, but also explosives used in illegal
fishing.
Explosives - any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat,
pressure, friction or shock, undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition. It is
also a material that is capable of rapid conversion from either a solid or liquid to a gas
with resultant heat, pressure, and loud noise. When exploded always accompanied with
the liberation of heat and almost with the formation of gas.
RECOGNITION OF EXPLOSIVES
Why Law enforcers should know about explosives
They often encounter them in stations brought by citizens found at construction sites or
have found buried underground or bringing explosive items kept as souvenirs.
Law enforcers encounter these at crime scene as booby traps.
They should know the presence of any explosive items in closing of military bases
because of downsizing (economizing). Some of this land possibly contains toxic
chemicals and explosive ordnance.
Explosives Can Be Classified as follows:
1. From the viewpoint of chemical composition
2. With respect to functioning characteristics
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION
A. Organic Compound: Ex; Trinitrotoluene (TNT); picric acid, (Trinitophenol);

nitrocellulose; mercury fulminate Hg(ONC)
Nitro containing organic compound
a. Carbon-nitro (C-NO2) group
b. Nitrate ester (C-O-NO2) group
c. Nitramines (C-N-NO2) grouip
49
B. Inorganic Compound: Ex; Lead azide Pb(N); Ammonium nitrate NH NO. Salts and
other miscellaneous inorganic explosives
The following are the decomposition product of explosives reaction that can be used as
fingerprint structure for analysis that is responsible for sudden release of energy.
1. -N02 and -NO3 (nitrates and nitrites)
2. -N3 (azides)
3. -NX2 (halogenated amines)
4. -ON=C (fulminates)
5. -OClO2 and -OClO3 (Chlorates and perchlorates)
6. -O-O- and -O-O-O- (peroxides and ozonides)
7. Acetylene and acetylides
8. organometallic
C. Mixture of oxidizable materials and oxidizing agents that are not explosives
separately: Ex; blackpowder – used today mainly as igniter to nitrocellulose gun
propellants and also in pyrotechniques.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING

CHARACTERISITCS
1. Propellants/Low explosives – are combustible materials containing within

themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion which burn but do not explode and
function by producing gas which produces explosion. Damage by low explosives is
caused by the force exerted by the rapid expansion of gases formed by burning. To
explode, low explosives must be confined.
Examples:
a. Black powder – The most common type of low explosive which is a
mixture of potassium or sodium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal. Black
powder is sensitive to heat, impact, friction and sparks. Black powder
can be a destructive explosive when put into a confined area such as a
pipe bomb. Detonation can be easily accomplished by means of a
safety fuse, which is used to initiate explosives non-electrically. If an
unexploded pipe bomb is encountered, it is very important to use
extreme care when opening the device, because it can be set off by
friction.
50
b. Smokeless powder – used mainly for small arms ammunition. It is
also frequently used in pipe bombs. Two types of smokeless powder;
1. Single base – consists of nitrocellulose
2. Double base – composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine.
Smokeless powder is not as sensitive to friction as black powder,
however, it should be handled with the same care used as when
handling black powder.
c. Firecrackers and pyrotechniques
2. Primary Explosives or Indicators - explode or detonate when they are heated or

subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the
elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode and the
explosion results whether they are confined or not.
Examples: mercury fulminate and lead azide
3. High Explosives
In general, high explosives are detonated by shock, have much higher

detonation velocities, and don’t need to be confined to explode. They do not function by
burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally
burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by
external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode.
Examples: ammonium nitrate – most readily available and cheapest salt of nitric
acid. White compound used as a solid oxidizer in explosive mixture.
Dynamite – made by mixing nitroglycerine with powdered clay or sawdust.

TNT – or trinitrotoluene, the most widely used explosive. Used mostly for military
explosive. A safe explosive. It will burn but does not explode if set on fire.
Nitroglycerine (NG) widely used in industrial explosive. Has been the main component
in many dynamites. It is a mixture of nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine. Oily liquid
that is very dangerous because the slightest shake will cause it to explode.
Plastic explosive – a military explosive that looks like ordinary putty or molding clay.
Military explosives are chiefly solids or mixtures so formulated as to be solid at normal
temperature of use.
Picric Acid – also called trinitrophenol
Other Explosives
51
1. C-4 – often referred to as a plastic explosive. White and dough like in consistency. It
is commonly encountered of the RDX based explosive.
2. RDX – (1,3,5 trizacyclophexane). Also called hexogen or cyclonite,
cyclotrimethylenetrinitramite. A plastic explosive. Most important military explosives
used today.
3. Chloroacetophenone (CN) – the principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas
solutions. Commonly used tear gas.
4. Fire Bombs
a. Molotov cocktail – is an incendiary device, not a bomb. Easily constructed of
the most common materials. Consists of frangible container, like glass bottle filled with
gasoline or any inflammable mixture and having a piece of absorbent cloth for a wick or
fuse. To function, the container is turned upside down and the wick absorbs the
flammable mixture which is ignited by the burning wick.
b. Modern Molotov – consists of 2/3 and 1/3 gas and sulfuric acid respectively. A
blotter which has been saturated in potassium chlorate and sugar is wrapped and
secured to the bottle. A snowball consists of potassium chlorate and sugar mixture
embedded in a wax using a length of safety fuse for an ignitor.
c. Acids mixed with the gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle’
d. Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip taped to the bottle
which when thrown will burst violently.
5. Demolition and Fragmentation Explosives
a. Composition A – mixture of RDX, TNT and beeswax.
b. Composition B – is a mixture of RDX, TNT, and beeswax.
c. Composition C – sometimes referred to as plastic explosive, is RDX and inert
plasticizer composition.
d. C-2 – is RDX and explosive plasticizer. Contains no tetryl.
e. C-3 – is RDX and an explosive plasticizer with tetryl substituted in part of RDX.
f. C-4 – is RDX and plastic explosive composition.
SPECIAL CLASSIFICATIONS
A. According to the velocity of reaction involved
High Explosives (detonating charge)
Low explosives (propellants)
52
A1. High Explosives - the speed of its detonation wave equal to 1000 m/s and
pressure equal to thousands of atmospheres. Such intensity can break a material into
fragments long before its opportunity to move away.
A1.2 Classes of High explosives according to their function in explosion
a. Primary explosives - used primarily to start an explosion.
b. Secondary explosives - can be detonated by primary explosives
B. According to their Application or Design
B1. Military explosives:
the following are some of the basic components of military explosives
Composition 4 (C4) - mixtures of RDX + polyisobutylene + di-(2-ethylhexyl) secabate

+ fuel oil
Amatol = 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) + Ammonium Nitrate (AN) mixture
Cyclotol = RDX + TNT
Picratol = TNT + ammonium picrate
Tritonal = TNT + Aluminum
Some common Military Explosives
1. Grenades – derived from greek word “grabatus” as
implied by the Spanish in 16th century.
Granada (Spanish word for pomegranate).
3 main parts of a hand grenade
a. Filler – the chemical or explosive substance in the grenade body.
b. body – this contains the filler and provides fragmentation
c. Fuze assembly – heart of the grenade function to give chain reaction of chemical,
mechanical or electrical actions.
Types: MK2 fragmentation hand grenade
M26 Fragmentation hand grenade
53
2. Fuses - used to initiate explosive in any warhead
2 types of fuse:
a. Point detonated (PD) - by impact, proximity or delay
b. Variable Time (VT)- detonates when the warhead is
at certain distance from the target.
3. Ammunitions
4. Rockets and Missiles
5. Mines
6. Submunitions
7. Air drop
8. Incendiaries - devise that burn rather than explode
9. Chemical ordnance - simple as riot grenade or smoke bomb or as lethal as sarin

nerve gas. US type typically gray with colored bands.
10. Simulators
C. Industrial explosives:
The following are some of the common industrial explosives
Dynamites - first made by Alfred Nobel, it contain up to 75% Nitroglycerine absorbed

and desensitized by 25% diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr)/ Oxidizer can be relapsed to
increase the energy yield. A cartridge or sticks typically 1 to 3 inches in diameter and 8
to 24 inches in length.
Two types- Nitroglycerine (NG) and Ammonium dynamite. NG settles at the bottom of
sticks, oozes out and crystallizes causing the sticks to adhere to each other this is
known as “sweating or exudation).
Ammonium nitrate explosives - (AN-nitro mixture and AN-fuel oil or ANFO)
Water explosives- slurries and water gel, explosive emulsions
Slurries and water gels - made of aqueous solution of ammonium nitrate and sodium or
calcium nitrate, gelled by guar gum or cross linking agent.
54
Explosive Emulsions - sensitized by air bubbles, introduced by means of hollow glass or
plastic bubbles. The storage time is limited because of the bubbles.
Blasting Caps - one of the most commonly found explosives used to set off main
charge. These are small thin cylinders with silver and copper color with 0.25 to 0.5 inch
diameter and 2 to 6 inches in length. It contains powerful and sensitive explosives. It
has been said that even heat of person’s hand can set off a blasting cap.
Safety Fuse- A time delay devise much like a firecracker fuse. It has a blackpowder
core and waterproof jacket of solid striped colors. Caution this is similar in appearance
with detonating cord.
Detonating cord - Usually has a white exterior containing PETN. This is used to set off
multiple charges simultaneously.
Blasting agents - combination of fuel and oxidants such as fuel oil and ammonium
nitrate (ANFO). The color ranges from brown to bright pink due to the fuel added. It
requires booster since they were unconfined and cannot be set off by blasting cap. This
were used in New York World Trade Center and Oklahoma City bombings.
Boosters - cylinder shaped with holes in which blasting cap will be inserted. Used to
increase the power of the initiating charges.
Black or smokeless powder - common over the counter explosive used in reloading gun
ammunitions.
D. Improvised explosive device (IED)
Home-made or Improvised explosives – basic component includes PIES (power source,

initiator, explosive and switch)
E. Explosive with limited use - include those which were used from the past and
become obsolete.
Novel Energetic explosives - the carboxylic poly nitro cage compounds. These are
molecules with compact, closed, 3 dimensional, cage type skeletal frames whose faces
consist of rings of carbon atoms. The detonation pressure increases as the square of its
density increases.
55
***END of LECTURE 3***
WEEK 3 (Second Meeting): REVIEW FOR PRELIMINARY

EXAMINATION
WEEK 4: PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION
MIDTERM PERIOD
WEEK 5 (First Meeting):

LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
-Explosions
-Types of Explosion
-Mechanism of Explosion
-Explosive Investigation
III. APPLICATION:
56
Chemistry of explosives its principles and classifications, the mechanisms of
explosions and their role as future public safety leaders in explosive investigation

Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation/practical
exercises and quiz.
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
EXPLOSIONS
Explosion is a violent bursting or expansion caused by the release of mechanical,

chemical or nuclear energy from a confined area1. This is a phenomenon resulting from
a sudden release of energy and it happen so rapidly that a local accumulation of energy
occurs at the site of explosion moving outward in various ways2. It is broadly defined as
the sudden rapid escape of gases from a confine space, accompanied by high
temperature, violent shock and loud noise.
An Implosion (Collapse) is similar phenomenon except that the energy release is initially
directed inward.
Question: Is there an explosion without an explosive?
Answer: The answer is yes, because even the tiniest drop of water can be considered
as explosion as compared to the strongest and loudest natural explosion - the volcanic
eruption.
Types of Explosion
1.1 Mechanical Explosion - It is a sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into

pieces by internal pressure; as that of gas or steam boiler; also known as pressure
explosion.
1.2. Chemical Explosion - a source of explosion wherein the source of this energy
comes from an explosive such as gunpowder.
1.3. Nuclear Explosion – an explosion due to nuclear fusion and fission of particles.
Mechanism of Explosion
57
An explosion produces a very rapid growing shockwaves moving outward as it
transform into a more stable substance. It is accompanied by a loud and sharp report as
it liberates great amount of energy in the form of heat, light and other form of gasses.
Effect of Explosion: Chain reaction causes the decomposition and rearrangement

of molecules with a greater release of energy.
1. Explosive strength - The magnitude of an explosion can be established based on

the amount of energy that is released.
The absolute measure of explosion size is determine in terms of the energy released by
exploding TNT or 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene. It is selected because chemically pure TNT is
available. Explosion of a 1.0 gram of TNT can generate 1120 calories of energy in its
blast wave.
2. Damage Mechanism
A. Brisance - the direct measure of energy transmission from explosion to the

target. This is the most severe because of its shattering action. Brisance is directly
proportional to the speed of decomposition of explosives. Explosives with high
shattering power are termed high explosives. The brisance effect of deflagrating
materials is relatively small.
Factors affecting the rate of Explosion or Brisance
1. Method of initiation.
2. Nature of explosive.
3. Size and confinement of the charge.
(smaller container tends to increase the temperature from the growing heat of reaction).
4. Physical condition (such as air density and temperature).
B. Sensitivity- the effort required to initiate explosive decomposition. The lesser

the effort require, the more sensitive is the explosives.
Arrhenius activation energy - energy required to activate the decomposition process of a

chemical substance like explosives. The energy is less than the released energy of
decomposition, this will furnish more than sufficient energy to activate neighboring
material, thus the explosion propagates spontaneously. Most of the sensitive material is
located in caps of explosives, thus more handling care is needed.
58
C. Shock Wave/ Pressure wave - The damage produce depends on the location
of explosion.
C1. Shock wave - If the detonation occurs above or just below the surface of the
ground, most of the damage will be given off by blast, splinters or fragments from the
explosive case that travels as fast as the speed of sound (1000 meters per second).
Three (3) Phases of Shockwave
a. Blast wave (Positive pressure phase) – Blast wave is generated when the
atmosphere surrounding the explosion is forcibly pushed back.
b. Suction (Negative pressure phase) – occurs when the compressed, displaced

atmosphere rushes back to fill the partial vacuum just created.
c. Over pressure – is positive pressure which will cause the body to sustain physical
damage. Damage from over pressure reduces which distance from the explosives.
Property of shockwave- funneling to a confined area called freak effect.
C2. Earth shock - wave produced when an explosive detonates
underground producing an earthquake.
C3. Water shock - wave produced when an ordnance was detonated
underwater.
D. Mean detonation distance - measure of possibility that an explosion
occur of one storage of explosive to another.
ROLE OF CHEMISTS IN EXPLOSION PROCESSING
1. Sample Collection
2. Laboratory Identification of explosives
3. Interpretation of Data
4. Report writing
5. Case build up
EXPLOSIVE INVESTIGATION
Threat: is legally defined as the communication through the use of mail, telephone,
telegram, fax or any device for malicious conveyance of information concerning an
alleged attempt of bombing in the area.
59
BOMB THREAT OPERATION
T – Target Assessment, Accurate Information on sites and Occupants, Controversial,

Political, Prominent, etc.
H – How to search; coordinate a systematic search.
R – Remote command center established at a safe perimeter.
E – Evacuate if necessary based on threat analysis.
A – Awareness of other targets; beware of secondary devices.
T – Tape and establish boundary using appropriate cordons and plus 50% of farthest
debris found at the scene in preliminary search; Keep people out of all cost.
Scene Operation
S – Seal off area/ Save crime scene
C – Command center must be established in a safe area, mandatory control point for
personnel and evidence.
E – Evacuate injured; Leave obviously dead.
N – No unnecessary disruption of bombing crime scene by investigative personnel.
E – Essential personnel only within cordon area and full awareness of secondary device
is adviced.
Reminder: This is a scene of serious crime; forensic evidence is important.
Laboratory Identification
Pre-blast explosives, Post blast explosives, Explosive ingredients
Detection of hidden Explosives. Most of the explosive particularly improvised

explosives, is concealed. So it is best that we devise a method that can be used to
detect such explosives.
Selectivity and Sensitivity
Sensitivity - the smallest concentration where a method will give the same response
with the larger concentration
Selectivity - one method for one samples that can be discriminate from another.
A. Vapor density method:
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A1. Trained animal: Dogs have been successfully used to detect hidden illegal
drugs and explosives. They are trained to sniff explosive vapors.
olfactory system- system used to detect the odors
smelled through the nose and interpreted in the brain
as signals.
A2. Absorption and pre concentration of vapors.
A3. Gas Chromatography- Electron capture detector (GC-ECD)
B. Bulk density method
B1. X-ray imaging: X-ray beam is used to attenuate (reduce size, strength
and density) of the explosive vapors. Detection indicates the extent of darker
areas of the image.
B2. Energetic photon Detection.
B3. Thermal neutron activation
C. Laboratory Examination –
Analyzing Evidence Obtained from the Crime Scene
From the evidence submitted the laboratory examiners may be able to determine the
type of explosive, detonator, fuse, and timing device used and the degree of skill
required to prepare the device; nature and characteristics of binding, wrapping and
camouflage materials used; postal information contained on a burned or mutilated
mailed bomb package; types of materials used in a bomb and the probable
manufacturers.
Analyzing Evidence Obtained from a Suspect
If a suspect is identified, a search of their belongings, vehicles, home, and place of

employment may yield items that can be compared with evidence found at the crime
scene. Through these comparisons, laboratory examiners may be able to determine
whether:
61
1. Explosives taken from the suspect are similar to those used in the crime.
2. Tools taken from the suspect made the marks found at the crime scene.
3. Wood and metal fragments, nails or screws, recovered from the crime scene are
identical with similar materials seized from the suspect.
4. Wire, tape, or twine found at the scene was cut from a roll or piece of similar material
seized from the suspect.
5. Traces of explosives, acids, or chemicals from the bomb; dust, mud, or grime (stain,
soot) from the crime scene; wood splinters or metal dust from the bomb; or blood, skin,
or hairs from the victim are present in:
a. fingernail scrapings or earwax of the suspect.
b. Clothing of the suspect
c. Trash and dust from the suspect’s vehicle
d. Dust taken from the work benches or tools belonging to the suspect
6. Handwriting or typewriter exemplars from the suspect match writing on the covering
of a bomb package
7. he perforated tear lines on stamps from a mailed bomb package match those stamps
in the suspect’s possession.
C1. Physical Test: Ocular inspection, Weighing the specimen, Sampling
C2. Sample preparation. Extraction, pre-concentration, derivatization
C3. Chemical Test
Color test – adding specific reagent to sample producing different colors. The color
formed is due to the energy produced from the reaction, which corresponds to the
wavelength in the visible region (400-800 nm). Example blue color (480-510 nm).
C4. Confirmatory: Chromatography (TLC, HPLC, GC-ECD, GC-MS).
Spectroscopy: Mass Spectroscopy, Ultraviolet- Visible Spectroscopy, Fourier

Transform IR Spectroscopy, Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
62
WEEK 5 (SECOND Meeting):
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Gunpowder and Gunpowder Residue
-Gunshot Residue
-Component of Gunshot Residue
-Mechanism of Gun Action
-Detection of Gunshot Residue
-Distance Determination
-Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen
-Firearm examination of the probable time the gun has been fired
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on
Gunpowder and gunpowder residue, distance determination, collection,
preservation and transit of specimen and firearm examination on the probable
time the gun has been fired.

Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and to have a
laboratory works.
63
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
I-GUNPOWDER RESIDUE
Gunshot residue is defined as the traces of material that remain after the use of a
firearm using gunpowder ammunition. The major sources of these materials are the
primer, propellant and associated stabilizers, and plasticizers that are used in
ammunition, as well as any decomposition products of these materials formed during
detonation.
Residue can be found on the skin or clothing of the person who fired the gun, on the
entrance bullet hole of garment or wound of the victim, and/or on other target materials
at the scene.
These particles scatter and deposited as definite pattern depending as it escapes

from the muzzle of the gun at the time of discharge.
II. COMPONENT OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
A. Primer or Lead residue
Primers are devices used to initiate the propellant in ammunition, and may consist of
a single component or a mixture of various inorganic and organic materials.
Primer ingredients may include, but are not limited to lead azide, lead styphnate,
tetracene, diazodinitrophenol, barium nitrate, strontium nitrate, and antimony sulfide.
Primers are sensitive to heat, shock or friction and used to detonate other explosives
through chain reaction.
Residue from these materials are most likely to deposit on the thumb and the dorsal
portion of the firing hand of the shooter, since these areas are in closest proximity to
the gases escaping from the breech of the gun during discharge.
64
But individual who handle or came into contact with the weapon without firing it may
have primer residues deposited on their palm portion of the hand. The intensity of
these residues is not the same for the one who fired a gun to the one who only holds
a fired weapon.
 Major components: Lead Styphnate, Potassium chlorate or Barium nitrate
(oxidizing agent), and Antimony sulfide (fuel).
 Minor component: Aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), Tin (Sn), Calcium (Ca), Potassium
(K), Chlorine (Cl), or Silicon (Si).
 Inorganic traces: Mercury fulminates (present in most ammunition manufactured
in Eastern Europe and used in Middle East).
In addition, primer residues adhere to the fired bullets and gradually ablate
through the path of the bullet. Thus it can be found at the targets or wounds at
considerable distance from the gun muzzle up to 200 meters.
B. Propellants Components
 Contain up to 23 organic compounds (FBI Study).

 Nitrocellulose (NC) is virtually present along with the nitrate and nitrogen containing
compound such as Diphenylamine (DPA), used as stabilizer in the powder.
Types of Gunpowder used in the ammunition of small firearms
Black powder – this consists of a mixture of carbon (charcoal), sulfur and potassium
nitrate/sodium nitrate.
The trick to making a suitable ballistic propellant was in the correct ratio of the
three chemicals. Although many combinations have been used, the best formula for
small arms applications is 75 percent potassium nitrate, 15 percent charcoal, and 10
percent sulfur. This recipe makes the propellant we know today as black powder.
Blasting powders often used a different ratio of components.
Drawbacks of Black powder
1. On combustion in a firearm, less than half the weight of propellant goes into
producing gas to propel the bullet. The remaining solids create a big cloud of white
smoke and a heavy residue in the barrel. That residue absorbs moisture. Adding
moisture to black powder residue creates weak acids that are corrosive to steel.
2. To get more velocity, you have to add more propellant. There is a practical limit to
how much propellant will fit in a cartridge case. The really powerful black powder rifle
cartridges had huge cases up to 3 1/4 inches long. These were fine for single-shot
rifles, but unsuited for the new repeating rifles that were becoming so popular. The
need arose for an efficient propellant that could release more energy from a smaller
volume.
65
Smokeless powder - Since the discovery of nitrocellulose in 1845, by treating cellulose
(wood fibers or raw cotton) with sulfuric acid, and nitroglycerine by Alfred Novel evolves
the use of smokeless powders. Its’ clean combustion was due to the nitration process
adding additional oxygen that made burning very efficient.
Types of Smokeless powder
Single base – basic ingredient is Nitrocellulose (NC)

Double base – Nitrocelullose and 1 to 40% Nitroglycerine (NG)
Triple base – NC + NG + Nitroguanidine(rare in small firearms propellants) and the
isomers of Dinitrotoluene (DNT)
This types of gunpowder can be differentiated and analyze using a
MassSpectrophotometer (Hardy & Chera, 1979).
C. Stabilizer/Plasticizer
Stabilizers are organic materials that are added to propellants and explosives to retard
their decomposition during storage. These materials may include, but are not limited to,
diphenylamine (DPA) and ethyl centralite (EC).
Both decomposition and combustion of the propellants results in the formation of

nitrated stabilizer derivatives such as N-nitrosodiphenylamine (N-nDPA), 2-
nitrodiphenylamine (2-nDPA), and 4-nitro diphenylamine (4nDPA).
Plasticizers are organic materials added during manufacture of propellant and explosive
mixtures to aid in their fabrication. These materials may include, but are not limited to,
short chain aliphatic phthalic acid esters, of which dibutylphthalate is the most common .
Elements from cartridge case, bullets coating and metal jacket
Cartridge and primer cases: Brass (7:3 Copper-Zinc).

Bullet Cores: Lead , Antimony and few iron alloy
Bullet jacket: Brass (9:1 Copper-Zinc), some are iron or aluminum alloy. Some
contain Nickel (Ravreby 1982)
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III. MECHANISM OF GUN ACTION
In order for a bullet to be released and to attain its maximum efficiency, the shell of
ammunition must contain appreciable amount of primer and Low explosives
(propellants).
Mechanism
Combustion of chemical components of a bullet

produces a sudden liberation of large amount of gases
capable of bursting the container, which
produces the effect of explosion. Enclosure
increases the rate of reaction due to the increase in temperature caused by the heat of
reaction being confined by the container.
The two most common mixtures are black powder and smokeless powder. Aluminum
is added to enhance the burning property.
Burning rate - is the rate at which energy is released during burning. Slow-burning
powders release their energy (in the form of pressure) more slowly than fast-burning
powders. Fast-burning powders are commonly used for light loads with light bullets.
The slow-burning powders generate their force over a longer time increment.
This gives a heavy bullet a gentle start but keeps pushing the bullet longer, allowing
high velocities.
In addition to granulation, modern nitrocellulose propellants gain additional burn

rate control through the application of deterrents. These chemicals, often coatings,
change the rate at which each granule converts to gas by delaying the ignition of the
outer surface. These coatings are often compared to a "temporary fireproofing."
Black powder: When this powder burns, combustion reaction takes place.
2KNO3 + 2O2 + S + C  CO2 + SO2 + K2O2 + 2NO2
Smokeless powder: This mixture consists of Cellulose or Glycerol nitrate combine with
some stabilizers (Nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates). When
this powder exploded, a chemical reaction takes place.
Cellulose nitrate: C12H14O4(NO3)6  6H2O + 3N2+ 4CO2 + 8CO + H2
Glycerol nitrate: C3H5  CO2 + H2O + N2 + O2
Primers – To explode a low explosive, a flame is required. In guns, the flame is applied
by means of a primer. Primer produces flame on percussion.
67
A typical primer consists of a case containing the following:
1. Initiating explosive such as mercury fulminate

2. Oxidizing agent such as Potassium chlorate or Barium Nitrate
3. Fuel – Antimony Sulfide
This component is the basis of examination of gunshot residue particularly primer

residues for distance determination.
IV. DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
Firearm discharge can deposit residues to a person at close proximity, so the

interpretations as to who fired the weapon should be made with caution (Thorton
1986).
Hand or body parts close to the fired weapon may have residue consistent with
having fired the weapon. If there is no presence of gunpowder residue, it does not
mean that you do not fire a weapon. The amount of residue deposited decreases
with increasing fire range.
The following are common method used by most crime laboratories in detecting
residues.
1. Paraffin test/ gunpowder nitrates determination

2. Distance determination
3. Firearm examination
4. Other examination
A. Paraffin examination
While the residue was deposited on the target in the barrel of the gun, some of these
unburned and partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and
implanted on the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing a gun.
The test was designed to demonstrate the presence of nitrates on the hands.
Particularly in pores resulting from firing of gun, due to the manner in which the powder
residue maybe blown out around the edge of the revolver cylinder through imperfect
fitting parts of the gun.
History of Paraffin Test
 Paraffin test was originated in Cuba when Dr Gonzalo Iturrios first used the
paraffin wax for collecting gunpowder residues from a discharge firearm.
68
 In 1933, Teodoro Gonzales of Chemical Identification Laboratory, Mexico City
introduced the test in the United States. In this test, the hands were coated with a
layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the cast were removed and treated with
Diphenylamine reagent.
Different names of this test
 Lunge’s test
 Diphenylamine test
 Dermal nitrate test
 Gonzales test (the one who improved the test)
Diphenylamine reagent-reagent use in examination of gunpowder give blue

coloration.
 Made by dissolving 0.5 grams of Diphenylamine crystals in 60% Sulfuric Acid in

water.
Paraffin wax
 A white, translucent, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons

of high molecular weight.
 It is insoluble in water and acids but soluble in benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol,
chloroform, turpentine, carbon disulfide and olive oil.
 Combustible, auto ignition temperature = 473 F (245 C).
Procedure for paraffin casting
1. Melt paraffin wax in low flame. The melting point of paraffin wax ranges from 38 to
40 C.
2. Cool the wax at desired temperature by dropping small solid wax and observe
until the wax stop melting. Do not allow the wax to solidify. Warm wax opens the
pores of the hands able it to collect the contaminants or residue deposited on the
hands.
3. Coat the dorsal portion of the hands with the layer of melted wax and allow it to
cool and solidifies.
4. Cover the wax with a clean gauze or cotton to serve as reinforcement to add
strength to the casts.
5. Coat again the cotton with wax and let it hardened.
6. Remove gently from the hands and preserve it by putting it in wrapping paper.
7. Examined the cast by treating it with Diphenylamine reagent. Positive result
indicated by the presence of blue specks or flecks in the paraffin.
The melted paraffin penetrates the minute crevices or gap of the skin allowing
the particles presents to adhere in the wax. When then casts were peeled from the
69
hands, these particles are extracted. A person firing a gun will likely have particles
located above the thumb and forefingers since these surfaces exposed to the gun.
If the person subjected to the test has his hands contaminated with nitrates other
than gunpowder, you will expect to find smudges or just a smear of blue color or a
conglomeration of blue specks. Nitrates from gunpowder appear as blue specks with
tailings because these particles were embedded into the pores of the hands with force.
Notes on interpreting results of paraffin examination
1. Time of reaction –
2. Number and characteristic of blue and minute specks or flecks – different from
smudges usually observed from substance that cause positive result.
3. The location of blue specks
4. Distribution of specks
Paraffin examination is non- specific but it can be used as a corroborative evidence

to support the allegation or intended to support the testimony of eyewitness.
There are instances wherein a person who actually fired a gun will still give
negative result to the test because of several factors.
Factors affecting the result of paraffin examination
1. Type of caliber of ammunition. A hand firing a revolver is more likely to give a

positive result for gunpowder nitrates as compared to a hand firing a pistol.
In automatic pistol, the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the
revolver, the chamber is located in the cylinder and separated from the barrel with
airspace. Thus leakage of powder in revolver is more likely to occur.
2. Length of the barrel. A weapon with shorter barrel will deposit residue over a
larger area in the hand of the firer. Distance of firing and type of ammunition do not
affect this factor. A 2 inches barrel will deposit residues over a larger area than a
weapon having a 5 inches barrel even though they are fired at the same distance
and with the same type of ammunition.
3. Age of gun/ efficiency of mechanism. Complete combustion or the conversion of

all nitrates into its end product (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas,
oxygen and hydroxides) is more likely to occur in a new weapon compared to an old
one.
Leakage of gunpowder is more likely happen in an old weapon where the breech
mechanism is no longer tightly fired.
70
4. Direction of firing. More powder residues will be obtained when the gun is fired
upward than downward. Gunpowder residues have weight and naturally fall down
because of gravity. Firing vertically, slightly greater than firing horizontally from the
same distance. When gun is fired downward or vertically all the residues will fall on
the target, but when fired horizontally some of the residues are likely to fall short of
the target.
5. Wind velocity and direction. In high velocity (strong wind), the powder residues
will be blown in the direction of the wind. If there is no wind or the wind direction is
away from the body, the probability of depositing nitrates in the hands of the firer will
be lessen.
6. Humidity/ percentage moisture in air. Humidity lessens extent of combustion

yielding more gunpowder nitrates.
7. Use of gloves and when 72 hours has elapsed (3 days).
POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND

SMOKELESS POWDER EXPLODE
It will be noticed that nitrates are present in both gunpowder so that one
will expect to find nitrates (NO) in the following:
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun
Limitations of the Diphenylamine –Paraffin Test

1. The test is not specific for nitrates since the role of nitrate is simply
oxidizing agent. The test cannot determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents
that are not in the ordinary course of life like fertilizers, explosives,
tobacco, firecrackers, urine, cosmetics and detergents.
3. In general, persons do not have nitrates or other oxidants on their
hands as a matter of common occurrence.
4. Hands contaminated with nitrates from other sources other than
gunpowder or any oxidant one will expect to find either a smear
blue color or conglomeration of blue specks located at the different
places of the hand both dorsal and palmar aspects.
5. Failure to find traces of nitrate on the hands of the person does not
prove that he did not fire a gun. But if submitted, positive result of
paraffin examination has some value due to the psychological
effect on the persons that fired a weapon.
71
It is also borne in mind that the finding of actual traces of GPR on the hand does
not conclusively determine or establish that he fired a gun.
It is possible that the GPR particle may have been blown on the hand directly from
the barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
It is not possible to state categorically that the reaction is either valid or useless. It
is emphasized that it should be placed little dependence on it without considerable
experience and careful testing under various conditions.
It is not likely that the test is useful when all the factors involve are considered. It
is dangerous in the extreme to place the life of the suspect in jeopardy on the result of
this test alone. The test should be supported.
True Positive vs False Positive
True Positive- Blue specks with tailing appearance because the particles are
embedded into hands with force
Substances giving false positive result: there is smudges or conglomeration of

blue specks
1. Fertilizers
2. Explosives
3. Tobacco
4. Urine
5. Certain cosmetics
6. Food samples
7. Cigarettes
B. Distance Determination – gunpowder examination of clothing for possible

gunshot range determination. The size and density of the pattern of gunpowder
residue found on the clothing are the main factors considered in determining the
approximate distance of the shooter to the victim. As the distance to the victim
increases, the size of pattern expands while density decreases and vice-versa.
Usually distance is based on the powder pattern or the spread of the shot pattern.
 Clothing submitted to the laboratory will be examined to determine

if a pattern of gunshot residues is present. There are basically three
steps taken by the forensic chemical officer to process an item for
the presence of gunshot residue. The first step is to visually and
microscopically examine the evidence. The presence of any
gunshot residues found around the bullet hole as well as the shape
72
and appearance of the hole will be documented. The next two steps
involve chemically processing the exhibit for gunshot residues.
Importance of Distance determination
1. In connection of self-defense pleas

2. In the distinction between the murder and suicide. It is often possible to state of
considerable certainty the distance of the gun from the target by the study of
patterns and residues left on the target. Not only the type of gun, but the condition
and type of ammunition will affect this pattern.
In ascertaining the gunshot range, the examiner should note and observe the entrance
and exit hole; and Powder residue pattern.
Entrance and exit Hole
1. Bullet wipe residue. Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue

2. The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole.
3. The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.
4. Gaping hole (deep and wide open) where the fabric is badly torn
Other Entrance hole characteristics
1. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated holes.

2. Contact fires have uneven margins other distance fires typically have an even
margin
3. Blackened area surrounding the hole. The presence of partially burned powder
residues around the entrance hole.
4. Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created from a folded garment).
5. Bullet hole examination may yield presence for lead and copper
Classification of gunshot distance
1. Burning (direct) - the principal damage due to flame and muzzle blast is more
visible than to the penetration of bullet.
2. Singeing (1 to 2 inches) –slight burning
3. Smudging - produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the maximum
of 8 inches. The smoke and soot from the burned pores will be deposited around
the hole of the entrance producing a dirty appearance and a blackening of area
around the bullet hole. This observation is more pronounced when the
ammunition used is black powder. The size of the smudge depends on the
following:
 Caliber of the gun
 Type of powder used
 Length of the barrel of the gun.
73
4. Tattooing (8 to 18 inches) - (black coarsely peppered pattern). Individual specks
of tattooing around the hole are visible by the naked eye. The area of blackening
around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun
is held further away from the target. Blackening around the hole will completely
disappear. A few individual specks of tattooing will be visible with the naked eye.
The size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on
 Caliber of the gun
 Powder charge
 Distance of firing
5. Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than 36 inches. Powder tattooing is
seldom present and the nitrates present will not be sufficient for GSR.
If the firearm is discharged very close to the target as often happens in suicide and
occasionally in murder, burns or scorches often result. This is caused by the flame that
emerges from the gun muzzle and travels only a short distance from it.
The presence of scorch is an almost positive proof that the firearm was discharged
within a few inches of the object. It is rare to observe scorch even 6 inches ahead of the
muzzle.
THREE ZONES OF DISTANCES FROM WHICH A FIREARM WAS DISCHARGED
1.Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the
body or practically so.
Characteristic patterns observed are as follows:
a. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn;

b. Smudging
c. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance;
d. And tattooing.
Presence of partially burned powdered residues around the entrance hole that
may be embedded in the fabric. This could present originally but may have
become dislodged by rough handling of the specimen or may have been blown
into the wound or may have been washed by bleeding.
2.Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held 2 inches to 36 inches
away.
Held from 2 inches to 8 inches (maximum), the smoke and soot from the
burned powder will be deposited around the hole of entrance producing a dirty
grimy appearance (covered with soot, dirt adhering or embedded on the surface).
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More pronounced when the ammunition used contains black powder. Smudging
around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun
is held a distance of eight inches and all the blackening around the hole
completely disappear and few individual specks of tattooing will be visible with
the naked eye. The size of the smudge depends upon the caliber of the gun, type
of powder used, length of the barrel, distance of the muzzle of the gun was held
from the body. The size of the area of the powder tattooing will also depend on
the caliber, powder charge and distance of firing. A close observation of the area
surrounding the gunshot hole will show that the granule mark or powder tattooing
is not distributed evenly around the hole. A greater bulk of them is deposited on
one side of the hole. This is due to the fact that when cartridge is fired, the bullet
leaves the muzzle of the gun first, followed by the expanding gases and burning
powder. This cause the gun to kick, throwing the muzzle of the target and this
kick is always towards the direction of the sights. The kick of the gun causes the
smudge and powder tattooing to be deposited more on one side of the hole than
on the other, and the side of the greatest deposit indicates the side on which the
sights of the gun was mounted. This observation is helpful in determining
whether the wound was due to suicide or murder. If the gun was discharged from
a position in which the victim could not easily have held himself, it intends to
indicate a murder. The size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on
the caliber, powder charge and the distance of firing.
3.Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held beyond 36 inches.
Held from 8 inches to 36 inches. Tattooing is visible. The partially burned and
unburned powder particles will be driven into the surface around the gunshot hole
producing a black coarsely peppered pattern called tattooing.
Laboratory Examination Conducted
Color test
1. Harrison-Gilroy – test for the presence of lead, antimony and barium

2. Sodium Rhodizonate test/ Griess Test – test for the presence of nitrates.
Contact Singeing Smudging Powder tattooing
-Slightly burning
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Gunshot residue test results can be divided into three categories:
 Those where a pattern of residues is found on the evidence garment

and the questioned firearm and ammunition are recovered.
 Those where a pattern of residues is found on the evidence garment
and the firearm and ammunition are not recovered.
 Those where only trace amounts or no residues are found on the
evidence garment
Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen
Collection of gunshot residue
1. Clothing removed from the victim should be carefully and cautiously handled to
prevent powder residues to dislodge from the garment. Do not wad the garment.
2. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried in shed before packing
3. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy cardboard fastened
together tightly to prevent the specimen from becoming postlude in the transit.
4. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and ammunition available should be
preserved.
5. Pack it loosely for shipment. Each specimen should be wrapped and mark
C. Firearm examination/ Examination of the probable time the gun has been fired
Lucas Test - a characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time and is
observable immediately after firing. Sometimes after several weeks some slight smell
remains.
Hydrogen Sulfide – another product of combusting gunpowder and is present in the

gaseous state that can be detected by means of a lead acetate paper.
If the breech of the gun is kept close, this persists between 2 to 3 hours after firing. The
greater part disappears about 4 to 5 hours but frequently, a trace is remained for
sometimes linger, the longest period is up to 10 hours.
Rusting – as a rule does not commence for several days. No rust can be detected
inside the barrel if the gun was not fired. But if the gun was fired, iron salts will be soon
oxidized resulting in a formation of rust. Rust formation is affected by humidity of the air
so that in the preparation of the result, the factor must always be considered.
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Nitrite – presence of NO2 is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the
color becomes blue, nitrites are present and we may say that the firearm could have
been fired recently.
Presence of nitrates – diminishes after a lapse of time. Can be detected by swabbing

a portion of residue in a barrel and mixed it with diphenylamine reagent. If the color
becomes yellow green, nitrates are present and we may say that that the firearm could
have been fired but not recently.
IV. Other Examination/ Instrumentation
Examination of GSR can be classical as discuss earlier and instrumental which uses
various instruments to analyze the sample specimen.
Some instruments used in detecting gunshot residue
1. AAS – Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

2. NAA – Neutron Activation Analysis
3. SEM-EDX – Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis
4. ICP-MS – Inductively couled Plasma with Mass Spectrophotometry.
SEM-EDX has become excellent method for detection since the evidence is not
consumed during analysis.
This analysis can reveal the actual surface details of the particles examined and
compare with a known samples of gunshot residue and pictures of it can be taken.
The amount of unburned residue and contaminants is measured and compare with the
standards. Maximum time for this test is from 3 to 6 hours after firing.
The X-ray analyzer attached can be beamed directly to the particles, so EDX can be
generated giving elemental composition of the particles. (Nesbitt et al 1976).
Today computer software is attached in SEM-EDX to speed up the search for GSR-
particles (Tillman 1987).
ICP-MS is a faster method, although destructive (evidence is consumed) but can give
analytical result with high accuracy and sensitivity that can give result as fast as 3
minutes excluding sampling.
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Many sophisticated method had been developed but the
most important is the mode of collection in order not to
destroy the physical evidence. Other factors affects when
the firer moves, wash the body prior to examination and
delay of collection (Kilty 1975).
***END of LECTURE 5***

LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
4. Distribution/Critiquing of Lesson Assessment result
II. PRESENTATION:
Arson and Spontaneous Combustion

-Arson Investigation and Principles of Fire
-Fire
-Combustion, Nature and Behavior of Fire
-Source of Ignition
-Laboratory Identification
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III. APPLICATION:
Arson and Spontaneous Combustion and the Role of Forensic Chemistry in
Arson Investigation
Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and then
practical exercises.
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Arson and Spontaneous Combustion
ARSON INVESTIGATION AND PRINCIPLES OF FIRE
Arson is one of the most heinous crimes committed by men. It is an offense of

great malignity and probably more destructive than murder.
1. Under the Old Common Law

Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another
man. Present laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and
cover all kinds of buildings and structures even including personal
property. Now the crime of arson includes burning of one’s property.
2. Under the Revised Penal Code

Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liabilities
depends on:
a. Kind and character of the building
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b. Its location
c. Extent of damage or value
d. Its state of being inhabited or not.
3.According to Webster- Arson is the malicious burning of a dwelling or

property.
4.Arson is the fire set intentionally.
Arson is the crime of setting a fire with intent to cause damage. According to the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States has the highest rate of arson in
the world, and it is one of the fastest growing crimes. Arson seen as a low priority crime;
so many arsons go unpunished or even unknown. The criminal who illegally sets fire to
property is an arsonist.
WHAT CONSTITUTE ARSON?
1. Willfulness – means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely
and intentionally
2. Intent- is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the
will. An essential element of crime, motive is not.
3.Motive – is the moving causes that induces the commission of a crime.
Something that leads or influences a person to do something.
4. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or desire for revenge. It is the intent to do
injury to another.
Deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing

it
1. A fire can only be considered arson if all accidental and natural cause of fire
can be eliminated…The mere burning of a building does not constitute the body
of the crime.
2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:
a. 1st that the building in questioned burned.
b. 2nd it was burned as a result of the intentional criminal act of the accused.
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c. To continue burning, there must be some burning or charring, that is the
fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed. It is not necessary
the building be seriously damaged. A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration
of the wood is not sufficient.
BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON
Arson is the easiest crime to commit but the most difficult to detect, tougher to
solve than homicide. At least in a homicide there is some kind of weapon, a
gun, poison or the like and there is always the body-good physical evidence. In
arson physical evidence that normally aid in convicting criminals may have
been wholly destroyed by the fire itself.
THE FOUR BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON
1.Origin of fire 3. Identification of prime suspect

2.Motive 4. Identification of fire setter
Origin Of Fire – The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of all
accidental and natural causes of fire.
1. Natural cause without human intervention
a. Lightning
b. Explosion
c. Spontaneous combustion
d. Miscellaneous cause, example: damage to electric cables due to
earthquake or storm; breaking of gas pipes, etc.
2. Accidental cause with or without human intervention
a. Faulty wiring
b. Careless handling of inflammables
c. Children playing with match
d. Careless smokers
e. Careless handling of electric iron, stoves, candles, cigarette butts,
mosquito coils
3. Arson or Touch Off fires (a set fire) – when all natural and accidental causes
have investigator to determine if it in fact a “touch off” fire.
TELL TALE SIGNS – sign that maybe obvious that one will suspect arson
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a. Burned building – a type of the building may indicate a set fire under some
circumstances. A fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive
at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete building.
b. Separate fire – when two or more separate fires broke out within a building
the fire is certainly suspicious.
c. Color of smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but there are
exception. The observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire
since once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of smoke is lost
because the smoke will not indicate the materials used by the arsonists.
1. White smoke – appears before the water comes in contact with the fire
indicates humid materials burning like burning hay, vegetable materials,
phosphorous (with garlic odor).
2. Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and
coughing – indicates presence of chlorine.
3. Black or grayish smoke – indicates lack of air but if accompanied by
large flame it indicated petroleum product and petroleum products and rubber,
tar, coat, turpentine.
4. Reddish brown smoke- indicates nitrocellulose, sulfur, sulfuric acid. Nitric
acid, hydrochloric acid.
d. Color of flame – the color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity
of fire and sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present.
Examples: burning alcohol- blue flame
Burning petroleum products – red flame
e. Size of fire –the size of the fire should be noticed at the time of arrival and
at subsequent intervals thereafter. Rapid extension of the fire is indicative of
the use of accelerants.
f. Direction of travel – fire normally sweeps upward; the travel of fire is
predictable from knowledge of the construction of the building. Flames tend to
rise until on meeting obstacles they project horizontally seek other vertical
outlets. Extent and rate of travel depend primarily of the direction of the wind
and on ventilating condition like open doors and windows.
g. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame
oftentimes indicate that some accelerants have been added to the material
normally present in a building.
h. Location of flame – investigator should note whether there is more than
one apparent point of origin and should try to estimate the approximate
location of each.
i. Odors – many accelerants emit characteristics odors especially liquid like
turpentine, alcohol, kerosene and gasoline.
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THE POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE – In case of arson it is in this area
that the physical evidence of criminal design is likely to be discovered. This
may be established by an examination of the witness and by inspecting the
debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated is the
discoverer of the fire and second the person who turned in the alarm and lastly
any other witness that can be found. Inspection of the crime scene must
immediately be made to determine the point of origin and possibly to establish
the arsonist’s technique.
FIRE SETTING MECHANISM – the technique, devices and materials,

employed by the arsonist vary with his mentality and with his emotional
condition immediately prior to the commission of the offense. An arsonist may
use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an
elaborate means to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical
method to start the fire.
TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE

1.Mechanical Methods
a. Matches
b. Candles, cigarettes-slow burning initiating arrangement
c. Mechanical devices as clock mechanism, altered equipment,
magnifying glass, animals tied to ignition devices like portable lamp or stove –
usually time delay arrangement.
d. Electrical system/mishap –usually occurs in modern buildings
that are heavily equipped of electrical wirings to supply fixtures, machines and
heating purpose.
e. Inflammable gases as illuminating gas, sewer gas.
f. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers – heaters like flat iron
and toaster, sparkles like electrical switches, door bells, telephone boxes.
g. Explosives – nitroglycerine, TNT, mercury fulminate, gunpowder.
Fire is a common consequence of explosion. Nitroglycerine is the most
commonly employed.
2. Chemical Methods
a. Hot water or ice bag used as receptacle for phosphorous and
water ignition device.
b. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water.
c. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid.
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d. Chemical devices as hermit bombs, phosphorous
Incendiary materials – are materials used to start a fire and are combustible
fuels.
Arson chemicals – are incendiary materials often used by arsonist as
accelerants. Possess excellent incendiary properties. Example: alcohol,
benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naptha, turpentine.
Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas and
propane – these are common gases resulting in fires from explosion. These
when mixed with air possess excellent ignition properties and when present in
an enclosed area can lead to explosion.
Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates
and permanganates – are typical families of oxidizing agents that give off
oxygen on decomposition thus aiding in combustion.
Types of Arsonist
1.) Organized arsonists - elaborate incendiary devices (electronic timing mechanisms,

or initiators)
- less physical evidence; if forced entry, it’s skillful and methodical approach (excessive
accelerant use and a pattern in the attacks)
2.) Disorganized Arsonist - tend to use the materials at hand and use more common
accelerants such as gasoline and usually more physical evidence left (footprints, finger
prints, etc..)
Different Motivation of Arsonist
Vandalism (Intimidation and Economic disabling)– type of arson due to malicious

and mischievous motivation that results in destruction and damage and
most often done out of mischief or because of peer pressure.
Most often targets include educational facilities, residential area, grass,

brush, woodland, and timber. This type of arson often involves multiple
offenders who act spontaneously and impulsively. The typical crime scene
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is of the disorganized sort, where much evidence is left and materials to start the fire are
often present at the site. The typical offender is a young male between the ages of
seven through nine years old, who flees the scene and rarely ever witnesses the fire
they set (Wooden, 1984, p.8-9).
Excitement (Pyromania)- Type of arson done to satisfy the craving for excitement by
fire setting. The offender rarely intends to harm people. The types of arsonists are the
thrill seeker, attention seeker, and the ones that do it for sexual gratification.
Dumpsters, vegetation, construction sites, and residential property are all common
targets. Most often the offender picks a target where they can easily watch the fire they
set. Both lone and multiple offenders are common to this type of arson (Wooden, 1984,
p.10).
Revenge (Punitive measure)- This type of fire is set in correlation with some injustice
done to the arsonist, whether it is real or imagined. This type may be a well-planned
onetime event or the work of a serial arsonist taking out frustrations on society as a
whole.
The type of revenge in this category may be social, personal, institutional, or group
retaliation such as against gangs. Examples of conflict that result in the arsonists attack
are lover’s triangles, landlord/tenant relationships, and employer/employee
relationships. Female’s involved in the ex-lover revenge fires usually tend to target
something of significance to the victim, such a vehicle or clothing. They also tend to
start the fire with the victim’s clothes or other personal effects. Other offenders may
retaliate against churches, government facilities, universities, or corporations
Crime Concealment - In this category, arson is the secondary criminal activity, it is

committed with the purpose of covering up the primary crime. The primary crimes most
often include suicide, breaking and entering, embezzlement, larceny, and murder. In
this type of arson, the target is dependent on what is being concealed but is most often
a business, residence, or a vehicle
Profit (Economic Gain) - Fire is set with the purpose of making a material gain. This
one is a commercial crime and exhibits less passion than the rest of the crimes. This
type of arson can be used many different ways including; fraud to collect insurance,
fraud to liquidate property, fraud to dissolve business, fraud to liquidate property, fraud
to dissolve business, fraud to conceal loss or liquidate inventory, employment, parcel
clearance, and competition. The property targeted by this type of arson varies but is
usually business related properties.
This type of crime is usually well planned and methodical, and the crime scene
demonstrates a more organized style because it contains less physical evidence that
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would identify the offender. It also involves more sophisticated incendiary devices, and if
a residence is the target, items of value are sometimes removed (Douglas, 1997,
p.180).
Extremist - Extremist motivated arson is committed to further a social, political, or

religious cause. The types of arson in the category are terrorism, discrimination, and
riots/civil disturbance. The property that is targeted usually represents what the
offenders’ belief is.
Examples are laboratories, slaughterhouses, fur stores and abortion clinics, religious
institutions targeted by individuals with different beliefs, and individuals targeted by
political extremist organizations who want to intimidate racial, religious, or political
opponents. The crime scene is usually organized, and often there is some sort message
left by the perpetrators in hopes of media coverage (Douglas, 1997, p. 184).
Serial Arson - These arsonists set fires repeatedly. A serial arsonist is involved in three
or more separate fire setting episodes with the characteristic emotional cooling-off
period between fires. This is the most dangerous type of arson because of the random
selection of the victims. The choice of targets is also random, but they are often
unoccupied or abandoned property during nighttime hours. The crime scene is often
disorganized and there is usually physical evidence present. Usually the offender does
his work alone.
Spree and Mass Arson - A spree arsonist sets fires at three or more separate locations
with no emotional cooling-off period between them. Mass arson involves one offender
who sets three or more fires at the same location during a limited period. An example is
an offender who sets a fire on every floor on a multi-story building (Douglas, 1997, p.
186-189).
Investigation
1. Determine that the fire is “suspicious origin” and merits a case-solving investigation.
2. Photograph the “burn pattern” by tracking damage and by drawing sketches. All fires
burn upward in an inverted conical shape. The point of origin is usually therefore the
lowest place. Track from least damage to most damage.
3. Theorize, calculate, and estimate time from ignition to flashover
4. Develop leads as to who had motive, opportunity and means
5. Research backgrounds of suspects (for their technical know-how)
6. Put main suspect under surveillance, use informants, or interrogate suspect(s).
7. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of the building or
other persons having major interest in the fire.
8. Interviews and interrogation of the person who discovered the fire, the one who
turned the first alarm, firemen eyewitnesses.
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Arson Fires Indication
1. Arson fires are generally indicated by: burning faster and larger than normal
2. Often having multiple points of origin
3. Use of accelerants
4. A time delay device (a matchbox and cigarette is a 22-minute fuse)
5. Cans and containers sometimes nearby.
6. Firemen are trained to “overhaul” the structure by ripping out cabinets, spaces
between standards, etc. to help investigator.
7. Heat can be estimated by the condition of window glass: small shards of glass
means an explosion took place
8. “Crazing” means a hot fire
9. Melted copper, aluminum and other metals usually means an accelerant was used.
10. Soot that wipes off easily from glass or slightly charred studs behind the walls
means a quick fire
Disgruntled ex-employees, ex-renters, transients, and juveniles are the usual suspects,
unless a professional arsonist.
FIRE
Fire is burning, which is combustion, and combustion is a type of oxidation

reaction. Oxidation means combined chemically with oxygen. Oxidation is an
exothermic reaction, meaning it gives/ releases heat energy. The heat and light
produced is a form of energy.
Fire is a process involving rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures accompanied by the

evolution of heated gaseous products of combustion, and the emission of visible and
invisible radiation. Oxidation occurs all around us in the form of rust on metal surfaces,
and in our bodies by metabolizing the food we eat. However, the key word that sets
combustion apart from other forms of oxidation is the word "rapid".
Flame is the zone of burning gases and fine suspended matter associated with rapid
combustion; a hot, glowing mass of burning gas or vapor.
Three key Elements to have a fire
FUEL - something to burn, such as wood, paper, grass, or clothing.
AIR - actually oxygen is needed, but that's part of the air.
HEAT - a catalyst to start the fuel and oxygen combustion.
Fire Triangle Explosive Triangle
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fuel 1. Fuel
heat source 2. Ignition
Oxidant 3. Oxidant
The Fire Tetrahedron (A pyramid)
For many years the concept of fire was symbolized by the Triangle of
Combustion and represented, fuel, heat, and oxygen. Further fire research determined
that a fourth element, a chemical chain reaction, was a necessary component of fire.
The fire triangle was changed to a fire tetrahedron to reflect this fourth element. A
tetrahedron can be described as a pyramid which is a solid having four plane faces.
Essentially all four elements must be present for fire to occur, fuel, heat, oxygen, and a
chemical chain reaction. Removal of any one of these essential elements will result in
the fire being extinguished.
The four elements are oxygen to sustain combustion, sufficient heat to raise the
material to its ignition temperature, fuel or combustible material and subsequently an
exothermic chemical chain reaction in the material. Each of the four sides of the fire
tetrahedron symbolize the Fuel, Heat, Oxygen and Chemical Chain Reaction.
Theoretically, fire extinguishers put out fire by taking away one or more elements of the
fire tetrahedron.
Stages of a Fire
There are three generally recognized stages to a fire: The incipient stage, smoldering
stage, and flame stage.
1. The incipient stage is a region where preheating, distillation and slow pyrolysis are in
progress. Gas and sub-micron particles are generated and transported away from
the source by diffusion, air movement, and weak convection movement, produced
by the buoyancy of the products of pyrolysis.
2. The smoldering stage is a region of fully developed pyrolysis that begins with ignition
and includes the initial stage of combustion. Invisible aerosol and visible smoke
particles are generated and transported away from the source by moderate
convection patterns and background air movement.
3. The flaming stage is a region of rapid reaction that covers the period of initial
occurrence of flame to a fully developed fire. Heat transfer from the fire occurs
predominantly from radiation and convection from the flame.
Classes of fire: Combustible and flammable fuels involved in fires have been broken
down into five categories:
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Class A fires - are fires involving organic solids like paper, wood, Esc
Class B fires - are fires involving flammable Liquids.
Class C fires - are fires involving flammable Gasses
Class D fires - are fires involving Metals.
Class F fires - are fires involving Cooking oils.
COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE
Matter – elements and compounds: composed of atoms combined forming molecules.
Air – composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen
Oxidation – is a combination of elements and compounds with oxygen producing stable

substances. Those compounds and elements that combine with oxygen and produces
fire are called flammable substance and the process is called combustion.
Combustion is a burning reaction in which a substance combines with a gas. Heat and
light usually accompanied by combustion reaction and most of this reaction involve
oxygen. Example: Hydrogen combine with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation produces
water and heat.
2H2 + O2  2H2O + H (exothermic reaction)
S (raw fuels) + O2  SO2 (asphyxiating effect)
The combustion process is usually associated with the oxidation of a fuel in the
presence of oxygen with the emission of heat and light. Oxidation, in the strict chemical
sense, means the loss of electrons. For an oxidation reaction to occur, a reducing agent
the fuel, and an oxidizing agent, usually oxygen must be present. As heat is added, the
ignition source, the fuel molecules and oxygen molecules gain energy and become
active. This molecular energy is transferred to other fuel and oxygen molecules which
creates a chain reaction. A reaction takes place where the fuel loses electrons and the
oxygen gains electrons. This exothermic electron transfer emits heat and/or light. If the
fire is in a fire grate/ or furnace we refer to this process as a controlled fire, and it is a
building on fire we refer to this process as an uncontrolled fire.
The Combustion Modes: The combustion process occurs in two modes:
 The flaming
 The non-flaming, smoldering or glowing embers.
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For the flaming mode it is necessary for solid and liquid fuels to be vaporized. The solid
fuel vapors are thermally driven off, or distilled and the liquid fuel vapors evaporated. It
is this volatile vapor from the solid or liquid fuels that we see actually burning in the
flaming mode. This gas or vapor production, emitted from the fuel is referred to as
pyrolysis. Once a flame has been established, heat transfer from the flame to the fuel
surface continues to drive off more volatile gases and perpetuates the combustion
process. For continued burning in the flaming mode requires a high burning rate, and
the heat loss associated with transfer of heat from the flame area by conduction,
convection, and radiation must be less than the energy output of the fire. If the heat loss
is greater than the energy output of the fire the fire will extinguish.
Both modes, flaming and non-flaming surface modes, can occur singly, or in
combination. Flammable liquids and gases only burn in the flaming mode. Wood, straw,
and coal are examples where both modes may exist simultaneously.
Flaming combustion can occur in the following forms:
 Premixed flames where the fuel and oxygen are mixed prior to ignition. For example,
the flame on a Bunsen burner, gas stove, or propane torch.
 Diffusion flames, more common, where the fuel and oxygen are initially separate but
burn in the region where they mix, like a burning of a pool of flammable liquid or the
burning of a log.
Pyrolysis – comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis (decompose). Process of
decomposition of material to simpler compounds brought by heat from fire.
Flame is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot gases rises by convection when air
and its oxygen maintain by solid (soot) or liquid (aerosol) in a closed room.
If oxygen falls below 15%, combustion rate decreases.
If the temperature reaches 900-10000 C, post flashover room fires which oxygen
concentration is only 5-8%.
If 0-5% oxygen and the temperature reach 10000C – flaming hot.
Nitrogen, N – presence of nitrogen helps/ delivers extra oxygen to continue the
combustion reaction. Example presence of nitrates (NO3) in fuel.
Two types of combustion
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1. Flaming – destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and oxidizer are
gases. Flaming fire will achieve when gas or vapor is continuously burning.
2. Glowing – absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface of which
combustion is proceeding.
Two process of combustion
Complete combustion – all of the reactants are consumed
C + O2  CO2
Incomplete combustion – only some parts of the reactant were consumed
C + O2  CO + O
Color Temperature of incandescent hot object (glowing fire)
1.Dark red – 500 to 6000C 4. Orange – 1000-12000C
2. Dull red – 600-8000C 5. Bright yellow – 1200 to 14000C
3. Bright cherry red – 800-10000C 6. white – 1400-16000C
Color of smoke
White – humid materials
Light gray – hay and vegetable matter
Black – lack of air with high flames usually petroleum based.
Reddish brown/ thick yellow/ brownish yellow - nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and sulfuric,
nitric or other chemicals.
HEAT:
The heat generated intensifies the fire.
Rate of reaction: as the temperature increases, the speed of reaction increases. The
relationship between heat and rate/ speed of fire is directly proportional.
Temperature - is a form of energy in kinetic form.
Heat release rate/ Heat flux: measurement of heat usually expressed in BTU or British
Thermal Units or Joules: 1 BTU = 252 cal = 1055 joules.
Heat flux – rate of which heat is falling upon a surface (passing through an area by
radiant heat)
Application of heat to fire investigation
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Heat as applied for igniting fire
Heat as applied for increasing rate of chemical reaction
Transfer of Heat
Conduction – transfer by contact between moving molecules from hot to cold areas
Convection – distribution of heat by circulating medium
Radiation – critical where aids fire spread and promotes ignition of other fuels.
Two types of heat reaction
exothermic – heat is released from the system.
endothermic – heat is absorbed to the system
FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCE/ FUEL
3 states of fuel
Solid - Gasoline liquid does not burn (no fire) when in liquid state but easily
vaporize.
Liquid- Vapor burns like any gas by mixing with oxygen and combusting as a flame.
Gases
Carbon/ Organic compounds - It is a flammable substance principally contains carbon
that is commonly found in living organisms, fuel deposits and other decayed matter.
Carbon also existed in pure form such as diamond, graphite, charcoal and coke.
Carbon forms bond with almost every element including carbon itself.
Carbon-carbon bond forms chains, rings, isomers and multiple bonds.
Properties of organic compounds
React more slowly and require higher temperature for reaction
Undergo more complex reactions and produce more side products
Have lower melting and boiling points and are generally insoluble in water.
Less stable and therefore often decompose on heating to compounds of lower energy
content
Classified into families of compounds such as hydrocarbons, which have similar
reactive groups and chemical properties
LABORATORY IDENTIFICATION
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Contaminants: vehicles, personnel, equipment, hoses and large quantity of water.
Recognition, Collection and Preservation of Physical evidence
In recognition of fire, first is to identify the origin. In this place, many evidence can
be recovered such as partially and unburned fuels. This is usually trapped in crevices or
trapped under the collapsed chimneys etc.
In collecting physical evidence such as debris, used your nose if a vapor detector
is not available, collect as many as you can until the container is quarterly unfilled. This
way, volatile accelerates will prevent from evaporation and do not escape as the cover
opened.
Color test using “Sudan Black”. On this process the accelerants were allowed to
evaporate and the vapor was reacted with this chemical until pink coloration will indicate
the presence of any accelerant.
Confirmatory examination: The distillate is analyzed in one of the following instruments:
a. Gas chromatography with Headspace – used to detect volatile accelerants by
comparing it with known standard such as kerosene, gasoline etc.
b. Gas-Liquid-Chromatography
c. High Performance Liquid Chromatography
WEEK 6 (Second Meeting):

LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
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II. PRESENTATION:
Chemistry of Dangerous Drugs and Its Toxicity

-What is dangerous drugs
-Classification of Dangerous Drugs
-Seized and Confiscated Dangerous Drugs
-Standard Operating Procedures in Seized Drugs Examination
-Methods of Examination
-Testing of Drugs of Abuse
-RA 9165-Pertinent Laws and Provisions
III. APPLICATION:
chemistry of dangerous drugs, its classification and effects, the methods of examination
to determine the presence of dangerous drugs and pertinent laws and provisions of RA
9165.
Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and then
practical exercises.
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Chemistry of Dangerous Drugs and Its Toxicity
A. Conduct qualitative and quantitative examination of dangerous drugs,

volatile substances and drug paraphernalia
Drug is a substance other than food intended to affect the function of the
human body. Almost all substance is considered as drug. Abuse of this substance is
dangerous. On the other hand, medicine is a substance in certain doses which when
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taken into the human body cures illness and/or relieves signs/symptoms of disease.
Abuse of medicine is called prescription abuse.
Drug evidence consists of any legal or illegal substance controlled by law.

The evidence may consist of large quantities of the drug, or trace amounts such as
powder on a spoon. It also includes evidence of the use, ingestion, manufacture or
distribution of controlled substances. Consequently, syringes, scales, pipes and plastic
bags are considered drug evidence if they appear to have been used to ingest,
manufacture or distribute drugs. It may be in the form of powder/crystals, tablets and
capsules, living plants or dried vegetable matter and liquids.
Dangerous Drugs
Any substance listed in RA 9165. A substance affecting the Central Nervous

System which when taken into the human body brings about physical, emotional or
behavioral changes in a person taking it.
CLASSIFICATION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS
According to Source
1. Natural Drugs – active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of plants and
other living systems that maybe isolated by extraction (example: Morphine from
opium).
2. Semi-synthetic drugs – products derived from natural sources but they have to
undergo a chemical process (example: Heroin from morphine via acetylation
process).
3. Synthetic drugs – substances whose molecular structure for the illicit market,
which are almost wholly manufactured from chemical compounds in illicit
laboratories.
4. Designer drugs – substances whose molecular structure has been modified in

order to optimize their effect, and in order to bypass laws and regulations governing
the control of substances – once the competent authorities have outlawed designer
drugs they are called controlled substances.
According to its effect (Pharmacological)

1. Depressant (narcotics, barbiturates, tranquilizers and sedatives)-downers
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Calm down the activities of the user
2. Stimulants (uppers) – (Cocaine, Amphetamines, Nicotine, Caffeine)
increase alertness in the activity of the user
3. Hallucinogens (psychedelics) (Marijuana, LSD)
- any of a group of substance that alter consciousness, also called psychotomimetic

(i.e. mimicking psychosis)
-Hallucinogenic compounds found in some plants and mushrooms (or their extracts)
have been used-mostly during religious rituals-for centuries. Almost all hallucinogens
have chemical structures similar to those of natural neurotransmitters (e.g.,
acetylcholine-, serotonin-, or catecholamine-like).
-LSD, peyote, psilocybin, and PCP are drugs that cause hallucinations, which are
profound distortions in a person’s perception of reality.
-Under the influence of hallucinogens, people see images, hear sound, and feel
sensations that seem real but are not.
-Some hallucinogens also produce rapid, intense emotional swings. LSD, peyote,
and psilocybin cause their effects by initially disrupting the interaction of nerve cells
and neurotransmitter serotonin.
The group includes:
a. Mescaline, or peyote, which comes from the cactus Lophophora williamsi;
MESCALINE or PEYOTE is a small, spineless cactus in which the principal

active ingredient is mescaline.
The hallucinogenic dose of mescaline is about 0.3 to 0.5 grams, and its effects
last about 12 hours.
Because the extract is so bitter, some individuals prefer to prepare a tea boiling
the cacti for several hours.
b. Psilocin and psilocybin, from the mushrooms Psilocybe Mexicana and

stropharia cubensis;
Mushrooms typically containing less than 0.5% psilocybin plus trace amounts of
psilocin, another hallucinogenic substance and is available fresh or dried and are
typically taken orally.
The effects of psilocybin, which appear within 20 minutes of ingestion, last

approximately 6 hours.
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c. LSD, synthesized from lysergic acid, found in the fungus Claviceps
purpurea.
Was discovered in 1938 and is manufactured by lysergic acid, which is found in

ergot, a fungus that grows in rye and other grains.
LSD is sold in tablets, capsules, and occasionally, liquid form; thus it is usually
taken orally;
The experiences, often referred to as “strips”, are long; typically, they end after
about 12 hours.
d. PCP (phencyclidine, or “angel dust”), a drug originally used as an
anesthetic;
A white crystalline powder that is readily soluble in water or alcohol. It has a
distinctive bitter chemical taste;
Can be mixed easily with dyes and is often sold on the illicit drug market in a
variety of tablets, capsule, and colored powder forms that are normally snorted,
smoked or inhaled;
Depending upon how much and by what route PCP is taken, its effects can last
approximately 4-6 hours..
e. MDMA(“ecstacy”), an amphetamine derivative, were common in the 1980’s;
Popularly known as ecstasy or, more recently, as Molly, is a synthetic
psychoactive drug that has similarities to both the stimulant amphetamine and
the hallucinogen mescaline;
It produces feelings of increased energy, euphoria, emotional warmth and
empathy toward others, and distortions in sensory and time perception.
The popular term molly (slang for “molecular”) refers to the pure crystalline
powder form of MDMA, usually sold in capsules.
The drug effects last approximately 3 to 6 hours, although it is not uncommon for
users to take a second dose of the drug as the effects of the first dose begin to
fade.
It is commonly taken in combination with other drugs. Compounding the risks is
the fact that ecstacy tablets and even capsules of supposedly pure “Molly”
sometimes actually contain other drugs instead or in addition;
Those may include ephedrine (a stimulant), dextromethorphan (a cough
suppressant), ketamine, caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamine, or even, most
recently, synthetic cathinones (the psychoactive ingredients in “bath salts”)
f. Marijuana has hallucinogenic properties but is pharmacologically distinct.
-The effects of smoking marijuana fade quickly, but the drug, known as “weed”
also known as the starting point of all drug dependency
g. Inhalants (gasoline, glues, thinner, paste, solvents)
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-Industrial products meant not to be taken by man
4. Other Classifications (LegaL)
RA 9165
RA 6425:
1. Prohibited ( e.g. narcotics, hallucinogens)
2. Regulated (barbiturates, hypnotics, amphetamine)
PD1619
Volatile substance
Examples:
Toluene from Rugby, Ethyl acetate and solvents from adhesive formulations,
Gasoline, paint thinner and other accelerants.
DRUG CONTROL AGENCIES
a. Dangerous Drugs Board

b. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
c. Philippine National Police

d. National Bureau of Investigation
e. Bureau of Customs
f. Philippine Coast Guard
g. Other investigative Agency
Standard Operating Procedures in Seized Drug Examination
 Receiving of request for laboratory examination by the duty

examiner/receiving personnel.
 Examination using qualitative and/or quantitative method.
 Report writing of the result of examination
 Evidence storage via chain of custody forms
 Receipt of laboratory result by the requesting party for
inquest purposes.
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 Retrieval of laboratory report and evidence for court
presentation
 Disposal
Bringing Drug Evidence to Crime Laboratory
Evidence either in:

1. powders/crystals
2. Tablets and capsules
3.Living plants or dried
4.Liquids
Actual weighing of bulk evidence must be witness by a requesting party

-Initial laboratory report is available after 2 hrs of receipt of request.
“Within 24 hours upon seizure, drugs must be submitted to a Forensic Laboratory

for examination”
Upon seizure of drugs, controlled substance and paraphernalia

 Inventory and photograph the item (suspect, media, DOJ, elected public
official)
 Properly marked and sealed
 Estimate the weight
Clandestine Laboratory
 Small (1-10kg)
 Medium (11-50kg)
 Large scale (51kg above
Request for laboratory examination/qualitative analysis
Example: One(1) heat-sealed transparent plastic bag with markings “….”

containing white crystalline substance
-Sampling Method of Seized Dangerous Drugs

*Scooping from the top
*Sample Thief
*Coning and Quartering
Source of drugs:
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-street drugs
-prescription drugs
-chemically engineered designer drugs in the form of liquids, powders,
residues and plant material are identified.
Qualitative Analysis – is the determination or identification of substance present

in the sample
Quantitative Analysis – is the determination of the absolute or relative amount
/substance purity in the sample.
Drug Test – the process of determining the presence of a drug and its
metabolites in body fluids.
As an expert witness, the analyst presents his/her findings in a court of law.
Quantitative Analysis stated in RA 9165 is determination of weight of the

substance and not the purity.
Percent purity (quantitative examination) shall be conducted only by virtue
of court order.
Methods of Examinations:
Three (3) Stages of Qualitative Examination
A. Physical Test
1. Description of sample
2. Weight determination
Gross weight, net weight
3. Microscopic examination
B. Chemical or Presumptive Test
-Color test is the addition of specific reagents to sample specimen.
An indication on the presence of a certain substance
Preliminary tests:
The suspected drugs submitted are first physically examined to include weighing
and counting as appropriate. After which, preliminary tests are conducted to
screen the materials. These tests are based on reaction of the drug with specific
substances or reagents, exhibiting colour changes. These methods are quite
simple to perform even by investigators in the field. Some of these tests and
reactions noted for the common drugs are summarized as follows:
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DRUG TEST USED REACTION NOTED
Opium & its derivatives Marquis Purple or violet color
Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow to green color
Morphine Nitric Acid Red orange to yellow color
Cocaine Cobalt thiocyanate Blue precipitate
Barbiturates Dille-Koppanyi Violet color
Amphetamine Marquis Red orange to dark brown
Methamphetamine HCL Simon Blue
Marijuana Duquenois-Levine Violet color
It should be emphasized that positive results of these tests are NOT conclusive.
Confirmatory tests have to be performed by the Forensic Chemist/Forensic Chemical
Officer on case to established the presence and identification of drug.
Confirmatory Tests:
There are several methods available for the examiner to confirm the results of the
preliminary tests. A technique much more specific than colour tests is dissolved in few
drops of a solvent on a slide. Then a reagent is added, forming crystal characteristics of
the drug. This is observed under the microscope.
The ultra violet (UV) and infrared (IR) spectrophotometers and the gas
chromatograph can also be used for positive identification of the drugs.
Another method commonly employed is the thin layer chromatograph (TLC) that is
rapid, sensitive and easy to use and less expensive.
TESTING DRUGS OF ABUSE
Testing for drugs of abuse or” drugs of abuse screening” is the detection of presence of
both legal and illegal substances of the body. The rate of excretion from the body
depends on the drug’s solubility in fat. Water soluble drugs (such as cocaine) are
excreted quickly, while fat soluble drugs (such as marijuana) may take several weeks or
months before excretion.
Examine urine and other body fluids for drug metabolites.
 PNP Mass promotions

 PNP Recruitment
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 PNP Re-enlistment
 Persons apprehended under RA 9165
 PNP firearms/Permit to Carry
 Other government employee under drug investigation
Mandatory Drug Testing
 Drivers and firearms license, military and law enforcers, persons
apprehended under RA 9165.
Random Drug Testing
 Students, office personnel, government employees and private company
 Each reason for testing has its own requirements regarding
- which drug to include in the test,
- How fast the results are needed;
- How specific (what drugs are detected by the test) and;
- How sensitive (what is the lowest amount detected) the test must be.
 Urine is the most frequently tested sample, but other body samples
(matrices) also may be used for drug abuse screening.
 Drug compounds in these other matrices are primarily the parent
(original) drugs not metabolites, and they reflect a different “window”
(time period) of drug use.
 Validity Test for Urine
Validity test is conducted to determine the integrity of the samples.
Reasons for Conducting Validity Tests
-In cases of unobserved urine collection
- When there is suspicion that the urine specimen has been tampered
Instances when to allow Unobserved Urine Specimen Collection
- When donor is physically unable to go to the laboratory
- When donor is involved in a crime scene
- When donor is involved in post-accident trauma
- When donor is critically ill
Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen

a. Adulterated – a specimen containing either a substance that is not a
normal constituent for that type of specimen or containing an endogenous
substance at a concentration that is not a normal physiological concentration.
b. Diluted – refers to a specimen with less than normal physiological
constituents.
c. Substituted – a specimen which has been derived through switching or
replacement of the original sample.
Ways to Adulterate Urine Samples

- Addition of salt
- Addition of juice
- Addition of detergent
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- Addition of bleach and other oxidizing adulterants
- Addition of illicit drugs
Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample
- Urine from friends or other persons not using drugs may be used as
substitute specimen
- Replace sample with other substance similar to urine in appearance
Ways to Dilute a Urine Specimen
a. Internal Dilution (Intake of water prior to collection; drinking herbal tea,
etc.)
b. External Dilution (Addition of water to previously collected urine)
When do we consider a Urine specimen as Invalid?

A urine specimen is considered invalid under the following circumstances:
- Adulterated, substituted or diluted
- Improperly collected, handled or stored
- Improperly documented
 ADULTERATION
Impurity – present as natural result of the manufacturing process.

Adulterants – (cutting agents) drugs/any substance added to mimic the effects
of drug or done to increase profits.
Diluents –inert substance added to bulk out the deal and assists the process for
injection.
Common drugs in the market today:

 Cannabis or commonly known as Marijuana or Indian Hemp
-Is used to induced sleep
- Most active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol found in the highest
concentration in the resin (Hashish) of the top female Cannabis sativa plant.
- When smoked effects are experienced within minutes with brief duration
- oral consumption (tea; cookies) delayed onset and longer duration
-Effects depend on the dose consumed, personality of the user and his
anticipations, and the social setting in which the drug is experienced
(Circumstances)
 Methamphetamine hydrochloride or commonly known as “Shabu”, “Ice”, “Meth”
 Opium –refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver Somniferum
L.)
 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or commonly known as “Ecstacy”
-a synthetic amphetamine relative. Gain popularity as a recreational drug
Street Names: X, Rave, Love, Drug, Flying Saucer, LBD, “Libido”, jagged Little
Pill, Artist Drug, MDA, MDEA, Dance Drug
 Amphetamine Type Stimulants – refer to a group of drugs whose principal
members include amphetamine and methamphetamine (WHO definition);
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-Aside from Meth, a range of other substances also fall into this group such as:
methcathinone, fenethyline captagon, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and
methylphenidate
-Trend of Methamphetamine Smuggling either by skillful concealment or by
disguise and refinement
History of Methylamphetamine Hydrochloride (shabu) manufacture
Methylamphetamine was originally synthesized from Ephedrine in Japan by Dr

Nagayoshi Nagai (1888).
And was later synthesized in crystalline form in 1919 by Akira Ogata via
Iodoephedrine method
It is since 1941 during the World War 2 that Methamphetamine had been
manufactured and sold for medical supplies in Japan.
Immediately following World War II, Crystal Meth was extensively used to reduce
fatigue and suppress appetite
After the war era, Meth tablets, referred to as “work pills” were widely used in
Japan.
 Drug Addiction/Substance Abuse – is a compulsive need for a particular

substance or activity.
 Addictions of any sort are destructive in that they deprive the addict of
the ability to exercise control over his/her life.
 By definition, an addiction offers no choice to the addict and often is
the direct cause of serious disruption in the person’s health or lifestyle.
 The most serious drug addictions of all involve psychoactive drugs.
 These substances radically alter the user’s mind and body,
undermining health, economic stability and social
functioning.
 It is this form of addiction and abuse that most immediately
threatens all of society and demands immediate attention
 Withdrawal
Withdrawal symptoms may begin and it is said that, having once had these
symptoms the fear of ever having them again is something which drives the
narcotic addict forward in his addiction.
 The withdrawal symptoms may begin as early as 6-8 hours
following cessation of the drug or as late as 24-48 hours,
depending upon the particular drug being used.
 The length of the period of withdrawal symptoms likewise may vary
and can last up to 10 days.
 The intensity of the withdrawal symptoms is related to the amount
of the drug which is necessary to keep going or to prevent the
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symptoms from appearing i.e. the amount of physical dependence
on the drug is related to the amount necessary to obtain the desired
feeling.
 In the early stages of the withdrawal symptoms there are chilliness,
a sensation of cold and a feeling of uneasiness and yawning.
 Rhinorrhea is usually present at this stage. With the passage
of time respirations become labored and are short and rapid.
 The chilliness of the first stage is supplanted by goose-flesh.
 Lacrimation, gross tremors and mydriasis (an excessive dilation of
the pupil due to disease, trauma, or the use of drugs) are
observed.
 Anorexia is observed throughout all stages.
 The 3rd stage is one of sleep which can last from 8 to 16 hours.
 Upon awakening, all of the previous symptoms seem more
intense and to these are added tachypnea, tachycardia,
fever, hypertension, pain and cramps in legs and abdomen,
perspiration, vomiting and diarrhea and the tremor is
intensified.
 Newborn from addicted mothers may show withdrawal symptoms
from 1 to 56 hours after birth and will require therapy.
 The neonatal symptoms are marked by hyperactivity,
twitching, convulsions, a high-pitched cry and the
appearance of constantly being hungry.
Factor Affecting the Presence of Drugs in the Body

1. Type of drugs and its clearance rate in urine
2. Frequency of intake
3. Metabolic rate
4. Route of administration
RA 9165 – An Act instituting the Comprehensive Dangerous

Drugs Act of 2002, repealing Republic Act No. 6425 otherwise
known as “The Dangerous Drug Act of 1972, as amended.
Pertinent Sections and Provisions

Section 4 – Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals-life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
Section 5–Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution
and Transportation – life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
Section 6- Maintenance of Den, Dive or Resort … – life imprisonment to death
and a fine ranging from Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
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Section 7 – Employees and Visitors of a Den, Dive or Resort. – imprisonment
ranging from 12 years and one day to 20 years and a fine ranging from
Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 8 – Manufacture… –life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to 10,000,000
Section 9 – Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and Essential
Chemicals- Imprisonment from 12 years and one day to 20 years and fine
ranging from Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 10 - Manufacturer of Delivery of equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and
other Paraphernalia…- Imprisonment from 12 years and one day to 20 years
and fine ranging from Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 11 – Possession…- Penalty of life imprisonment to death and a fine
ranging from Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000 corresponding to recorded quantity:
1. 10 gms or more opium, morphine, heroin, and
cocaine hydrochloride.
2. 50 grams or more of methamphetamine hydrochloride
3. 10 grams or more marijuana resin or marijuana resin
oil
4. 500 grams or more marijuana
5. 10 grams or more of other dangerous drugs such as
but not limited to, MDMA or Ecstacy,
trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA).
Otherwise, if the quantity involved is less than the foregoing quantities, the penalties
shall be graduated.
Section 15- Use of Dangerous Drugs – A person apprehended or arrested, who
is found to be positive for use of any dangerous drugs after confirmatory test, shall be
imposed a penalty of a minimum of 6 months’ rehabilitation in a government center for
the first offense. If apprehended for the second time, he or she will suffer the penalty of
imprisonment ranging from 6 years and one day to 12 years and a fine ranging from
Ph50,000 to Ph200,000
Section 16 – Cultivation or Culture of Plants classified as Dangerous
Drugs.
Section 18 – Unnecessary Prescription…
Section 19 – Unlawful Prescription.
Section 21 –Custody and Disposition of Confiscated, Seized and/or
Surrendered…
Section 22 – Grant of Compensation, Reward and Award
Section 23 – Plea Bargaining Provision
Section 29 – Criminal Liability for Planting of Evidence
Section 30 – Criminal Liability of Officers of Partnerships, Corporations,
Associations or other Juridical Entities
Section 31 – Additional Penalties if offender is alien
Section 33 – Immunity from Prosecution and Punishment
SPECIAL TOPIC—DANCE DRUG
Dance Drug – a drug associated with the “rave” or “dance party” scene that grew
out of the “acid house” scene in the United Kingdom in the late 1980’s. Raves are now
106
also a popular form of entertainment among young people in mainland Europe, North
America, Australia and elsewhere. Most notable of “danced drugs” are MDMA
(ecstacy), amphetamine and LSD, ketamine, cocaine and alkyl nitrate have also been
associated with raves.
Chemical Combination: Mescaline – hallucinogenic
LSD - hallucinogenic
Methamphetamine – stimulant
Physical Form : Tablet, capsule, Powder (from capsule)
Shape: Round, Flat, oval
Color: White (most potent, pure) yellow, brown
Taste: Bitter
Dose: Whole tablet – 1 “hit” (last for about 3-5 hours) –typical dose is between 5 mg
and 250 mg
One half tablet – half a “hit”
Cost: 1,200PhP per tablet (depending on its purity)
Immediate Physical Effects Felt By Users: Mild hallucinogenic effects. Increased
physical energy and emotional closeness to others (empathy), the senses being
enhanced and mood lightening. It facilitates communication and increases sociability.
Long Term Regular Use:
1. Can lead to same effects as with other synthetic stimulants
2. Potential for neurotoxicity
3. Brain damage
4. Liver damage
Speed becomes groggy, gregarious, talkative, happy; everything seems beautiful and
glaring, increase heart rate and causes palpitation, reverberating feeling, glassy eyes,
heighten tactile (sense of touch) feeling, floating, heighten sex urges, “sunset
superman” effect (sustained and prolonged erection). Delayed ejaculation, increased
sweating.
After feeling of ecstacy, sudden drop of euphoria and depression comes in.
Long Term Physical Effects:

1. Psychosis
2. Arrythmia
3. Same effects as with amphetamine
4. Psychological dependence
5. Depression
Activities Indulge Into After Taking
1. Sex (with single or multiple partners)
2. Mental intercourse (Jamming) sex talk
3. Music trip
4. Dance trip
Short Term Effects:
1. Restlessness
2. Anxiety
3. Pronounce visual and auditory hallucination at larger doses
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4. Increased the blood pressure and heart rate
5. Causes nausea
6. Vomiting
Route of Administration
1. Oral ingestion- most popular
2. Snorting – user can feel faster effect but painful and
irritating to the nostrils
Reasons for Being Preferred by Users:
As compared to other drugs:
1. Supersedes the effects of other drugs
2. They become friendlier
3. They can eat and sleep well if they want to
4. Easy to conceal
Sources: Place: USA, Europe, Canada, Australia
People: Airline Employees, elite, users themselves who can frequently travel,
no local manufacturers.
Profile of Users:
“Class A” People
“Yuppies” (Young Urban Professionals)
Spoiled brats
Recreational drug users (party goers, night owls)
Age range: 20’s – 40’s
Extent of Use: Estimated to be about 400-500 people in Metro Manila alone
Hang-Out of Users: Confidential
1. Disco houses – Frequented by “Class A” people (Ex. Euphoria, Mars, Kampo,
Chatterbox)
2. Beach Resorts – (frequented by tourists like Boracay, Puerto Galera etc.)
Penalty:
Unauthorized possession or use, illegal manufacture, sale, administration,
dispensing, distribution, delivery, transportation of the substance the penalty thereof is
reclusion perpetua, life to death and fine of PhP500,000 to PhP10,000,000
-
***the END of LECTURE 6***

LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
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II. PRESENTATION:
Forensic Toxicology
-Poison
-Classification of Poisons
-Types of Poisoning
-Background Information Useful to Laboratory Examiner
III. APPLICATION:
on forensic toxicology, its classification and background information useful to the
examiner and the methods of examination to determine for the presence of
poisons.
IV. ASSESSMENT TASKS:
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
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Conduct chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs,
gastric contents, blood, water and food samples for the presence of
chemical poisons.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology (toxic- poison, and ology-science) may be defined as the branch of science
which treats poisons, their origin, physical and chemical properties, physiological action,
treatment of their noxious effect, and methods of detection.
POISON - a substance which, when introduced into the body and is absorbed
through the blood stream, and acting chemically, is capable of producing noxious effect
or destroy life.
CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS:
A. According to kingdom
1. Animal – Ex. Cantharides

2. Vegetable- Ex. Strychnine
3. Mineral- Hydrochloric acid
B. According to chemical properties
1. Inorganic poisons
a. Volatile and non-volatile
Example: Bromine, Chlorine, iodine, sulfuric acid
b. Mineral acid
Example: Hydrochloric acid
c. Mineral alkali
Example: Sodium hydroxide
2. Organic poisons
a. Volatile – Ex. Alcohol, chloroform

b. Alkaloids – (are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter taste
containing usually oxygen that occurs especially in seed plants).Ex.
Strychnine, brucine
c. Animal poisons – Ex. Snake venom
d. Bacterial – Ex. Ptomaine
e. Organic acid – Ex. Salicylic acid
f. Glucosides – Ex. Digitalis
C . According to physiological action
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1. Corrosives – highly irritant poisons that cause local destruction of
tissues and characterized by nausea, vomiting, great local distress.
Example: Strong acids and alkali
2. Irritants – one that produces irritation or inflammation of the mucus
membrane and characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and
purging. Ex. Arsenic
3. Neurotics –one that act chiefly on the nervous system producing
delirium, convulsion and respiration as the outstanding symptoms. Ex.
Alcohol, opium, carbon monoxides and strychnine
4. Narcotics – one that produce stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of
feeling Ex. Opium, Demerol, cocaine
5. Tetanics –substances that act chiefly upon the spinal column producing
such spasmodic and continuous contraction of muscles as a result of
stiffness or immobility of the parts to which they are attached. Ex. Nux
vomica
6. Depressant or Sedatives –agents that retard or depress the
physiological action of an organ. Ex. Cocaine, Nicotine
7. Asthenics or Exhaustive –agents that produce exhaustion, marked loss
of vital or muscular power. Ex. Hydrocyanic acid
D. According to pharmacological action
1. Substance characterized by local action.
Example: Volatile oils, skin irritants, purgatives
2. Substances characterized chiefly by their action after absorption.

Example: Alkaloids, glycosides
3. Heavy metals and metalloids

Example: Phosphorous, arsenic, mercury
E. According to methods of isolation

1. Volatile poisons and those isolated by distillation with or without current of
steam.
Example: Alcohol, phenol, chloroform
2. Non-volatile poisons- those that are isolated by extraction with organic
solvents.
Example: Alkaloids, synthetics, and organic acids
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3. Metallic poisons – those that are isolated by refluxion. Example: Arsenic,
mercury
4. Substances for which special methods of isolation are required.
Example: Acids and alkali and salts of alkali metals are extracted with
water, oxalic acid, and those requiring dialysis.
Food Poisoning
Symptoms of poisoning appeared soon after a drink or meal taken
- The investigator should thoroughly see that all
liquids, foods and medicines on the premises are
preserved.
- These can be found at the medicine-cabinet,
pantry, refrigerator, and even the reuse container.
Two Types of Poisoning
I- Medical Point of View
a. Acute Poisoning – one that there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or
death within a short period of time. Due to either taking a strong poison in excessive
single dose or several doses at short interval.
b. Sub-acute poisoning – cases of short duration and extreme violence that may
include symptoms of chronic poisoning.
c. Chronic poisoning – kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of the
function of tissues and may or may not result in death. Either taking several doses
of long intervals or taking only toxic doses of the drug produces it.
II –From Legal Point of View
1.Accidental Poisoning – those in which the poison was taken without intention to
cause death. It may be taken by mistake or without knowing that it is poison.
2. Suicidal poisoning – those in which the victim voluntarily for the purpose of taking
his own life took the poison.
3. Homicidal poisoning – those in which the poison was given willfully, wantonly
and with intent to cause death to the victim.
4. undetermined – those in which the history is hazy as to how the poison was
obtained and why it was administered.
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ACTION OF POISON
1. Local – the changes or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison
come in contact. Ex: the corrosion produced by corrosive poison.
2. Remote – the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the
site of application. Ex: Dilation of the pupils when belladonna is taken orally.
3. Combined – the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site but also
affects remote organs. Ex: Phenol causes corrosion of the gastro-intestinal tract
(local) and causes convulsion (remote).
CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS
1.Those attributed to the individual

a. Age and sex
b. Health
c. Habit – the repeated taking of small dose of drug
d. Idiosyncrasy – a term applied to individuals who exhibit unusual reactions
to certain substances.
e. Diseases
f. Food
g. Sleep
h. Exhaustion
2. Those attributed to the poison itself
a. Physical state or form of the poison
b. Dilution
c. Solubility of the poisons
d. Mode of administration
e. Chemical combination
f. Mechanical combination
g. Dose – is the quantity of poison to be administered at one time.
POSOLOGY – a branch of science that treats of the form and quantity of

medicine to be administered within a certain period.
KIND OF DOSE
1. Safe dose – one that does not cause harmful effect.

2. Toxic or poisonous dose – one that is harmful or both healthy and sick.
3. Lethal dose – one that kills.
4. Minimum dose – is the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect without
causing harm.
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5. Maximum dose – is the largest that will cause no harm but at the same time produce
desired therapeutic effect.
ENTRANCE OF POISON
Poison May Enter the Body Through
1. Mouth and are absorbed into the circulation after passing the stomach and intestinal
wall.
2. Nose and enter the blood from the upper respiratory passages or lungs.
3. Eyes
4. Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter by injection.
5. Hypodermic injection.
6. Intravenous injection
ELIMINATION OF POISON
Poisons may be eliminated by:
1. Emesis 5. Milk
2. Respiration 6. Saliva
3. Feces 7. Sweat
4. Urine 8. Tears
DIAGNOSIS OF POISONING FROM DISEASE
. 1. Symptoms of Poisoning comes suddenly upon a person who previously has been in
good health, while disease is usually proceeded by a number of hours, days or even
weeks of local or general disposition.
2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their appearances after taking
food or medicine.
3. If several persons take the same food and drinks, they should all show similar
symptoms.
4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are preceded by
circumstances as exposure, recognized symptoms and general or local indisposition of
longer duration.
SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY POISONING AND DISEASE
1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain)
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Poisons: arsenic, antimony, corrosive acid and alkali, barium, cantharides,
digitalis, copper, iodine, mercury, phosphorous, phenol and wood alcohol.
Diseases: gastritis, gastro-enteritis, cholera, acidosis, early stage of pregnancy,
brain tumor
2. Convulsion
Poisons: cyanide and strychnine
Diseases: tetanus, epilepsy, and uremia
3. Coma
Poisons: opium and most of its derivatives, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, CO2,
chloroform, atropine, various alcohols and phenols.
Diseases: uremia, acidosis, cerebral thrombosis, brain injury, epilepsy and other
brain diseases.
4. Dilation of pupils
Poisons: belladonna, cocaine and nicotine
Diseases: certain nervous diseases causing optic anthropy
5. Contraction of pupils
Poisons: opium and its derivatives, physostigmine and its derivatives
Diseases: certain nervous diseases
6. General and partial paralysis
Poisons: cyanides, Co, CO2 and botulism
Diseases: brain tumor and meningitis
7. Slow respiration
Poisons: opium and its derivatives
Diseases: uremia, compression of the brain as from hemorrhage
8. Rapid respiration
Poisons: atropine group, cocaine and CO2
Diseases: acute respiratory disease
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9. Delirium
Poisons: atropine group, cannabis and cocaine
Diseases: epilepsy, insanity, and meningitis
10. Cyanosis
Poisons: nitrobenzene, aniline, acetanilide, and opium
Diseases: disease of cardiac and respiratory system
GENERAL TREATMENT OF POISONING
I. Removal of poison from the stomach – if the poison is taken orally the removal of
the poison is brought about by:
a. Inducing vomiting using emetics
Emetics – are substances or agents that produce vomiting
b. Use of stomach pump or stomach tube
If the poison is applied or instilled –wash

If the poison is injected – ligatures and bleeding
II. Administration of antidotes
a. Mechanical antidote – an agent that removes the poison without changing it
or coats the surface of the organ so that absorption is prevented.
Examples:
Stomach tubes or pumps; emetics; cathartics’ demulcents and precipitants
Classes of emetics:
1. Local emetic – produce their effects by their invitation of the terminal nerve
filaments of the pharynx, esophagus or stomach.
2. System or general emetics – produce their effects through the medium of
circulation.
Cathartics – agents that produce intestinal evacuation
Demulcents – substances that sooths and protect the part which they are
applied
Precipitants – these are substances that present absorption of poisons by
precipitating them and rendering them insoluble.
b. Chemical antidote –substance that make the poison harmless by
chemically altering it.
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c. Physiological antidote – sometimes called “antagonist”. An agent that acts
upon the system so as to counteract the effect of the poison. It merely masks the
symptoms produced.
III. Elimination of poisons by excretion – poisons are eliminated through excretory

organs. Made by intravenous infusion of saline solution, dilute alkali solution or dilute
solution of glucose. The poison is generally excreted through the urine, feces, vomitus or
saliva.
IV- Stimulation of other Symptomatic treatment

a. For excessive pain – morphine or another analgesic
b. For convulsion – chloroform
c. shock – oxygen inhalation
V- Special Treatment
 If the poison is gas – immediate need is fresh air and artificial respiration
 If poisoning is external (like burn on the hand by concentrated acid) – wash with
plenty of water or with alcohol, sodium bicarbonate, lime water or milk of
magnesia
 If alkali burn - wash with lemon or other citrus fruit
 If the poison has come from a bite or injection – the poison can be checked from
spreading through the body by applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly
above the wound. This retards the absorption of poison by the blood. The
poisons may then be removed by sucking.
INVESTIGATION OF FATAL CASES

In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator should
be an expert on the poisons, since a medico-legal officer and a toxicologist will
assist him in his investigation, but it is important and will be of great help to him if
he knows the following:
1. Symptoms of various kinds of poisoning;
2. The lethal dose of then poison;
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before
death occurs;
4. Where the poison is obtained;
5. The chemical formula of the poison;
6. Other names it is known in the market;
7. Uses of poison;
8. And the antidote for the poison.
EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE LIVING BODY
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The evidence of poisoning will depend upon whether the poisoning is acute or
chronic. In acute poisoning, the symptoms appear suddenly while the individual is in
good health. The person is usually affected with a group of symptoms of definite
characteristics out of consonance with his previous state of health. In chronic poisoning,
the onset of symptoms is more gradual and insidious due to the small quantity of poison
that has been administered on such occasion since the intention of the poisoner is to kill
the victim slowly in order to avert suspicion.
EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE DEAD
In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal or not, the

presence of poison must be proven and proofs of poisoning in the dead may be
obtained from:
1. Presence of Dye in Hair – an examination of a dead body specially to determine the

cause of death.
2. Evidence from the chemical analysis of the organs taken from the body – the most
important proof of poisoning is the detection of the poison within the body. In some
cases, however, on account of the decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time
between death and examination, and the instability of some poisons, negative results
may be obtained even at the time of death certain poisons are present.
POST MORTEM APPEARANCE POISONS INDICATED
1.Lesion of the mouth

a.) Blackening and severe corrosion Sulfuric Acid
b.) Brownish yellow stain Strong mineral acids, oxalic
acids, Lysol and carboxylic acid
c.) Corrosion and softening of tissue Alkalis
of mouth and throat
d.) Severe corrosion without blackening Hydrochloric Acid
e.) Severe corrosion and yellow stain Nitric Acid
f.) Lips swollen, tongue raw, esophagus Ammonia
with red cracks, bronchopneumonia if
death is delayed
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2. Lesion of the gastric-intestinal tract
a.) Corrosion Strong Acids
b.) Soapiness Caustic alkalis
c.) Dark brown gelatinous mass in stomach Oxalic acid
d.) Stomach grayish white Acetic Acid
e.) Stomach yellow or reddish yellow Picric Acid
f.) Stomach green or bluish green Copper salts
3. Other lesion
a.) Bright red spots on skin Hydrocyanic acid, cyanides, CO
b.) Tissue abnormally red Potassium or sodium nitrate, CO
c.) Odors marked opening the body Opium and some of its derivatives
in some cases
d.) Pupils contracted Belladona
e.) Dry gangrene or extremities Ergot
SPECIMEN/ORGANS TO BE SUBMITTED FOR CHEMICO-TOXICOLOGICAL

ANALYSIS
SPECIMEN/ORGANS MINIMUM AMOUNT POISON FOR WHICH BEST

SUITED
1. Stomach content All available In case of poisoning in which it is
suspected that the poison was
taken
2. Stomach The whole stomach For all types of poisoning taken by
mouth
3. Intestinal contents All available For cases in which the poison was
taken by mouth within one or two
days
4. Liver 300 grams Metals, barbiturates, fluorides,
oxalate, sulfonals, and many other
poisons
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5. Kidney One kidney Metals especially Hg, sulfonamides
6. Blood At least 10 ml All gas poisons, sulfonamides,
bromides, alcoholism, drowning for
chloride contents
7. Brain 500 grams volatile poisons, barbiturates,
alkaloids, alcoholism
8. Urine All available nearly all types of poisoning
9. Bone 200 grams Lead, Arsenic, radium
10. Muscle 200 grams In most acute poisoning and internal
organs are badly putrefied
11. Hairs 5 grams chronic arsenic poisoning
INTERPRETATION OF TOXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Reasons for Negative Results of the Toxicological Examination
1. Some poisons maybe rapidly altered in the body to a form that is not detectable
by the methods of analysis employed.
2. Some poisons with or without previous chemical change maybe rapidly excreted
although its toxic effect remains and may only be detectable in the urine but not in the
body tissue or organ.
3. Sometimes symptoms of poisoning may appear, which may be fatal following the
administration of even small and ordinarily harmless quantity of a substance as poison.
FORENSIC QUESTIONS FOR THE TOXICOLOGIST TO ANSWER
1. Was the death or illness of the subject caused by the poison?
2. What poison produced the illness or death?
3. When and how the poison administered?
4. Could the substance administered cause illness or death?
5. Was the poison found by the toxicologist in the body poison that caused death?
6. Is the substance given in minute quantity of poison?
7. Was the poison taken in sufficient quantity to produce death?
8. May the poisoning have occurred and the poison either be or become undetectable?
9. May the poison extracted from the body have an origin other than that of poisoning?
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10. May the poisoning be stimulated?
LABORATORY METHODS USED IN THE TOXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

1. Physical test 4. Spectrographic test
2. Crystalline test 5. Chromatographic test
3. Chemical test
LAWS REGARDING SALE AND STORAGE OF POISONS – The laws controlling the
sale and storage are found under Section 755 to 757 of the Administrative Code
Section 755 – Provision relative to dispensing of violent poisons like arsenic, cyanide,
atropine, morphine and strychnine.
Section 756 – Provisions relative to dispensing of less violent poisons like aconite,
belladonna, cantharides, digitalis, ergot, carbonic acid, and chloroform.
Section 757 – Receptacle for poisonous drugs.
THREE STAGES IN CHLOFORM POISONING BY INHALATION
1. Stage of excitement
2. Stage of surgical anesthesia
3. Stage of paralysis
COMMON VOLATILE, NON-VOLATILE AND METALLIC POISONS
1. Benzene – also called Benzol. A solvent for rubber, gums, resins and fats
2. Carbon Disulfide – a solvent for sulfur. Burns with bluish flame giving carbon dioxide
and sulfur dioxide.
3. Nitrobenzene – a pale yellow, only liquid with sweet odor. Resembles oil of bitter
almond.
4. Acetone – used as solvent for cellulose, acetate and nitrocellulose. Colorless liquid of
characteristic fruity color.
5. Ether – highly volatile and inflammable liquid. Transparent, colorless, mobile liquid.
Used as general anesthesia. Safer than chloroform.
6. Caffeine – found in coffee
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7. Formalin – an embalming liquid.
8. Salicylic acid – found in “ap-ap” solution
9. Cocaine- found in coca leaf
10. Picrotoxin – derived from fresh berries (the fruit of picrotoxin). Locally known as
lagtang.
11. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol – alcohol found in wine. Also called grain alcohol.
12. Ergot –develops on rye plants. A fungus that grows on kernels of rye and other cerel
grains.
13. Barbiturates – sleeping pills. A derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric acid.
Examples are secobarbital, phenobarbital and amobarbital
14. Strychnine – an alkaloid found in dried ripe seeds of nux vomica.
15. Nicotine – found in leaves of tobacco plants
16. Morphine – found in poppy plants (Papaver Somniferum), an alkaloid presents in
opium by about 9%. A white crystal.
17. Physostigmine – also called serine. Found in calabar beans
18. Chloral hydrate – used as “knock-out drops”
19. Carbolic acid or phenol – obtained from coal tar
20. Arsenic – a rat poison. Brittle, steel gray.
21. Lysol – a disinfectant. A brown liquid from cresol and soap emulsion
22. Methyl alcohol or methanol – causes blindness. A solvent for varnish. An anti-freeze
in automobiles. Also called wood alcohol.
23. Chloroform – colorless liquid with a sweet taste and suffocating odor. An
anesthesia.
24. Carbon tetrachloride – a dry cleaning agent. Found in “pyrine” fire extinguisher.
25. Formic acid – acid found in ants and spiders.
26. Hydrogen cyanide – found in kamoteng kahoy. Also called hydrocyanic acid.
27.Acetic acid – acid found in vinegar. In pure form is called glacial acetic acid.
28. Aspirin – an analgesic. Its chemical name is aceto-salicylic acid.
29. Smygdalin – white crystalline substance found in bitter almond.
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30. Atropine – obtained from the plant group “SOLANACEAE”
31. Phosphorus – glows in the dark
32. Peyote – same as mescaline. Found in cactus.
33. Ptomaine – found in dead or decaying matter like spoiled meat.
34. Isopropyl alcohol- present in rubbing alcohol
35.Cannabinoids – found in Marijuana and hashish
36. Methamphetamine hydrochloride – a stimulant. Commonly called “shabu”. A
dangerous drug.
37. Heroin – also called diacetylmorphine. A derivative of morphine. A light brown
powder.
38. Potassium cyanide – also called jeweler’s solution.
39. Opium – the milky exudates from the unripe capsule of the poppy plant (Papaver
Somniferum) that has been dried. Dark, chocolate brown has characteristic coffee odor.
It is found in poppy plant. Contains the alkaloids morphine, codeine, thebaine and
papaverine.
40. Mescaline – crystalline alkaloidal drug that produces hallucinogenic effects.
41. Cyanides – from kernels of various fruits in the form of amygdalin.
42. Codeine – methyl morphine
43. Conine – most active poisonous alkaloid common or spotted hemlock
44. Quinine – an alkaloid of cinchona bark.
45. Cantharide – an aphrodisiac. Prepared from the dried body of a beetle.
46. Carbon monoxide – produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon, Found in
exhaust of automobile.
47. Bufotoxin, bufotalin,or bufotonin – poisonous substance isolated from the skin of
poisonous frog.
48. Scopolamine – poisonous alkaloid found in some plants of the Nightshade family
and used as “Truth Serum”
49. Toluene – colorless, mobile, inflammable liquid that burns with smoky flame. Found
in rugby.
50. Hydrogen sulfide – a poisonous substance with odor like that of a rotten egg.
Background Information Useful to Laboratory Examiner
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LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
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Forensic Serology
-What is Forensic Serology
-Types of physiology evidence
-Blood
-Role of Blood
-Composition of Blood
-Blood as Evidence
-Analysis of Blood as evidence in chronological order
III. APPLICATION:
forensic serology, importance of the study of blood and the different methods of analysis
on blood specimen.

Class discussion and the cadets will be called for an oral recitation and practical
exercises.
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Forensic Serology
A. Definition
Forensic serology is the identification of bodily fluids, usually in the form of stains
on clothing or other crime scene evidence.
B. History of Serology
Many significant advances in the forensic sciences have been made in the field of
serology.
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1. 1800’s
The early history of forensic serology can be traced to the late nineteenth
century. At that time, researchers were primarily concerned with the development
of chemical techniques to establish if a stain was in fact blood of human origin.
In the mid-1800s, Gregor Mendel suggested that genes control factors
influencing heredity. In 1868, Van Deen in Holland developed a color change
test using an extract from the West Indies shrub, guaiacum. The guaiacum test
was non-specific for blood.
2. 1900’s
a. Early 1990’s
In 1901, a presumptive color change test (called phenolphthalein) was

developed by Kastle and Sheed. This presumptive test is still in used today around the
world. In the same year, German scientist Ulenthuth developed the precipitin test for
distinguishing human and animal blood. This was the first application of serology to
forensic science wherein results were later introduced in a court of law. Likewise, Karl
Landsteiner in Vienna discovered the presence in humans of different blood groups.
This was the origin of the ABO typing system, a system that developed into the most
common method of blood typing to ever be used for any purpose.
a. Mid-1900’s
In 1969, Leone Lattes of Italy developed a technique for the ABO blood
grouping reactions to a criminal cases. This same system is still in use today,
even though other more definitive forensic methods have surpassed it. In
1937, German scientist Walter Specht developed the chemical luminol that
would “glow” or Luminescent in the dark if sprayed on a blood stain due to a
reaction with hemoglobin. this same presumptive test is widely used by crime
scene specialist around the world today.
c. 1980’s
In 1985’s British scientists announce the development of DNA “fingerprints.”
Blood
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the human body. It is referred to
as highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is the
red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood, vital fluid found in humans and other animals that
provides important nourishment to all body organs and tissues and carries away waste
materials. Sometimes referred to as “the river of life,” blood is pumped from the heart
through a network of blood vessels collectively known as the circulatory system.
126
An adult human has about 5 to 6 liters (1 to 2 gal) of blood, which is roughly 7 to 8
percent of total body weight. Infants and children have comparably lower volumes of
blood, roughly proportionate to their smaller size. The volume of blood in an individual
fluctuates. During dehydration, for example while running a marathon, blood volume
decreases. Blood volume increases in circumstances such as pregnancy, when the
mother’s blood needs to carry extra oxygen and nutrients to the baby.
ROLE OF BLOOD
Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to all the other tissues in the body and, in
turn, carries waste products, predominantly carbon dioxide, back to the lungs where
they are released into the air. When oxygen transport fails, a person dies within a few
minutes. Food that has been processed by the digestive system into smaller
components such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates is also delivered to the tissues by
the blood. These nutrients provide the materials and energy needed by individual cells
for metabolism, or the performance of cellular function. Waste products produced during
metabolism, such as urea and uric acid, are carried by the blood to the kidneys, where
they are transferred from the blood into urine and eliminated from the body. In addition
to oxygen and nutrients, blood also transports special chemicals, called hormones, that
regulate certain body functions. The movement of these chemicals enables one organ
to control the function of another even though the two organs may be located far apart.
In this way, the blood acts not just as a means of transportation but also as a
communications system. The blood is more than a pipeline for nutrients and
information; it is also responsible for the activities of the immune system, helping fend
off infection and fight disease. In addition, blood carries the means for stopping itself
from leaking out of the body after an injury. The blood does this by carrying special cells
and proteins, known as the coagulation system, that start to form clots within a matter of
seconds after injury.
Blood is vital to maintaining a stable body temperature; in humans, body

temperature normally fluctuates within a degree of 37.0° C (98.6° F). Heat production
and heat loss in various parts of the body are balanced out by heat transfer via the
bloodstream. This is accomplished by varying the diameter of blood vessels in the skin.
When a person becomes overheated, the vessels dilate and an increased volume of
blood flows through the skin. Heat dissipates through the skin, effectively lowering the
body temperature. The increased flow of blood in the skin makes the skin appear pink
or flushed. When a person is cold, the skin may become pale as the vessels narrow,
diverting blood from the skin and reducing heat loss.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
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About 55 percent of the blood is composed of a liquid known as plasma. The rest of the
blood (45%) is made of three major types of cells: red blood cells (also known as
erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
PLASMA
The fluid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally
composed of water ((90%), solid (10%) which is largely protein in nature and consists of
albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen. Albumen is the most abundant protein in the
blood. It binds with many drugs. Globulins has an important role in the immune
mechanism of the body. It carries drugs as well as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and
iron. Fibrinogen is the soluble precursor of fibrin, which forms blood clot. Plasma is the
yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended.
Serum is a straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
sometimes and the blood contracts.
Plasma consists predominantly of water and salts. The kidneys carefully maintain the
salt concentration in plasma because small changes in its concentration will cause cells
in the body to function improperly. In extreme conditions this can result in seizures,
coma, or even death. The pH of plasma, the common measurement of the plasma’s
acidity, is also carefully controlled by the kidneys within the neutral range of 6.8 to 7.7.
Plasma also contains other small molecules, including vitamins, minerals, nutrients, and
waste products. The concentrations of all of these molecules must be carefully
regulated. Plasma is usually yellow in color due to proteins dissolved in it. However,
after a person eats a fatty meal, that person’s plasma temporarily develops a milky color
as the blood carries the ingested fats from the intestines to other organs of the body.
Plasma carries a large number of important proteins, including albumin, gamma

globulin, and clotting factors. Albumin is the main protein in blood. It helps regulate the
water content of tissues and blood. Gamma globulin is composed of tens of thousands
of unique antibody molecules. Antibodies neutralize or help destroy infectious
organisms. Each antibody is designed to target one specific invading organism. For
example, chicken pox antibody will target chicken pox virus, but will leave an influenza
virus unharmed. Clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, are involved in forming blood clots
that seal leaks after an injury. Plasma that has had the clotting factors removed is called
serum. Both serum and plasma are easy to store and have many medical uses.
RED BLOOD CELLS
Red blood (ERYTHROCYTES) cells make up almost 45 percent of the blood

volume. Their primary function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to every cell in the
body. Red blood cells are composed predominantly of a protein and iron compound,
called hemoglobin, that captures oxygen molecules as the blood moves through the
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lungs, giving blood its red color. As blood passes through body tissues, hemoglobin
then releases the oxygen to cells throughout the body. Red blood cells are so packed
with hemoglobin that they lack many components, including a nucleus, found in other
cells.
The membrane, or outer layer, of the red blood cell is flexible, like a soap bubble,
and is able to bend in many directions without breaking. This is important because the
red blood cells must be able to pass through the tiniest blood vessels, the capillaries, to
deliver oxygen wherever it is needed. The capillaries are so narrow that the red blood
cells, normally shaped like a disk with a concave top and bottom, must bend and twist to
maneuver single file through them.
C Blood Type
There are several types of red blood cells and each person has red blood cells of
just one type. Blood type is determined by the occurrence or absence of substances,
known as recognition markers or antigens, on the surface of the red blood cell. Type A
blood has just marker A on its red blood cells while type B has only marker B. If neither
A nor B markers are present, the blood is type O. If both the A and B markers are
present, the blood is type AB. Another marker, the Rh antigen (also known as the Rh
factor), is present or absent regardless of the presence of A and B markers. If the Rh
marker is present, the blood is said to be Rh positive, and if it is absent, the blood is Rh
negative. The most common blood type is A positive—that is, blood that has an A
marker and also an Rh marker. More than 20 additional red blood cell types have been
discovered.
Blood typing is important for many medical reasons. If a person loses a lot of
blood, that person may need a blood transfusion to replace some of the lost red blood
cells. Since everyone makes antibodies against substances that are foreign, or not of
their own body, transfused blood must be matched so as not to contain these
substances. For example, a person who is blood type A positive will not make
antibodies against the A or Rh markers, but will make antibodies against the B marker,
which is not on that person’s own red blood cells. If blood containing the B marker (from
types B positive, B negative, AB positive, or AB negative) is transfused into this person,
then the transfused red blood cells will be rapidly destroyed by the patient’s anti-B
antibodies. In this case, the transfusion will do the patient no good and may even result
in serious harm. For a successful blood transfusion into an A positive blood type
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individual, blood that is type O negative, O positive, A negative, or A positive is needed
because these blood types will not be attacked by the patient’s anti-B antibodies.
D White Blood Cells
White blood cells (LEUKOCYTES) only make up about 1 percent of blood, but
their small number belies their immense importance. They play a vital role in the body’s
immune system—the primary defense mechanism against invading bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and parasites. They often accomplish this goal through direct attack, which
usually involves identifying the invading organism as foreign, attaching to it, and then
destroying it. This process is referred to as phagocytosis.
White blood cells also produce antibodies, which are released into the circulating
blood to target and attach to foreign organisms. After attachment, the antibody may
neutralize the organism, or it may elicit help from other immune system cells to destroy
the foreign substance. There are several varieties of white blood cells, including
neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, all of which interact with one another and
with plasma proteins and other cell types to form the complex and highly effective
immune system.
E Platelets and Clotting
The smallest cells in the blood are the platelets (THROMBOCYTES), which are
designed for a single purpose—to begin the process of coagulation, or forming a clot,
whenever a blood vessel is broken. As soon as an artery or vein is injured, the platelets
in the area of the injury begin to clump together and stick to the edges of the cut. They
also release messengers into the blood that perform a variety of functions: constricting
the blood vessels to reduce bleeding, attracting more platelets to the area to enlarge the
platelet plug, and initiating the work of plasma-based clotting factors, such as fibrinogen.
Through a complex mechanism involving many steps and many clotting factors, the
plasma protein fibrinogen is transformed into long, sticky threads of fibrin. Together, the
platelets and the fibrin create an intertwined meshwork that forms a stable clot. This
self-sealing aspect of the blood is crucial to survival.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the
perpetrator.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of
time the victim survived the attack.
4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of the victim/assailant.
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5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was
committed.
Blood as Evidence
Blood either fresh or in dried state is the most common among evidence found in
serious and violent crimes. It can be either in puddles, spatters, smears, or droplets. It
may appear as dried stain found in knife, ice pick and similar items, used in the
commission of the crime. Dried blood stain can also be found on floors (either tiled or
wood), ceilings and walls, articles of clothing or furniture, floor carpets, auto seat
upholstery, and any objects used in the course of the crime to attempt to conceal it.
At the scene of the crime, usually dried blood stain are found in the body and
clothing of the victim. However, if the dead body of the victim is no longer in the area
upon arrival of the SOCO members, it is a primary objective of a team to look for the
blood evidence. Significantly, there are various significant and important reasons of
forensic analysis of blood. Blood as evidence can help narrow the group of suspects,
support the identification of a suspect and even guide the reconstruction of a crime.
However, since the blood is a biological evidence, utmost caution must be observed in
handling from the time it will be collected at the crime scene up to the time it is handled
during laboratory examination. For precautionary measures one should wear nose
mask, and rubber gloves, because it can be a serious health hazard as it might have
been contaminated with some contagious diseases such as hepatitis or HIV. Always
remember that these biological specimens are susceptible to bacterial contamination.
Blood when dried resembles dried stain of fruit saps and other fruit juices,
sometimes from food seasoning of similar food dyes. When such are found in any of the
objects at the crime scene or present in the clothing of a suspect, it gives confusion on
the part of the investigator, that’s why it is very necessary that any dried brownish stain
which are found at the scene of the crime must be tested for the presence of blood. The
process is called preliminary test of blood.
Analysis of blood as evidence in the chronological order.
1.Preliminary test- this is the first step of the examination to stain evidences
suspected to contain blood. It is an elimination process whether various stains
found on a physical evidence is blood or stain from other sources.
2. Confirmatory test- when preliminary tests reveal the presence of blood, this
must be established through confirmatory tests employing micro-chemical
technique to confirm that the stain is blood.
3. Precipitin Test- this examination determines whether the origin of blood
belongs to human or animal source.
4. Blood Grouping Test- when precipitin test indicates that the blood belongs to
human, the remaining part of the sample will be subjected to series of blood
groupings tests to determine what type the blood belongs. Important of blood
group data can solved question of illegitimacy and relationship as determined
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by the agglutinogens A, B, M and N and the presence or absence in the
chromosomes of two factors or genes called gene A and gene B.
a. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock
could or not be its parents.
b. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not
have been fathered by her legal spouse.
c. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of
parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants in the hospital.
d. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after
a long interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents.
5. DNA Profiling- this test is new to crime laboratories. It is conducted when

blood groupings fail and when samples are insufficient since in DNA analysis
even minute sample can be utilized (provided the sample still contains cell).
DNA laboratory test are only conducted at the main NBI and PNP- Crime
Laboratories.
PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD

There are four preliminary test for the presence of blood namely: benzedine,
phenolphthalein, guiaicum, and the leucomalachite tests. The first two preliminary tests
(benzedine and phenolphthalein tests) are commonly used in crime laboratories. All the
test after employing a drop of the reagent and this is followed by a drop of hydrogen
peroxide. The chemical reagents (benzedine & phenolphthalein) when freshly prepared
are both colorless solutions. These reagents are part in the SOCO kit brought along with
them or by forensic analyst to the crime scene.
CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test or Microcrystalline Test
3. Spectroscopic Test
Bloodstain Pattern Evidence
Blood is very frequently encountered at crime scenes, particularly those of a
violent nature. By closely analyzing the bloodstain pattern left at the crime scene, there
is information to be gained that extends beyond the various serological analyses
previously discussed. As it is deposited, blood creates a pattern and provides a basis
for study and interpretation. The following are possible determinations made from
bloodstain evidence analysis:
A. Course and sequence of events that occurred during the commission of the crime.
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B. Nature of force including the number of blows, the severity of blows and the point
of origin of a gunshot of a blow.
C. The position of the participant and the distance between participants
D. Supportive or non-supportive analysis of the statements of victim(s), suspect(s),
and witnesses or of the conditions found at a crime scene (such as the position of the
victim’s body or indications of a self-inflected gunshot wound)
E. Information to be used in the interview or interrogation of witnesses or suspects
F. Logical determination for collection sites of blood samples for serological
examinations
Blood Stain properties
A. Physical Properties of Blood

1. Consistency
Regardless of the ambient temperature or the age, sex, or size of the
contributor, blood will behave with consistent regularity when acted upon by
gravity or other forces.
2. Viscosity
The property of the fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
Blood has a relative viscosity of 3.6 – 5.4 (water is 1.0).
3. Blood drop
a. Size
The smaller the orifice that expels the drop, the smaller the drop (up to a
point). Conversely, the greater the surface are of the object on which the drop is
formed, the larger the drop (up to a point). A wet surface or a curved will produce
a larger drop. Unless acted upon by outside forces that tend to hold the drop
together.
b. Shape
The volume of a drop falls in a range depending on a variables involved, the
average volumes is 0.05 ml because of the cohesive forces of fluid dynamics, a
drop of blood will fall as a sphere, not as a “teardrop” shape.
c. Volume
The larger the drop, the greater the volume. The greater the distance
fallen, and the higher the velocity, the larger the drop.
4. Clotting time
Clotting takes three to five minutes to begin. Clotting is slowed on irregular
surfaces and at cooler temperatures.
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5. Drying time
Subject to many variables such as temperature, humidity air movement,
volume of blood, size of the stain, and surface that it is deposited on drying time
for blood can range from approximately 40 minutes to 10 hours.
B. Categories of blood stains

1. Falling/Dripping
Blood falls or drips when overcome by the influence of gravity. These are
characterized by larger, circular stains.
2. Projected
Blood is being propelled or expelled by a force greater than gravity, such as:
a. Blood being flung off of a bloody object in a tangential arch, usually on the
backswing (cast-off blood) before it is released.
b. Blood being pumped through a breached artery by the action of the heart
(arterial bleeding).
3. Contact
a. Swipe
A bloody object coming in contact with a non-bloody object.
b. Wipe
An object disturbing existing blood.
c. Detail
Characteristic can range from a rough outline of the object to fine detail
(such as a bloody visible fingerprint) and/or “feathering” which are fine lines
that indicate the direction of motion of the depositing contact.
4. Impact
Blood being compressed by some forces causing it to be broken into
smaller droplets. These stains are characterized by various sizes and random
distribution.
a. Low velocity impact spatter
Spatter size 5 mm or more in diameter. This classification usually is caused
by blood that is splashed onto a surface or blood that is subjected to a minor
impact like stepping into blood or an object falling into blood.
b. Medium velocity impact spatter
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Spatter size is usually in the 1 to 4 mm range. Blood is usually
subjected to a force between 5 –25 feet/second. Medium velocity spatter is
commonly associated with blunt force trauma.
c. High velocity impact spatter

Spatter is 1mm or less. Blood is subjected to a force of 100
feet/second or greater. Many of the individual spatter are 0.01 mm or
smaller and are created by a mist-like dispersion. Often associated with
gunshots or explosions. This atomized mist, because of the low mass of
the droplets, will usually only travel a short distance, less than a meter,
before being overcome by gravitational forces. The dispersion is often
cone-shaped with the mist falling off quickly and the larger droplets
traveling up to 6 feet away.
d. Impact Angle Determination – Shape of Spatter
a. If blood strikes a surface perpendicular to its line of flight, a circular

stains results.
b. If blood strikes a surfaces at an angle to its line of flight, an elongated

stain will result.
c. The degree of elongation is proportional to the angle of impact,
impact angle = arc sine (width/length). This is useful in determining a
three dimensional point of origin.
d. Directionality determination – the narrow ends of elongated spatter point
in the direction of travel.
Documentation
The thorough documentation of bloodstain patterns that are present at crime
scenes is imperative to allow for the subsequent examination and interpretation of the
depositing mechanism of those stains. A comprehensive series of photographs must be
taken that not only provides details of the size and shape of individuals stains, but also
enables the examiner to reconstruct the positional relationship of various stained and
unstained objects and surfaces to one another.
A. Notes/Sketches
A crime scene sketch, drawn to scale, should include measurements and

placement of bloodstains. Both Horizontal and vertical measurements should be
included. Include a log with a description of the category of bloodstain patterns.
B. Photographs of the Crime Scene
1. Long range views
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These Photographs show the overall relationship of rooms, walls, objects, etc. as
they relate to bloodstain patterns. Photographs should first be taken without the
addition of any measuring devices or identifiers, and then with them in place.
Measuring devices should be placed both horizontally and vertically so that they do
not obstruct essential portions of the stain. The camera should be positioned
perpendicular to the bloodstained surface whenever possible.
2. Medium range views
These photographs should be taken with the camera affixed to a tripod that is
positioned with the film plane perpendicular to the stained surface. Measuring devices
and identifiers will establish the location of the stain and the location of individual
elements of that stain that will be captured in closed-ups. These photographs should
provide and overall view of the stain or a series of stains that appear to be of common
origin. The relationship between separate stained areas may also be established with
these views. The overall parameters of the bloodstain pattern are best documented with
medium range views. The height of stains is to be illustrated by placing a measuring
device in a vertical position at the stain.
3. Close-up views
The size and shape of individual elements of the bloodstain (spatters, drops,
swipes, wipes, etc.) is captured in close-up photographs. Individual element that are
representative of the majority found within the stain pattern, and those that
noticeably differ from the majority, should be photographed. Camera positioning as
described under medium range views is to be used. Whenever possible, a blood
spatter template should be used to surround the characteristic that is to be
photographed. The position and relationship of the photographed element(s) within
overall stain should be clearly established
4. Movable objects
Objects that may contain valuable blood spatter evidence include clothing and
shoes of victims and suspects, jewelry, eyeglasses, belts, watches, etc. Photographs
should include overalls of the general appearance of these objects and close-ups of
details of the bloodstain groups.
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LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
-DNA Overview
-Importance of DNA in Crime Investigation
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on DNA
and its importance in crime investigation

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LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Concept of DNA
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
DNA Overview - All organisms are made up of cells. The average human has
approximately 100 trillion cells. All cells except red blood cells contain genetic material
known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA).
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic

instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms with
the exception of some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage
of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, like a recipe or a code,
since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as
proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry
this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA
sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in
regulating the use of this genetic information.
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DNA is a powerful tool because each person's DNA is different from every other
individual's, except for identical twins. Because of that difference, DNA collected from a
crime scene can either link a suspect to the evidence or eliminate a suspect, similar to
the use of fingerprints. It also can identify a victim through DNA from relatives, even
when nobody can be found. And when evidence from one crime scene is compared with
evidence from another, those crime scenes can be linked to the same perpetrator.
FROM THE WHOLE TO THE MICROSCOPIC PARTS
The DNA Molecule Consist of sugar, phosphate and four nitrogen bases
(Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine(C)).
Four bases are paired on the DNA molecule in a very specific
way: A always with T and G always with C. Connecting the
base pairs are alternating sugar and phosphate units, forming
a structure that resembles a ladder.
a. Where Is DNA Contained in the Human Body?
DNA is contained in blood, semen, skin cells, tissue, organs, muscle, brain cells,
bone, teeth, hair, saliva, mucus, perspiration, fingernails, urine, feces, etc.
b. Physical vs Biological Evidence

Physical evidence is any tangible object that can connect an offender to a
crime scene. Biological evidence, which contains DNA, is a type of physical evidence.
However, biological evidence is not always visible to the naked eye.
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c. DNA Testing
DNA testing has expanded the types of useful biological evidence. All
biological evidence found at crime scenes can be subjected to DNA testing. Samples
such as feces and vomit can be tested, but may not be routinely accepted by
laboratories for testing.
d. DNA Analysis
DNA analysis is similar to fingerprint analysis in how matches are determined.

Evidence collected from a crime scene is compared to a known sample. If each feature
is not identical, the DNA evidence is determined NOT to be a match and therefore did
NOT come from the suspect.
Example: In this example, the pattern of the evidence specimen matches

that of suspect number one.
e. Where can DNA evidence be found at a crime scene?
DNA evidence can be collected from virtually anywhere. DNA has helped
solve many cases when imaginative investigators collected evidence from nontraditional
sources. One murder was solved when the suspect's DNA, taken from saliva in a dental
impression mold, matched the DNA swabbed from a bite mark on the victim. A masked
rapist was convicted of forced oral copulation when his victim's DNA matched DNA
swabbed from the suspect's penis 6 hours after the offense. Numerous cases have
been solved by DNA analysis of saliva on cigarette butts, postage stamps, and the area
around the mouth opening on ski masks. DNA analysis of a single hair (without the root)
found deep in the victim's throat provided a critical piece of evidence used in a capital
murder conviction.
1. IMPORTANCE OF DNA EVIDENCE IN CRIME INVESTIGATION
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"DNA evidence “– constitutes the totality of the DNA profiles, results and other
genetic information directly generated from DNA testing of biological samples.
a. DNA in Criminal Investigations

1) The same DNA is found in all cells of the body.
2) The same DNA profile is recovered, no matter what the sample (cell) type.
3) Your DNA does not change through your life.
4) Any cellular material left at a crime scene may be a useful source of DNA
helix
b. Applications of DNA Analysis

1) Criminal Investigations - matching suspect with evidence
2) Parentage Testing - identifying parent(s)
3) Historical investigations
4) Missing persons’ investigations
5) Mass disasters - positive identification of the deceased
6) Military DNA “dog tag”
7) Convicted felon DNA databases
c. Some Examples of DNA Uses for Forensic Identification

1) Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime
scenes.
2) Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes.
3) Identify crime and catastrophe victims.
4) Establish paternity and other family relationships.
5) Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials
(could be used for prosecuting poachers)
6) Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil, and
food.
7) Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs.
8) Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds.
9) Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine.
2. SEARCH FOR DNA EVIDENCE
Items of physical evidence are not always visible to the naked eye and may be
easily overlooked. A methodical approach to collection and preservation of evidence is
essential. One exception may be if evidence integrity is at risk. Under those
circumstances, it is important that rapid decisions be made to prevent degradation or
loss of evidence.
An alternate light source or oblique lighting may be used to identify some types of
biological evidence. A sample detected with the ALS should be properly collected and
packaged with a label noting that it is a biological sample.
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Based on these considerations, this method can be a valuable tool. It is generally
only used after exhausting other options.
a. DNA Evidence is Trace Evidence
Trace evidence, such as hair, fiber and body fluids, are types of physical
evidence that is small & transient, but measurable. When larger items of physical
evidence are subjected to closer examination in the laboratory, trace evidence may be
detected.
The importance of trace evidence can be critical to an investigation.

Awareness of this type of evidence cannot be overemphasized. Photographing the area
where any evidence is collected not only provides documentation of the collection but
also assists in locating trace evidence.
Even if identification cannot be made in the laboratory, the investigator and

prosecutor may use trace evidence as part of a convincing circumstantial case. Skill and
effort during collection, testing and case preparation can help ensure a successful
presentation of trace evidence in the courtroom.
b. DNA Evidence is Transfer Evidence – When DNA evidence is transferred by

direct or secondary (indirect) means, it remains on surfaces by absorption or
adherence. In general, liquid biological evidence is absorbed into surfaces, and
solid biological evidence adheres to surfaces.
Possible Location of
Source of DNA
Evidence DNA on the Evidence
baseball bat or similar

handle, end sweat, skin, blood, tissue
weapon
hat, bandanna, or mask Inside sweat, hair, dandruff
Eyeglasses nose or ear pieces, lens sweat, skin
mucus, blood, sweat, semen,

facial tissue, cotton swab Surface area
ear wax
dirty laundry Surface area blood, sweat, semen
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Toothpick Tips saliva
used cigarette cigarette butt saliva
Stamp or envelope licked area saliva
tape or ligature inside/outside surface skin, sweat
bottle, can, or glass sides, mouthpiece saliva, sweat
used condom inside/outside surface semen, vaginal or rectal cells
sweat, hair, semen, urine,

blanket, pillow, sheet Surface area
saliva
"through and through" bullet outside surface blood, tissue
bite mark person's skin or clothing saliva
fingernail, partial fingernail scrapings blood, sweat, tissue
c. Evidence Search Methods
The scene and conditions may determine the search method to use. For
example, the size of the crime scene and the number of people available to conduct the
search may play a role in determining the best method to use.
3. COLLECTION OF DNA EVIDENCE
Collection and packaging methods differ depending on the type of evidence and
the material upon which it is found. It is preferable to collect evidence in its original
state. If the evidence is fragile or can easily be lost, the entire object should be collected
and packaged when size and circumstances permit. Contact a specialist if you are not
trained in the required procedure.
• Biological Samples for DNA Analysis Quantities
a. Whole blood/Blood stains 1-2 ml/1gm
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b. Saliva/Buccal Scrapings 4 cotton buds
c. Semen/Seminal Stains 3 swabs
d. Urine 100 ml
e. Hairs w/ Follicles or Root 2-5 pcs
a. Collection Priority
Prioritize the order in which evidence will be collected at the scene. Collect
biological evidence, trace materials and evidence of a fragile nature is first. The
second priority would be to collect swabs from handled items that have been moved,
are out of place or do not belong to the resident. A third priority type of evidence that
may be at the scene includes the potentially lower-quality biological evidence.
Circumstances & local agency procedures may dictate priority process.

Investigators should contact their local laboratory for specific collection procedures.
1) First Priority
Items that potentially contain sufficient amounts of DNA to obtain a profile

are the most important evidence and the first priority to collect. However, the collection
or swabbing of certain items may depend on whether or not residents are available to
ask if these items are theirs, or if residents had the opportunity to talk to the responding
investigator to indicate which items do or do not belong to them. Examples of these
items are as follows:
 Blood
 Cigarette butts
 Bottles, cans and drinking containers not used by the residents (collect
the item and submit it to the lab if no liquid remains in the container or use one slightly
moistened swab to sample around the mouth opening).
 Hairs found or caught in splintered wood or broken glass at the point of
entry.
 Discarded latex gloves.
 Clothing items, bandannas, masks or hats that do not belong to the
residents.
 Sunglasses or eyeglasses left behind by the suspect (collect the
glasses and submit them to the lab or use one slightly moistened swab to sample the
parts that rest on the ear, the bridge of the nose, and the bottoms of the frames that rest
on the face underneath the eyes).
 Toothpicks, chewed gum, sunflower seed hulls, lollipop sticks.
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
Cell phone left by the suspect (collect the item and submit to the lab, or
use one slightly moistened swab to sample around the mouthpiece and a second
slightly moistened swab to sample around the earpiece).
 Food items with bite marks — some food samples can degrade quickly
at room temperature; sample the area around the bite mark with a slightly moistened
swab at the scene (collect the food item and store it frozen).
 Evidence that might have semen on it (e.g., panties removed from a
bedroom drawer and found crumpled up in another room).
Note: One alternate swabbing technique is to use a slightly moistened

swab for collection, followed by a dry swab. Both swabs should be marked and may be
packaged together.
2) Second Priority
The second priority would be to collect swabs from handled items that
have been moved, are out of place or do not belong to the resident. Examples of these
are as follows:

Pry bars.

Tools.

Jewelry boxes or watch cases not in their usual location, with the
contents missing or scattered (for jewelry boxes that have been moved or the contents
removed, use one slightly moistened swab around the edges of the box that would have
been touched or held onto when opening it).
 Cash boxes, cash register drawers.
 Keys left behind by suspect.
 Computer connectors or cables left behind if the monitor, printer or the
computer was stolen.
When sampling this type of evidence, collect as much sample as possible

from a single source on a single swab. If the swab becomes very dirty or damaged in
the process, use a second swab. If residual moisture remains on an item after using the
first swab, use a second dry swab. Concentrate the biological evidence from one item
on one swab, on the tip. Collect control samples per agency guidelines.
3) Third Priority
A third priority type of evidence that may be at the crime scene includes
the following:
 Smudged fingerprints (unsuitable for identification) near point of entry.

 Door knobs on doors leading to the exterior.
 Latches or handles of gates left open.
An example is the handles of tools. Use one slightly moistened swab to

sample the handle of the tool. If an item has two ends that could have been handled,
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such as a tire iron or pry bar, use one swab for each end. Keep the biological evidence
collected from one item on one swab, preferably on the tip. Collect control samples per
agency guidelines.
4. HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DNA EVIDENCE
a. Do’s and Don’t’s in the Handling and Preservation of Biological Evidence

for DNA Analysis
• DO’s
a. Ensure that proper chain of custody is maintained in the handling of physical
evidence
b. Recovered pieces of evidence from the crime scene must be properly

preserved and documented. They must be properly identified for purposes of court
presentation.
c. Have separate containers for different samples.
d. Place blood or liquid tissues in spill-proof containers.
e. Immediate extraction of DNA samples from the biological evidence is a must.
f. Materials in contact with the samples should be sterile.
g. When collecting any type of body fluid or tissue always wear gloves and
additional protective device when appropriate.
h. Blood samples must be refrigerated.
• DON’T’S
a. DNA test is very sensitive and vulnerable to contamination by other DNA
sources. Avoid contamination with other human DNA.
b. Do not handle samples with bare hands.
c. Avoid long-term storage of tissues.
d. No ice is required and dry ice should never be used to cool the tube of blood.
e. Do not mouth pipette anybody fluid regardless of the source.
f. Avoid drying of wet stained garments under directs sunlight or exposing it to

an electric fan.
g. Do not collect a wet garment or garment with a wet bloodstain in a sealed air-
tight container.
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h. Do not use plastic bag in the collection of blood specimen.
b. Packaging for Transport
Use plastic bags for the transportation of biological evidence only when there
are excessive body fluids and possible contamination of people and other evidence
items. Use paper packaging if saturation is not a possibility.
Never package wet or moist body fluids in plastic bags for long periods of
time. This promotes bacterial growth and evidence contamination, which can lead to
DNA degradation.
c. Transportation and Short-Term Storage
Before collecting any evidence at a crime scene, secure a place for temporary
storage. This will help to prevent any degradation or contamination of biological
evidence.
Direct sunlight and warmer conditions may cause DNA to degrade more
rapidly. Avoid storing evidence in places that may get hot, such as the trunk of a police
car. To best preserve biological evidence, store in a cool dry environment.
d. Preserving Evidence
From crime scene to forensic laboratory to courtroom, all evidence must be

identified, inventoried and secured to preserve its integrity. It is important to
demonstrate that the evidence introduced at trial is the same evidence collected at the
crime scene and that access was controlled and documented. An understanding of and
adherence to the rules governing chain of custody is vital for an investigator to ensure
evidence admissibility in court.
Effective evidence preservation includes appropriate packaging with correct

and consistent information on labeling and procedural documentation for all items.
Biological evidence should be air-dried before packaging to minimize

degradation. Packaging in paper is preferred; however, some laboratories allow
packaging in plastic if the sample is thoroughly dried.
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Liquid samples, such as water from a toilet bowl or pipes, should be properly
documented and packaged in sterile glass or plastic containers and refrigerated as soon
as possible to avoid contamination of evidence that may contain DNA, always take the
following precautions:
1)Wear gloves. Change them often.

2)Use disposable instruments or clean them thoroughly before and after
handling each sample.
3) Avoid touching the area where you believe DNA may exist.
4) Avoid talking, sneezing, and coughing over evidence.
5) Avoid touching your face, nose, and mouth when collecting and packaging
evidence.
6) Air-dry evidence thoroughly before packaging.
7) Put evidence into new paper bags or envelopes, not into plastic bags. Do
not use staples.
e. Personal protection:
Biological materials can contain pathogens such as Hepatitis, Syphilis, TB,

Gonorrhea, Measles, HIV, etc.
NOTE: Assume that all stains, wet or dry, are infectious!
f. Problems with DNA Evidence
1) Degradation – is the breaking down of DNA into smaller fragments by chemical

or physical processes.
2) Contamination – occurrence of having unwanted DNA profile in the specimen.
g. Degradation
1) DNA can be degraded.

2) Affected by certain conditions.
3) Normally inside a body or a living cell, conditions are perfectly maintained to
avoid DNA degradation.
4) When it leaves the body, these conditions are uncontrolled.
h. Factors Affecting DNA Degradation
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1) Temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster the degradation of DNA
evidence proceeds.
2) pH – DNA can be degraded by alkalinity or acidity of the matrix.
3) Humidity
4) Exposure to sunlight
5) Exposure to chemicals
i. Contamination
1) Addition of different person’s physiological material after crime during collection,

during examination or anywhere in between.
2) Maybe accidental or purposely.
3) Invalidates DNA evidence completely.
j. Contamination vs Degradation
1) Degradation does not change the genotype of the evidence while contamination
does.
2) Contamination could produce false positive result while degradation does not.
3) Both alter the TRUE result.
4) Both should be avoided.
k. Mixed Samples
1) Not the same as contamination.

2) Mixed sample contains more than 1 person’s DNA.
3) Happened before or during the crime.
4) Examples:
- Semen and vaginal epithelial cells in rape cases.
- Married couple sharing house.
l. Avoiding Contamination
1) Always wear clean gloves.

2) Change gloves between samples.
3) Use clean (sterilized) collection tools.
4) Proper labeling and packaging of evidence.
5) Slowing the Degradation
6) Removing moisture.
7) Lowering temperature.
8) Avoid exposure to chemicals and direct sunlight.
a) If items have been stored properly, DNA can last decades (30+ years).
b) Exposed to harsh environment (eg: heat, sunlight, moisture, mold), DNA may
only last a few days or weeks.
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c) In the laboratory: we can’t tell in advance whether or not an item will yield any
DNA.
DNA can be present, but too degraded to give a result (partial DNA profile)
6. DOCUMENTATION AND LABELING
a. Documents Needed:
1) Letter Request – An ideal Letter request contains all information as to:
a) Brief summary of the case

b) Source of the specimen
c) Markings of the specimen
d) The way the evidence is packed.
2) Chain of Custody Form – May contained in the Packaging of the evidence.
3) Court Order – For cases already in court.
b. Chain of Custody – Record of individuals who have had physical possession

of the evidence.
NOTE: Integrity of chain of custody
“The fewer people handling the evidence, the lesser the chance of
contamination and a shorter chain of custody for court admissibility.”
c. Seal – To maintain integrity of the specimen; to further prove that no tampering took
placed.
d. Markings - These are information to ensure that the items can be identified
by the collector at any time in the future. This precaution will help immeasurably to
establish the credibility of the collector’s report or testimony and will effectively avoid
any suggestions that the item has been misidentified.
1) Markings on the specimen must at least contain the following:
a) Exhibits and/or SOCO Case # (for SOCO personnel)

b) Initials and or signature of the collecting officer.
c) Time and date of collection.
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*It is also important to note the place or location where the evidence was
collected.
e. DNA Evidence in Court – The well-documented research of forensic DNA

analysis methods, limit the challenges against the underlying science used in forensic
DNA laboratories. However, the investigator may encounter challenges originating from
evidence identification, note taking, collection procedures and proper chain of custody.
All law enforcement notes, reports, photographs, laboratory analysis reports
and chain-of-custody records are kept in the case file, which is made available to the
prosecution and is subject to discovery by defense counsel. The chain of custody
operates like a chain; if one link is broken, the chain breaks and the evidence may be
ruled as inadmissible.
Review for Midterm Examination
WEEK 9: MIDTERM EXAMINATION
FINAL PERIOD
LESSON PLAN
151
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Hairs
-Purposes of Hair Examination
-Value of Hair as Evidence
-Hair Structure
-Hair Examination
-Body area determination of Hair
-Information lead through hair examination
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on Hair
Examination and its importance in crime investigation.

LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Hairs
152
Hair is a filamentous outgrowth of dead cells from the skin found only on
mammals.
Purposes of examination:
• To determine whether the hair in questioned originated from an animal or human

being and the comparison of questioned and known hairs.
• To ascertain whether two or more individuals could have come into contact or
whether one or more individuals could have come into contact with an object.
The examination of this associative evidence is useful in the crimes of violence, such
as homicide, sexual assault, and aggravated assault, where physical contact may have
occurred. Crimes such as burglary and armed robbery typically involve the recovery of
debris and articles of clothing which may contain hairs useful for identification of
suspects.
Hair is one of the most common type of trace evidence found at the crime scene.
Hair transfer may occur during physical contact of the suspect and the victim. Hair may
fall out under condition that suspect is unaware of & unable to guard against it.
Value of Hair as Evidence
The value of hair as evidence in the criminal cases has been clearly recognized. It is
seldom conclusive as evidence, but in conjunction with other details, has proven to be
an important and essential aid to the investigator.
Facts about Hair
Each individual hair is formed inside a hair bulb deep in a hair follicle.
The follicle is a tiny but powerful factory which throughout many people’s lifetime
continues to produce hair.
The primary component of hair is keratin.
Keratins are proteins, long chains (polymers) of amino acids.
The average human head has about 100,000 hair follicles. Some people have as
many as 150,000.
Each follicle can grow about 20 individual hairs in a person’s lifetime.
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Each new hair grows for several years & can reach over a meter in length.
Average hair loss is about 100 strands a day.
As anytime around 80-90% of most people’s hair follicles are in the anagen or
growing phase, 2% are in the catagen phase or the transition period between the
anagen and the telogen phase or resting phase which are about 10- 18%, where
hair are routinely lost.
Next to teeth and bones, it is also one of the most decay-resistant human
elements.
Hair Structure
3 Parts of Hair
• Root bulb- the shape of the root bulb will determine if the hair was pulled by
force or not. Portion embedded in the skin
• Hair shaft – contains the most information about the hair and portion above the
surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of the hair.
• Tip – will show if the hair is cut, burned or if it has split ends.
3 Parts of the Hair Shaft
• Cuticle – is the outer surface of the hair and when viewed under a microscope
appears to be composed of scale like flakes, each overlapping the others like the
scale of a fish.
• Medulla or Core – is the central canal of the hair shaft. It could be continuous,
fragmented, interrupted or absent and begins more or less with the root.
• Cortex – the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of
elongated, spindle shaped fibrils which cohere and contains the color
pigmentation of the hair.
Kinds of Hair Examination
Hair Microscopy
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The examination of human hairs in the forensic laboratory is typically conducted
through the use of comparison microscope. It is not a conclusive test because it is
difficult to establish a statistical probability for a particular association due in part to the
lack of reliable quantitative assessments of the microscopic characteristics present in
hair. However, it will help eliminate the suspect from the crime scene.
The comparison microscope consists of two compound light microscopes
connected by an optical bridge that allows for the simultaneous viewing of questioned
hairs and known hairs. Typically, a glass microscope slide containing known or
reference hairs is positioned on the stage of one microscope, and a glass microscope
slide containing a questioned hair or hairs is positioned on the stage of the other
microscope. This enables the hair examiner to compare the microscopic characteristics
of known and questioned hairs in one field. The range of magnification used is
approximately 40X to 400X.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR

Before performing the examination take note of any foreign material on the hair
and should be identified if present in sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleaned with a
mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether.
1. Color – a. with naked eye b. under the microscope
Melanin – the brownish-black pigment in the hair, skin, etc. It is the chemical
responsible for the color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only on the amount of
melanin. Red hair is thought to be due to iron.
2. Length By Actual Measurement
3. Character of the Hair – whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width Breath
5. Character of the Hair Tip If Present – Tip of the hair may show whether a hair has
been cut. Tips of body hairs become rounded from rubbing against the cloths. Hair of
human usually shows a fine tip. Men’s hair tip is apt to be cutoff square.
6. Manner By Which Hair Had Been Cut
7. Condition of Root or Base or Bulb of Hair.
8. Character of Cuticle
● DNA examination will give a reliable finding as to the origin of the hair.
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Body Area Determination of Hair
The body area from which a hair originated can be determined by general
morphology. Length, shape, size, color, stiffness, curliness, and microscopic
appearance all contribute to the determination of body area. Pigmentation and medullar
appearance also influence body area identification. Hairs which exhibit microscopic
characteristics shared by different anatomical areas are often referred to as body hairs.
These include hairs found on the upper legs, lower abdomen and back. There is also a
wide range of interpersonal variation in head and pubic hairs, thus the majority of work
in forensics has been in comparing and differentiating hairs from head and pubic
regions.
Head Hairs
Head hairs are usually the longest hairs on the human body. They characterized
as having a uniform diameter and often, a cut tip. These hairs are subject to more
alteration than hairs from other body areas. Alteration to natural appearance of hair
includes use of hair dyes, rinses, permanents, frosts and other chemical applications.
Environmental alterations can result from excessive exposure to sunlight, wind dryness,
and other conditions. Because these hairs can be affected by a number of chemical and
environmental conditions, it is recommended that head hair samples be obtained as
soon as possible from suspect and victims of crime. Head hair samples obtained years
after a crime are generally not suitable for meaningful comparison purposes. Obtained
at least 25- 100 full length hair strands with from different areas of the scalp with the use
of your finger and or tweezers
Pubic Hairs
Pubic hairs are also routinely compared in a forensic laboratory. Pubic hairs are
not subject to much change as head hairs over time, and because of this, a sample
taken a year after a crime may still be suitable for meaningful comparison purposes. It
recommended that a known pubic hair sample be obtained as soon as possible after a
crime and should contain at least 25 full-length hairs taken from different areas of the
pubic region.
Pubic hairs are generally coarse and wiry appearance. They exhibit considerable
diameter variation or buckling and often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla.
While tapered tips are common, these hairs may also abrade or cut.
Facial Hairs
Facial hairs are more commonly called beard hairs or mustache hairs. These
hairs are coarse in appearance in appearance and can have a triangular cross section.
Heavy shouldering or troughs in the hair are observed under magnification. It has a
wide medulla and a razor-cut tip.
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The presence of facial hairs on the clothing of a suspect or victim may help
establish contact between these individuals. While these hairs may compared
microscopically, the significance of the association may not be as great as head hair
and pubic hair associations.
LIMB HAIRS
Hairs from the legs and arms constitute limb hairs. These hairs are shorter in
length, arc-like in shape, and often abraded or tapered at the tips. The pigment in limb
hair is generally granular in appearance, and the medulla is trace to discontinuous.
While limb hairs are not routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, they can
differ in appearance between individuals. These differences, however, are not
considered sufficient to allow limb hairs to be of value for meaningful comparison
purposes. The presence of leg or arm hairs on certain items of evidence may help to
corroborate other investigative information.
FRINGE HAIRS
These hairs originated from the neck, sideburns, abdomen, upper leg and back.
They are not suitable for significant comparison purposes
OTHER BODY AREA HAIRS
• Auxiliary (underarm), chest, eye and nose hairs are not routinely compared. As
with limb and fringe hairs, their presence may limb to corroborate information
obtained during an investigation.
RACIAL DETERMINATION
A human can be associated with a particular racial group based on established

models for each group. Forensic examiners differentiate between hairs of Caucasoid
(European ancestry), Mongoloid (Asian ancestry), and Negroid (African ancestry) origin,
all of which exhibit microscopic characteristics that distinguished one racial group from
another. Racial determination from the microscopic examination of head hairs from
infant, however, can be difficult, and hairs from individuals of mixed racial ancestry may
possess microscopic characteristics attributed to more than one racial group.
The identification of race is most useful as an investigative tool, but it can also be
an associative tool when an individual’s hairs exhibit unusual racial characteristics.
1. Caucasoid (European)
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Hairs of Caucasian origin can be of fine to medium coarseness, are
generally straight or wavy in appearance, and exhibit colors ranging from blonde to
brown black. The hair shafts of Caucasian hairs vary from round to oval in cross section
and have fine to medium-sized, evenly distributed pigment granules.
2. Mongoloid (Asian)
Hairs of mongoloid or Asian origin are regularly coarse, straight, and

circular in cross section, with a wider diameter than the hairs of the other racial groups.
The outer layer of the hair, the cuticle, is usually significantly thicker than the cuticle of
the Negroid and Caucasian hairs and the medulla, or central canal is continuous and
wide. The hair cortex of Mongoloid hair contains pigment granules that are generally
larger in size than the pigment granules of Caucasian hairs and which often appear to
be grouped in patchy areas within the shaft. Mongoloid hair can have a characteristic
reddish appearance as a product of its pigment.
3. Negroid (African)
Hairs of Negroid or African origin are regularly curly or kinky, have a

flattened cross section, and can appear curly, wavy, or coiled. Negroid pigment
granules are larger than those found in Mongoloid and Caucasian hair and are grouped
in clumps of different sizes and shapes
AGE and SEX
The age and sex of an individual cannot be determined definitively by a

microscopic examination.
The microscopic appearance of certain human hairs, such as those of infants
and elderly individuals, may provide a general indication of age. The hairs of infants are
generally finer and less distinctive in microscopic appearance.
Sex can be determined from forcibly removed hair (with tissue), but this is not
routinely done. Definitive determination of sex can be accomplished through the staining
of sex chromatin in the cells found in the follicular tissue, but nuclear DNA and
mitochondrial DNA (DNA) tests will provide more specific information regarding the
possible origin of the hair.
The presence of artificial treatment such as dyes or rinses can be identified

through microscopical examination. Inasmuch as head hairs grow at the rate of one
centimeter per month, the approximate time of this treatment can be determined by
measuring the length of untreated area of the hair. A direct, side-by-side comparison of
the color of the questioned and known artificially treated hairs is typically conducted by
a hair examiner.
158
As stated previously, the condition of the root area of a hair allows the hair
examiner to microscopically determine whether the hair was forcibly removed from the
body or shed naturally. Hairs that fall out naturally have a club-shaped root, whereas a
forcibly removed hair will be stretched and may have tissue attached to it. The manner
in which a hair was removed can have considerable value, especially when there is a
possibility of violent contact between a suspect and a victim. The identification of
burned, cut, or crushed hairs can also be established through microscopic examination
Biological or Environmental Alteration
The microscopic appearance of hairs is affected by natural biological fluctuations

and environmental influences. For this reason, it is important that known hair standards
are collected contemporaneously to the deposition of questioned hairs. Head hairs are
most affected by these factors, whereas pubic hairs are less influenced. A time period of
several months to years can detract from a meaningful head hair comparison, whereas
several years may not severely impact on meaningful pubic hair comparisons.
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Fibers
-Classes of Fiber
-Fiber Color
-Fiber Number
-Fiber Location
Fabrics
159
-Fabric Source Determination
III. APPLICATION:
Fibers and Fabric, corresponding examination and its importance to crime
investigation.

LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Fibers
Placing a suspect at the scene of a crime is an important element in criminal
investigation. This can be achieved through the location of textile fibers similar to those
from the victim’s clothing of the crime scene on the clothing of the suspect, or through
the discovery of fibers like those in the suspect’s clothing at the crime scene.
Textile fibers can be exchanged between two individuals, between an individual

and an object, and between two objects. When fibers are match with a specific source
(fabric from the victim, suspect, and/or scene), a value is placed on that association.
This value is dependent on many factors, including the type of fiber found, the color or
variation of color in the fiber, the number of fibers found, the location of fibers at the
crime scene or on the victim, and the number of different fibers at the crime scene or on
the victim that match the clothing of the suspect.
Whether a fiber is transferred and detected is dependent on the nature and

duration of contact between the suspect and the victim or crime scene, the persistence
of fibers after the transfer, and the type of fabric involved in contact.
A fiber or filament is the smallest single unit forming the basis of the textile
yarn. A yarn is composed of numerous fibers which are spun, twisted, or drawn together
to prepare the unit for weaving or knitting. A yarn is sometimes called a thread by the
layman. The type and length of fiber used, the type of spinning method, and the type of
fabric construction all affect the transfer of fibers and the significance of fiber
160
associations. This becomes very important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer
between a suspect and a victim during the commission of a crime.
CLASSES OF FIBERS:
Natural Fibers:
a. Animal - fibers derived from animals such as wool (sheep), silk, cashmere (camel’s
hair), mohair, alapaca and fur.
b. Vegetable - this includes cotton, linen, jute, flax, hemp, ramie, coir and sisal. Plant
fibers serve in the manufacture of paper and cloth.
Ex. Cotton fibers
c. Mineral – minerals provide fibers such as fiberglass, and asbestos.
Ex. Wool fibers
Many different natural fibers originating from plants and animals are used in the
production of fabric. Cotton fibers are the plant fibers most commonly used in textile
materials, with the type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist contributing to the
diversity of these fibers. Processing techniques and color applications also influence the
value of cotton on fiber identifications.
The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile materials is
wool, and the most common wool fibers originate from sheep. The end use of sheep's
wool often dictates the fineness or coarseness of woolen fibers: Finer woolen fibers are
used in the production of clothing, whereas coarser fibers are found in carpet. Fiber
diameter and degree of scale protrusion of the fibers are other important characteristics.
Although sheep's wool is most common, woolen fibers from other animals may also be
found. These include camel, alpaca, cashmere, mohair, and others. The identification of
less common animal fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim
would have increased significance.
The shape of a man-made fiber can determine the value placed on that fiber. The
cross section of a man-made fiber can be manufacturer-specific: Some cross sections
are more common than others, and some shapes may only be produced for a short
period of time. Unusual cross sections encountered through examination can add
increased significance to a fiber association.
Fiber Color
161
Color influences the value given to a particular fiber identification. Often several
dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color. Individual fibers can be colored prior to
being spun into yarns. How color is applied and absorbed along the length of the fiber
are important comparison characteristics. Color-fading and discoloration can also lend
increased value to a fiber association.
Fiber Number
The number of fibers on the clothing of a victim identified as matching the
clothing of a suspect is important in determining actual contact. The greater the number
of fibers, the more likely contact actually occurred between these individuals.
Fiber Location
Where fibers are found also affects the value placed on a particular fiber
association. The location of fibers on different areas of the body or on specific items at
the crime scene influences the significance of the fiber association.
• Fabrics
How a fabric is constructed affects the number and types of fibers that may be
transferred during contact. Tightly woven or knitted fabrics shed less often than loosely
knit or woven fabrics; fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less than fabrics
composed of spun yarns. Certain types of fibers also tend to transfer more readily.
The age of a fabric also affects the degree of fiber transfers. Some newer
fabrics may shed more readily because of an abundance of loosely adhering fibers on
the surface of the fabric. Some worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed
fibers. Damage to a fabric caused during physical contact greatly increases the
likelihood of fiber transfer.
Fabric Source Determination
When a questioned fiber is compared to fibers from a known fabric source, a
determination is made as to whether this fiber could have originated from the known
fabric. It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular fabric,
although the inability to positively associate a fiber with a source in no way diminishes
the significance of a fiber association. The wide variety of fiber types, fiber colors, and
fabric types can make fiber associations very significant because the value of a fiber
association depends on the type of fiber, the color of the fiber, the number of fibers
transferred, the location of the recovered fibers, and other factors.
162
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Marks and Impression

-Tool marks
-How tool marks are created
-Types of tool marks
-Places and Surfaces where tool marks might be observed in criminal investigation
-Comparisons between a tool and a tool mark
-Preservation and Packaging of Tools
Second Meeting
Shoeprints/Tire Impressions
-Casting and Molding
-Procedure of Casting
-Evidentiary Value
-Tire Characteristics
-Importance of Laboratory Examination
III. APPLICATION:
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Marks and impression, corresponding examination and its importance to crime
investigation.

LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Marks and Impressions
TOOLMARKS
Toolmarks - any impression, cut, abrasion, or gouge left by a tool after coming in
contact with an object.
Tools – Any object capable of making an impression on another solid object.

Examples include axes, knives, screwdrivers, chisels, crowbars, pliers, cutters, and drill
bits. Tools may be store-bought or homemade.
How Toolmarks are created?
Compression
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Friction
Repetition
Combination
Compression
Friction
Repetition
Combination
2 TYPES OF TOOLMARKS
1. Impressions - those toolmarks in which only the general form and size of the tool
are apparent.
2. Striations - those toolmarks in which peculiar characteristics or irregularities of the

tool are reproduced in the form of indentations or striations
Places and Surfaces

where Toolmarks
Might be Observed in
Criminal
Investigations
1. wire, chains
2. door and window frames
3. sections of sheet metal
4. safety-deposit boxes, safes
5. human bone or cartilage
6. padlocks, doorknobs
7. bolts and locks
8. and a variety of other materials.
Comparisons between a tool and a toolmark.

These comparisons include the following:
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1. Toolmark with Tool.
Establishment of the presence or non-presence of class characteristics.

Examination of the tool for foreign deposits, such as paint or metal to compare
with the marked object.
Microscopic comparison with several test marks or cuts made with the tool.
2. Toolmark without Tool
Size of the tool used (class characteristics only).

Type of tool used (class characteristics only).
Unusual features of the tool (class or individual characteristics).
Action employed by the tool in its normal operation, and/or in its present
condition.
If the toolmark is of value for identification purposes.
Tool Marks
Individual Characteristics on bolt

Bolt cutter cutter
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Common Tools found in Crime Scene
Toolmark ID of Bolt Cutters and Lock
Identification Under
Comparison
Microscope
EvidenceSubmitted
in Toolmark Cases
May Include Tools
1. screwdrivers and chisels

2. scissors
3. knives and box cutters
4. pliers and wrenches
5. crowbars tire irons
6. saws, knives
7. bolt cutters
167
Tool Mark Characteristics
168
Week 11(Second Meeting)
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Shoeprints/Tire Impressions
-Casting and Molding
-Procedure of Casting
-Evidentiary Value
-Tire Characteristics
-Importance of Laboratory Examination
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on Shoe
prints/tire impression, corresponding examination and its importance to crime
investigation.

Week 11(Second Meeting)
169
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Casting and Molding
Introduction
When an item like a shoe or a tire comes into contact with a soft surface, it
leaves behind a pattern showing some or all of its surface characteristics known as
impression. The collection and analysis of impression evidence found at the scene of a
crime can often be very important to an investigation.
The major types of impression evidence are shoeprints, tire tracks, tool marks
and the marks that are found on a fired bullet. Impressions can be found in a variety of
surfaces including dust, carpet, mud, and, very significantly, blood. Collection of an
impression is a specialized forensic task because, unlike a hair or bullet, an impression
cannot just be packaged and taken back to the laboratory. Impression evidence is often
fragile; a tire track may deteriorate or even be destroyed by rainfall, for example. There
is a need for the forensic scientist to retain as much information as possible when
collecting impression evidence.
Definition of Terms:
 Cast- reproduction of an object, known as positive impression..
 Subject- an impression that is to be reproduced.
 Mold- impression made or left by an object, known as negative impression.
 Molding- process of reproducing the impression of an object.
 Casting is a process whereby a reproduction of an object is secured by

introducing a suitable hardening material into the impression.
Casting is the process used to replicate three-dimensional prints or marks. It is

widely used to obtain the exact replicate of toolmarks, tire tracks, shoeprints, and
sometimes teeth. Casting is of paramount importance in forensic sciences as it allows a
crime scene investigator to collect an identical copy of a mark or print from a scene,
which can then be compared to a seized tool, shoe, or tire in order to establish a link
between a suspect and a crime scene.
Casting can only be accomplished on three-dimensional marks or traces. In the
case of tool marks, for example, casting can be used to obtain the perfect copy of the
mark of a screwdriver used to force open a door during a burglary (robbery). With a
shoeprint, it allows for the shoeprint of a thief that was left in the soil outside the window
of the apartment he or she exited to be preserved as evidence. A vehicle used to flee
170
the scene of a murder could leave tire tracks in the snow, which can be recorded and
saved for later comparison with a suspicious vehicle. Casting is also used to record
dental characteristics of a body and compare these characteristics with known dental
records in order to make a proper identification.
PROCEDURE OF CASTING:
a) Photograph and measure the impression;
b) Remove leaves, twigs, or loose objects that may have fallen into impression.
Debris that is embedded in the surface of impression should remain;
c) Preserve the impression by spraying it with a fixative agent (hairspray) to make
the surface impervious to the liquid that will be poured in;
d) Place a retaining wall on the impression;
e) Mix a Plaster of Paris and water in a proportion of 7 parts Plaster of Paris to 4
parts water;
f) Pour the Plaster of Paris mixture into the impression;
g) Place the reinforcement material;
h) Pour again the remaining Plaster of Paris mixture until 1 inch of its thickness;
i) Allow the cast to harden for about 20-30 minutes; and
j) Mark the impression with the following minimum information: case number, time
and date casted, place of casting, name of person who made the cast or other
identifying marks. This should be done before the cast is completely hardened.
Shoeprint and Tire Impression

Shoeprint and tire impression evidence is another form of valuable physical
evidence that is often encouraged at the crime scenes. Since criminals must either walk
or drive to and/or from the crime scene, it should be reasonably assumed that traces of
the impression evidence will be left behind. The recognition, collection, and examination
of this impression evidence can provide irrefutable proof of the presence of an individual
or a vehicle at a crime scene or in contact with a victim.
Tire tracks are the impressions left by tires on the surfaces onto which a vehicle
drove. Not all tires and all surfaces will leave tire tracks. If the surface is soft or semi-
soft, such as mud, dirt, or snow, the tire will leave an imprint under the weight of the
vehicle. If the surface is hard, such as road pavement, the tire might still leave a trace, if
dirt or dust was present. As with other traces such as fingerprints or shoeprints, tire
tracks are extremely important in forensic investigations. They enable identification of
the vehicle that left them. Tire tracks are usually found in road accident scenes or in the
access and escape routes of other crime scenes.
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Common Sample of Tire prints
TIRE CHARACTERISTICS
Class characteristics - include size and general patterns.
Individual characteristics - include regular wear and tear as well as

accidental cuts or holes.
Tire Impression
Tires are made of semi-hard rubber and are characterized by class and individual
characteristics. Class characteristics include size and general patterns. Individual
characteristics include regular wear and tear as well as accidental cuts or holes. These
characteristics may be reproduced in the tracks left by the tire, depending on the
surface and the circumstances under which the track occurred.
When examining a crime scene that contains tire tracks, forensic science can
play a major role in establishing the possible identify of a car or motorcycle that was
present at the scene and matching it with a vehicle of a suspect.
Various methods are used to “lift” tire tracks from different surfaces including
making a cast with dental stone and photographing the tracks with a scale device.
Wherever possible, the original item containing the impression should be retrieved to be
taken to the laboratory.
Dental stone or die stone is a much better substitute for making a cast of the tire
tracks to create a three-dimensional impression.
Shoeprints:
Shoes create impressions at the scene of a crime called shoeprints and can be
extremely informative to the forensic investigator. The sole of a shoe picks up various
kinds of material as a person walks, and this readily transferred to other surfaces,
creating an impression that can reveal the pattern on the sole. Investigators look at soil,
particularly around the potential entry and exit points of a crime scene, as well as
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carpet, linoleum, paper, and dust to try to detect shoeprints. If a shoeprint is found in a
pool of blood, it can serve as incriminating evidence.
There are three kinds of shoeprints: paten, plastic, and latent.
1. Patent shoeprints are clearly visible and come from tracking through a
substance like paint or dirt and leaving some behind each time a step is
taken.
2. A plastic shoeprint occurs when a shoe sinks into a soft substance like snow
or mud.
3. Latent shoeprints are those that are not visible to the naked eye and often
occur on a hard surface like glass or concrete. The techniques used for
collecting shoeprints vary, but include dusting with special powders,
electrostatic lifting, and making plaster casts. A photographic record is always
taken as well.
Each individual has their own way of walking, which has an impact on the way
their shoes wear down, and this will be evident in the shoeprint. It may be possible to
determine if the perpetrator had a foot deformity or a limp from the way their shoes have
worn down. As someone walks, the soles of their shoes also acquire a unique pattern of
damage consisting of tiny cuts, scratches, and abrasions. Because no two people ever
tread exactly the same route over a period of time, this damage pattern is unique to
each shoe sole and can be powerful individualizing evidence.
To compare a shoeprint found at the scene of a crime with that from a suspect’s
shoe, the investigator has to create a print from the latter. One way is to coat the shoe
sole with a light oil pressing it into foam rubber impregnated with oil. The shoe is then
pressed onto paper, creating an oily print that can be visualized with magnetic powder.
If a plastic print is needed for comparison, the shoe will be pressed into a similar surface
to the one in which the shoeprint was found. It is important to try to reproduce the
mechanism by which the original shoeprint was made in investigating a suspect’s
shoeprint. The argument that both came from the same source—the suspect’s shoe-
then becomes much more convincing.
LABORATORY EXAMINATION
The laboratory examination of shoe print and tire impression evidence can lead
to one of several conclusions that are usually dependent upon the quality and degree of
discernible detail that has been left behind with the impression.
1) Positive proof of contact the shoe/tire with the surface;
2) The possibility that contact did occur; or
3) The possibility that contact did not occur.
Types of Examinations
1) Comparative – conducted to determine if a known shoe or tire made the

impression.
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2) Investigative – conducted on impressions to provide information regarding
manufacture or design descriptions that may provide investigative leads.
The characteristics of impression evidence that allow for comparative
examination consist of three elements:
1) Design characteristics – this is the basic pattern of the shoe sole or tire tread
design. These patterns are usually patented although illegal copies or “knock-
offs” are often reproduced and are somewhat specific to a manufacturer. Usually
many shoes or tires are produced that have this basic pattern design.
2) Wear patterns – as the shoe or tire is worn or used on a vehicle the pattern
area will wear down as erosion of the tread or sole material takes place. This
wear pattern generally follows a somewhat “normal” progression. However,
other factors such as the gait or walking pattern of an wearing the shoes, or the
front end misalignment of the tires on a vehicle of the under or over inflation of
the tires will have an effect on the overall wear pattern. It must be remembered
that the wear pattern alone will not provide the basis for positive identification.
3) Accidental characteristics- during the normal use of a shoe or tire some
damage such as small cuts and nicks are imparted on the tread or pattern
surface. These characteristics are known as “accidental” and occur randomly on
all tire and shoe designs commonly in use. Assuming the agreement of the
design characteristics and wear patterns, the “match” of accidental
characteristics may allow for the positive identification of a particular shoe or tire
as having made a particular impression.
**the END of LECTURE 11***

Week 12 (First Meeting)
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Glass Fractures
-Glass
-Visual Distinctions of Glass
-Value of Glass as Evidence
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-The Strength of Glass and Glass Fractures
-Collection of Glass as Evidence
III. APPLICATION:
Measure the listening, speaking skills and critical thinking of the CADET on glass
and glass fractures, corresponding examination and its importance to crime
investigation.

LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Glass and Glass Fractures/Bullet Trajectory
Glass is a super cooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a
non-crystalline inorganic substance.
Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica, usually in the form of natural sand and
two or more alkaline bases such as soda, lime or potash. Glass also contains
quantities of various other elements and metals, present either as incidental
impurities in the basic ingredients, or added to them for color, degree of hardness,
heat-resistance, and other specific purposes.
These ingredients are melted in a crucible under very high temperatures, and the
molten mass is then either rolled, blown, or molded into desired sizes and shapes.
It may be later being polished, ground, or cut for useful or decorative purposes, or
it may be combined with other materials. For example, safety glass is formed by
fusing sheet vinyl plastic between sheets of plain glass, and boron is added to
provide greater resistance to temperature (i.e., Pyrex glass).
Visual Distinction of Glass
When one looks at a piece of glass there are several distinctions that can be
readily observed with the naked eye. These include:
 Color
 Thickness
 Curvature (if any)
 Surface texture
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Glass is very unique, since there can be thousands of different formulas in the
making of glass. From the simple pane glass to the wide variety of colored glass,
each has its own physical properties that make it unique. For example, metals can
be added to make the various colors:
1. Iron= Greenish
2. Copper= Bluish
3. Manganese= Brownish
4. Gold= Ruby red
Each mixture of glass has its own density. Therefore, a laboratory can conduct
analysis using density gradient tubes to further compare other fragment densities.
Another nondestructive comparison is that of refractive index. Spectrographic
analysis identifies the elemental composition of glass, but is destructive because it
burns up the fragment being tested.
Value of Glass as Evidence
In the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run
2. Broken windows cause by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glasses, spectacles found at the scene of an assault or
other crimes of violence, which would suggest examination of the soles and heels
of a suspect for embedded glass fragments.
Glass can have relatively high value as evidence because of the identifiable
variations in its physical properties and methods of manufacture. The evidence
value of glass is also enhanced by the fact that large fragments may frequently be
physically matched. Such physical matches are positive or certain. However, a
laboratory is limited in that it can only conclude that particular glass evidence
consisting of tiny granules “has the same composition” as the original glass.
Unless a fragment can be perfectly fit into an original piece, a certain conclusion
can be reached.
ANALYSIS OF GLASS
The most important problem commonly referred to a forensic chemist is
the comparison of two or more samples of glass.
Test/Analysis for Glass
1. Spectrographic Test – an instrumental method of analysis which
determines the presence of trace elements. Shows the constituent elements of
glass. It will not give sufficient information to establish the origin of the samples
being examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis
since it requires only a small amount of sample. In the absence of trace element,
it may be difficult to determine whether two samples of common type of glass are
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identical. If similar trace elements are found of both samples, it is obvious they
come from the same source.
2. X-ray diffraction test – not as effective as the spectrographic analysis.
It determines the type pf pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the
composition of glass
3. Physical properties examination – the most sensitive method of
determining differences of composition in glass samples and depends upon the
study of the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity, density,
and refractive index. Density and refractive index can be measured with great
accuracy. Density or specific gravity is an especially important physical property
from the viewpoint of the examiner.
Method of Measuring Density of Glass
Flotation Method – a rapid and convenient method of determining the
density of small glass fragments.
Method of Measuring the Refractive Index of Glass
Immersion Method – method use to measure the refractive index of glass.
It is difficult to distinguish between two samples of glass by density and refractive
index. It may be mentioned that two glass from independent sources can vary
conceivably have the same index of refraction or the same density but it is quite
improbable that they would index of refraction and density the same.
4. Ultraviolet examination – determines the differences in the appearance
of the fluorescent thus indication of physical and chemical differences.
5. Polish marks- optical glass and other fine glass wares are usually
polished. In the polishing of glass fine marks are often left on the surface which
can sometimes serves as basis for comparison.
Procedure for the Determination of Fine Marks
The surface is cleaned with alcohol and then etched by spraying with 20 to
25% hydrofluoric acid. The acid is permitted to remain on the surface for several
minutes. The glass is again washed with alcohol and dried. If the surface is
illuminated by oblique light, a photograph can be made to show the polish marks.
The Strength of Glass and Glass Fractures
It is important to remember that the strength of glass is in its surface. As soon as

the surface is penetrated or scratched, for example, using a diamond tip pencil,
glass will tend to break along that scratch line. Once the surface is damaged, the
remainder of the material is easily cracked or fragmented.
1.Glass always breaks under tension, not compression. It will bend, until the
tensile strength is exceeded, and then break.
2. A focused impact upon glass will produce a predictable pattern of
fragmentation.
3. Radial fractures are primary fractures.
4. Spiral or concentric fractures are secondary fractures
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In the case of two or more focused impacts upon a glass surface, the
fragmentation pattern can help determine which impact was made first.
Succeeding impact radial fractures will stop at the juncture of the fractures
produced by the first impact.
Fracture patterns are unique and examination can result in a valuable information
as to the direction of breaking force. A physical match of two pieces of glass
results in an opinion that they came from a common source to the exclusion of all
other sources.
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example, the
glass first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is
reached, the glass breaks along radial lines starting from the point where the
portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front
surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly
created glass triangle between the radial rays also bend away from the direction
of the destroying force. By this bending the glass is stretched along the front
surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached, the glass breaks in concentric
cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.
What Can Be Determined by Examining Glass
Glass fractures and glass fragments can provide information from which
determinations such as the following may be possible:
1.That a fragment of glass did or did not originate from a particular glass object
that has been broken (i.e., a fragment of headlight lens found at the scene of a
vehicle accident did or did not originate from a broken headlight of a suspect’s
vehicle)
2. That a fragment of glass originated from a particular kind of glass object, such
as headlight lens, eyeglass lens, or window pane.
3. The origin and direction of a fracture, that is, what caused it and the direction
from which the causative force came.
4. In the event of multiple fractures, including bullet holes, the order in which the
fractures occurred.
5. The angle that a bullet struck a glass
By microscopic optical and density comparisons, glass particles can be identified

or compared with glass from a known source.
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The laboratory expert cannot identify the source to the exclusion of all other
sources; however, it can be stated and demonstrated that it is highly improbable
that the particles came from a source other that the matching known source. If two
or more different sources can be matched, the conclusion is greatly enhanced.
DETERMINING POINT OF IMPACT AND DIRECTION OF FORCE
 Broken glass shows two kinds of fractures: primary, first-made fractures,

and secondary subsequent fractures.
 Primary fractures are radial. They look like spokes of a wheel as
they radiate outward from the point of impact.
 Secondary fractures are concentric. They form a series of
broken circles, or arcs around the point of impact.
 Radial fractures show up on the surface opposite to the one where the
fracturing blow or pressure was applied. These fractures tend to lengthen
after a while because of internal stresses set up by the internal stresses set
up by the initial shock. The original radial fracture looks like a wavy line.
Extensions to the original fracture run in a straight line. Temperature
changes cause extensions to take place more quickly.
 Concentric fractures are made by a force working in the opposite direction
from that which made the radial fractures. The glass bends, then stretches
and breaks on the same side as the first blow. Concentric fractures extend
from one radial fracture to another.
WINDSHIELD GLASS
 Determining the point of impact and direction of force is more

difficult in windshield glass. Windshield, or safety glass, is made
with transparent binding agent like vinyl plastic sandwiched
between two sheets of plain glass.
 The binding agent halts the shattering of the glass when it is stuck.
Due to the structure of safety glass, cracking is often incomplete.
Neither radial nor the concentric cracks go all the way through from
one side to another.
 If concentric cracks and no radial cracks are on one side, this is the
side of impact. If only radial and no concentric cracks are found on
one side, this is the side away from the impact. The cracked side
may be found by sliding a fingernail or sharp-pointed instrument
along the glass surface across the apparent cracks.
BULLET HOLES FRACTURE
Checking glass for bullet holes may provide useful knowledge
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 It may be possible to determine the direction from which a
bullet was fired. Sometimes the sequence of a series of bullet
holes can be learned. And sometimes the type of ammunition
used and the distance from which the bullet was fired may
also be learned.
 The direction from which a single bullet enters a piece of
glass, whether window, plate or safety, is often seen with
ease.
 A bullet makes a somewhat clean-cut hole in the side of
entrance.
 As it penetrates, it pushes glass fragments ahead of it.

 This causes a saucer-shaped or coning depression on the
exit side, with a greater diameter than the entrance hole.
 Determining directions becomes more difficult when several
bullets enter safety glass closely together.
 The last bullets enter a glass surface which already has a
number of cracks.
 As a result, small pieces are knocked out around the
holes on both sides.
 However, broken edges on the entrance side are
almost perpendicular to the surface of the glass
 On the exit side these edges are at an angle to the
surface.
 Sometimes it is important to know which of two or more bullet holes
in a pane was made first
 You may be able to determine this from the fracture
 When a fracture travelling across glass meets a fracture that
is already present, the newer fracture will be stopped.
 If fractures from one bullet hole are stopped by those of
another, you may conclude that the blocking fracture was
made first.
 The angle from which a bullet enters a piece of glass may be found
by the amount of chipping at the exit crater.
 If a bullet strikes glass straight- on, chipping around the exit
hole will be fairly even.
 If a bullet enters from the right of the glass, very little
chipping will be found on the right side of the exit hole.
Instead, there will be a lot of chipping around the left side of
the exit hole. The entrance hole will show straight and short
radial fractures on the right, while one or two radial fractures
should appear on the left. If a bullet enters from the left of
the glass, these fractures will be reversed.
 Determining the distance from which a bullet was fired depends on
the knowledge of the ammunition used.
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 A high speed projectile fired from afar may yield a fracture like one
from a slower projectile fired at closer range.
 A shot at close range with a weapon with great muzzle blast will
give like results.
 The blast itself breaks the glass but may leave powder residue and
cause a crystallizing (frosting) of the glass
THE BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW GLASS

Where there are two bullet holes in a window, one
from each side, the problem of which one was first becomes
important to determine who is the aggressor. It will be found
that the fractures caused by the first will be complete
especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the
second will be interrupted and end-stopped at point where
they intersect those from the first.
BLUNT OBJECT FRACTURES
Glass fracture caused by a blunt object will show a pattern or fractures like, but
not as regular as, the pattern from a bullet.
 This difference is mainly due to the impacting force being dispersed over
a greater area. It may be harder to tell the side from which the impact
came. But you can still tell by the ridge-lines on the edges of the radial
fractures.
 First, partly reconstruct the object to find the radial and concentric
fractures.
 Then look at the radial fracture lines.
 The ridge line on the opposite of the impact will be well-developed
and distinctly individual.
 The ridge lines on the front or impact side, will be much less so.
They tend to run together here and lose their individuality.
 The 4-R Rule still applies. Because glass bends away from the side of
impact, the first (radial) fractures occur on the rear side after the limit of
elasticity has reached.
 This causes the distinct ridge lines on the stretching (rear) edge
of the radial fractures.
 At the same time, some grinding action takes place on the front
side. This causes some chipping and flaking of the edge and
partial obliteration of the ridge lines.
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HEAT FRACTURES
Recognizing heat fractures in glass can help eliminate areas of concern in

investigation.
 Fractures due to heat are wave-shaped.

 They do not show a regular pattern of radial and concentric lines like
fractures cause by impact.
 Heat fractures also show little, if any, curve patterns (stress lines) along
the edges.
 Expansion of the glass (stretching point) occurs first on the side
exposed to heat.
 Glass splinters will often fall toward that side.
 Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat will show the wave-
shaped fracture pattern.
 If the ridge lines are smooth, or almost so, and no point of impact is
found, and you have considered other factors like the circumstances
under which the fragments were found and their location, it can be
concluded that the fracture was due to excessive heat.
Week 12 (Second Meeting)
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Ultraviolet Examination
-Ultraviolet light
-Sources of Ultraviolet light
-Ultraviolet Powder Examination
-Use of Ultraviolet Light in Forensic Investigation
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-Procedure in Ultraviolet Powder Examination
III. APPLICATION:
ultraviolet light, ultraviolet examination and its importance to crime investigation.

Week 12 (Second Meeting)
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
Ultraviolet Examination
Rationale
Mostly white light and ultraviolet light are used to collect evidence at the
crime scene. Forensic scientists use equipment/technology and various scientific
theories about light to analyze, identify and match trace evidence.
Therefore, comprehending the properties of light is essential to

understanding how light is used in the field of forensics.
Visible Radiation- these are radiations that can be seen by human eye. Visible
radiation includes the portion of the spectrum extending from violet through blue,
green, yellow, orange and red.
Invisible Radiation – these are radiation that cannot be seen by the human eye.
They are beyond the violet and red ends of the visible portion of the spectrum. X-
Ray, Ultraviolet and infrared radiations are an example of these type of radiation.
Visible light – radiates at wavelength between 400 and 700 nanometers (nm)
and refers to the only portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by
the human eye.
Ultraviolet light
Short wave- 254 nm Long wave – 365 nm
Ultraviolet (UV)light –is a radiation of shorter wavelength than the radiation

commonly recognized as visible light. It is sometime known as black light
because of its invisibility to the eye or wood light. It has a strong effect on most
photographic film and may be used for photographic purposes. Many
materials absorb ultraviolet light and re-emit the energy in the form of visible light
of a various characteristic wavelength. This phenomenon called fluorescence, is
one of the most useful properties of these materials for criminalistics purpose.
Notably included in the list of fluorescent materials are those of uranium, tungsten,
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and some zinc ores etc. Most significant is the fact that most physiological fluids
show some fluorescence, most marked in the case of semen.
The fact that many dyes have strongly active fluorescent property affirms
its helpfulness in conducting examination. Though numerous undyed fibers also
show fluorescence like in the case of synthetic fibers. Similar fluorescence of two
sample materials is not ordinarily interpreted as instinctively establishing their
identity but the absence of fluorescence in one shows the phenomenon is usually
to be considered as proving absence of the material. Location of fluorescent
materials otherwise invisible to the eye is one of the most useful function of
ultraviolet examination.
Nature of Ultraviolet Light
That section in the electromagnetic spectrum between 156 and 4000n

UV Light – the name means “beyond violet” (from Latin word ultra, “beyond”),
violet being the color of the shortest wavelengths of visible light. UV light has a
shorter wavelength than that of violet light.
Short wave- 254 nm Long wave – 365 nm
They are longer than the X-rays and shorter than visible rays
Ultraviolet Region –that section of the electromagnetic spectrum between 196

and 4000A.
Visible light – radiates at wavelength between 400 and 700 nanometers (nm)
and refers to the only portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by
the human eye.
Phosphor – any substance that emits visible light (400-700 nm) when stimulated
by radiation. A Phosphor converts the energy in the UV radiation from a black
light into visible light
Black Light
A black light is a source of electromagnetic radiation that emits near-

ultraviolet light (350-375 nm) wavelength range.
Uses of Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light impinging on a substance may be absorbed. In some substances,

the energy which is absorbed results in the displacement of an electron from its
normal orbit in the atom. In returning to its orbit the electron may give up its
energy in the visible wavelength. This phenomenon is called as
photoluminescence. If the substance is visible after the source of energy is
removed, the phenomenon is phosphorescence. The appearance of an object
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when fluorescing under the ultraviolet light may be surprisingly different
from that of ordinary light in the police laboratory.
Sources of Ultraviolet Light
The most common source of ultraviolet light is the sun. The visible portion may be
filtered out and fluorescent effects made observable, if the object is in the dark
with respect to other light. Iron arcs and carbon are also sources of ultraviolet
radiation, especially in the short wave region. In laboratory, however, the quartz-
mercury vapor lamp is the most satisfactory source of ultraviolet light for the
purpose of criminalistics.
Principles Involved in the Ultraviolet Light Examination
When the atoms of certain substance are struck by rays of short wavelength
principally ultraviolet rays, electrons are displaced from its orbit. In the
process of getting back into position, some of the electrons loss energy
which is thrown off in the form of light. This conversion of invisible rays into
visible energy is called fluorescence.
It is of common knowledge that sunlight can be broken or split into a number of

colors as when a rainbow is formed. This color phenomenon is known as
spectrum and comprises violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
Popularly termed as the primary colors are blue, green and red which can be
combined to produce white light. If one or more of the visible hues are absent
from a light source, the resultant illumination will be colored by those that remain,
and will not be white. For example, if the violet and blue are removed, the light will
be orange-red, if green is missing, the illumination will be mauve. Thus a colored
light results when one or more of the visible colors are not included in the light
source.
Fluorescent Materials
Since the eye cannot see ultraviolet light, its utility is made available through the
use of fluorescent powders. The fluorescent as applied to fingerprint powders
may require some explanation. When the substance has a property of absorbing
ultraviolet or invisible light and converting it into visible light, it is called
fluorescent. A substance possessing this property to marked degree is
anthracene, a hydrocarbon derivative of coal tar. Another substance highly
fluorescent under the ultraviolet radiation is berberine hydrochloride, a brilliant
orange-yellow powder drug. As fluorescent developing agent, promising
possibilities are offered by uranyl salis, a component of which is uranyl phosphate,
a lemon yellow compound of uranium. It exhibits fluorescence of bright yellow-
green that is slightly stronger than the yellow anthracene exhibits under the
ultraviolet light
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Ultraviolet Light Examination in Relation to Extortion Case
Money bills that are to be used in the entrapment are being dusted with
ultraviolet fluorescent powder, which under the naked eye is invisible but
under the ultraviolet radiation exhibit the bright yellow fluorescence. After
the entrapment, the subject is examined in the laboratory with the subject
body parts observed under the ultraviolet lamp. The presence of
fluorescence powder would prove that the suspect got hold of the dusted
money bills.
LESSON PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION:
II. PRESENTATION:
Macro-etching Examination
-Metallurgy (As applied to crime detection)
-Definition of Terms Commonly Used
-Purpose of macro-etching
-Basic importance of number restoration
-Theories in Number Restoration
-Preliminary Examination on Macro-Etching Process
-Spot Detection of Tampered/Obliterated Numbers
-Chemical Aspect of Document Examination
III. APPLICATION:
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purpose of macro-etching examination and its importance to crime investigation
and the chemical aspect of document examination.

Lecture 13: Macro-etching Examination
LESSON MANUSCRIPT
METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)
In criminal investigation, the branch of science known as metallurgy will in most

instances be of great help in the solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metal
or metal articles.
METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of
chemical and physical knowledge.
METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the

microstructures of metals and alloys. All metals are composed of minute grains or
crystals, under the naked eye and when viewed from a distance a metal appears to be
homogeneous but when viewed under a metallography microscope the crystal structure
is visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly packed.
APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. Robbery 5. Nail examination

2. Theft 6. Counterfeit coins
3. Hit and run 7. Restoration of tampered serial number
4. Bomb and explosion
Counterfeit Coins – are coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.
Two Kinds of Counterfeit Coins:
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1. Cast Coins – coins made in mold
2. Struck coins – coins made by striking or stamping method.
HOW ARE COUNTERFEIT COINS ARE MADE

1. Cast coins – An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of Plaster of Paris, clay or
bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low
temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature
metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coins have poor imitation. It can be easily
detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of letterings and designs
are rounded instead of sharp.
2. Struck coins – Made by striking or stamping method. Consists of making an
impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel
dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity,
composition may all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the design with
those of the genuine should be made. Examination of counterfeit coins involves
chemical and physical method.
MACRO-ETCHING
Macro-etching is an application of chemical solution on the metal surface

where the serial number is normally located and observing any reaction that may take
place.
Definition of Terms:
Serial number – series of number that is punched or pressed into a particular item to
distinguish it from one another of common type. It is sometimes preceded with letters
and symbols. It is a series of digits that is placed on a particular item to distinguish that
item to or others like it.
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Engraved number – a number that is impressed intensely using electrical or
Mechanical gadget.
Embossed number – number that is raised in relief from the surface or produced a
raised design, pattern or lettering on a plain surface, e.g. metal.
Concavity – a depression or excavation below the general level.
Alteration – changes or modification made in anything.
Grind – to be polished or made smooth by friction.
Molecule – smallest particle of a compound
Atom – smallest particle of an element.
Obliteration – concealed or hidden from its identity.
Purpose of macro-etching:
• To determine whether or not the serial numbers of Motor Vehicles or Firearms

are tampered.
• To restore the original serial number of an article in questioned.
– Articles of economic value are identified by its special peculiarity (e.g.
serial number, protection number) of manufacturer.
– The criminal offender will destroy this identification by erasing/defacing
this serial number through some suitable method so such as chiseling,
filing, grinding and filling in.
Basic importance of number restoration:
• It establishes investigative lead from article/property that may have been taken
from the scene of the crime;
• It proves that the property found in the possession of the suspect is actually
owned by the victim; and
• It resolves conflicting claims of property that has been recovered by the

investigators.
Theories/Principle in Number Restoration
 When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure

of the metal in the neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This
disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance into the substance of
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the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations
caused by the pouch have been removed. When etching fluid is applied is
applied to this surface the disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ
in the rate solubility makes it possible in many cases restore the number
to such an extent that they can be read and photograph.
 When a letter or number is stamped into a cold metal surface a molecular
disturbance occurs directly beneath. When visible portion of the letter or
number is erased, the molecular disturbance remains unchanged.
When a letter or number is stamped into a cold metal surface a molecular

disturbance occurs directly beneath. When visible portion of the letter or number
is erased, the molecular disturbance remains unchanged.
• When a letter or number is punched into a metal, a deformation occurs on the

metal surface that is the metal is being compressed. The deformation caused by
the steel dye penetrates up to a depth 3/64 of an inch. It is only up to this extent
that we could be able to restore the original serial number when properly etched
and treated.
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION ON MACRO-ETCHING PROCESS
• Search for the normal location of the serial number;

• Remove grease and oil using alcohol and/or gasoline;
• Polish the area using sand paper
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• Photograph.
•
SPOT DETECTION OF TAMPERED/OBLITERATED SERIAL NUMBERS
• Presence of any sign of welding surrounding the serial number;

• Presence of several scratches and filing marks on the metal surface where serial
number is normally located;
• Presence of any sign of concavity of the serial number surface;
• Presence of any difference in the style of letters and numbers;
• Appearance of fragmentary marks which could not be properly identified, partly
superimposed by the letters and numbers;
• Presence of any differences in the spacing of individual letters and numbers;
• Misalignments of letters and numbers;
• Absence of one or more letters before in between or after a set of sequential
numbers;
• Sizes and style of letters and numbers are sharper and coarser than the others;
• Presence of any irregularities in the depth of individual letters and numbers;
• Absence of rating plate;
• Model of the vehicle and the chassis number does not tally with that of the
rating plate; alteration of the production number.
CHEMICALS USE IN NUMBER RESTORATION
– Paint Remover (strepsol)

– For Hard Metal (iron, steel, etc.)
• Nitric acid (50ml acid in 50 ml water)
• Cupric Chloride Solution ( 50gms cupric chloride powder + 600ml water +
600ml hydrochloric acid)
• For Soft Metal (aluminum, lead)
Hydrogen peroxide in acetic acid.
CHEMICAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
At first impression it seems that the examination of questioned documents is

hardly within the province of a forensic chemist., but if we consider the fact that the
essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil, and the chemical examination of inks, erasures, alterations, and sequence or
writing are often associated with such examination, it will be very evident that there is a
large amount of purely chemical work in document examination.
PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF DOCUMENTS
Documents are precious things and therefore should be treated accordingly:

1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
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2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old
lines. Place it in Manila paper envelope or brown envelope since it is sufficiently hard
paper or it can be placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plain white paper
in a folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen, or anything that could be possible
marked them.
THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
Examination and Comparison of Paper

The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and
ink or pencil or writings. The examination of paper may be necessary if we want to know
the age of the document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of
forgery.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE ANALYSIS OF PAPER
1. Determination of whether two pieces of paper originated from the same

source.
2. Determination of the probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of the paper.
1. Fiber Composition - practically all papers maybe classified from the standpoint of
their basic composition into set of fiber mixtures namely:
a. Mechanical pulp – ground wood sulfite mixture, this is pulp from coniferous
and dicotyledonous wood in combination with sulfite chemical pulp from conifers.
b. Soda-sulfite mixture – chemical pulp from dicotyledonous woods.
c. Rag sulfite – cotton rag or linen rag.
2. Loading Material – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between
fibers of the paper. Examples of loading materials are calcium sulfate and barium
sulfate.
3. Sizing Material – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials
are rosin, casein, gelatin and starch.
Substances Used for Writing
Egyptian papyrus – one of the earliest substances used for writing. It is from the
name papyrus that the word paper was derived. After papyrus came parchment and
velum then linen rag followed by mixture of lime and cotton or cotton only. Paper made
from a variety of fibrous materials that started about the middle of the 19th century.
At present a thin sheet of matted or felted vegetable fiber (usually wood pulp)
with filler as clay and sizing material as rosin or starch.
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THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER
The examination and comparison of paper may determine the following;
1. The age of the paper as compared with the age of the known document.
2. Whether a paper is identical with or different from another paper whose history is
known.
3. Whether two sheets of paper of the same manufacturer were made at the same time.
In this case we have to know when the form was printed or when the paper was first
made that bears a particular mark.
THE FOUR TESTS FOR PAPER

1. Preliminary examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change.
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change.
4. Chemical test.
1. Preliminary Examination – deals with the appearance of the document and the
following are observed:
a. Folds and creases
b. Odor
c. Impression caused by transmitted light – gives indication of color,
translucency where tampering is made, change in tint which indicates substitution of
sheets of paper, watermarks and wire marks.
d. Presence of discoloration in daylight and under the ultraviolet light.
Watermark – if present is one of the most important features in the comparison of
paper. It is distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture,
by a roll usually covered with wire cloth known as dandy roll which serves as a means
whereby the paper can be identified as the product of a particular manufacturer.
Wire mark – Marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of
the dandy roll that carries the watermark.
2. Physical Test Causing No Perceptible Change – a test applied on paper without

perceptible changing or altering the original appearance of the document.
a. Measurement of length and width – to indicate that they originated from the
same manufacturer if two pieces are found to be exactly the same.
b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area.
d. Color of the paper – it is closely related to its brightness. A side-by-side
comparison maybe made in well-diffused light. Observation of color is influenced by
texture, gloss, finish, type of illumination and the element of human error.
e. Texture
f. Gloss- gloss and texture maybe determined by visual observation in good
daylight or under different kinds of illumination.
g. Opacity – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or
which prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper.
193
h. Microscopic examination/inspection – for possible presence of dirt, foreign
particles, imperfections, wire marks or certain unusual fibers. These maybe a deciding
factors in determining whether or not the same manufacturer made two pieces of paper.
3. Physical Examination Causing a Perceptible Change – this is done only if

sufficient samples are available and if prior authorization from the court is required this
can be done.
a. Bursting strength or “Pop” test – the apparent pressure necessary to burst a
hole in a sheet5 when property inserted in a suitable instrument.
b. Folding endurance test – it is obtained on an instrument that registers the
number of alternate folds the paper will stand before breaking.
c. Accelerated aging test – there are some methods of aging a document
artificially namely:
1. soaking in coffee solution
2. soaking in tea solution
3. exposure to charcoal
4. ironing
5. heating in an oven
6. exposure to ultraviolet light
d. Absorption test – maybe made to determine either the rate of absorption or the
total absorption of the paper. A strip of paper is suspended in water or ink or other
liquid.
4. Chemical Test
A. Fiber composition – the examination is purely microscopic and it determines
the material used and nature of processing.
B. Sizing material – may be tested by:
Procedure and results:
1. Gelatine – extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution is tested
with dilute tannic acid solution Positive result is yellow precipitate.
2. Rosin – extracted by heating the paper on a water bath with 95% alcohol. The
solution obtained is evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved in acetic
anhydride, cooled, transferred to a porcelain dish and strong sulfuric is added. Positive
result is reddish-violet color that quickly changes to red brown.
Simple test for rosin – Place a few drops of ether on the paper and if rosin
is present a brown ring will be formed when ether evaporates.
3. Starch – add a dilute iodine solution on the paper. Blue color is produced if
starch is present.
4. Casein – it can be detected by addition of Millon’s reagent on the paper. Pink
color appears if casein is present.
THE ANALYSIS OF INK

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different in kind from ink on other parts of the
same document or on other documents.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical ink, or
inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
194
3. Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book
entries show natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one
continuous writing at one time under the same condition.
TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotanic ink or iron-nutgall ink (blue) – today the most frequently used ink for
making entries in record books and for business purposes. Gallonic ink is made of a
solution of iron salt (ferrous sulfate) and nutgall (iron glutannate). This ink can penetrate
into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface thus making its removal
more difficult to accomplish. The color changes undergone by this ink in the process of
oxidation provides a valuable means of estimating the approximate age of the writing.
Blue – with the naked eye; very recent
Violet – less recent
Black – still less recent
Changes undergone by gallotonic ink:

a. First reaching a maximum degree of blackening within the first year or two.
b. Then fades gradually over a period of many years until only a rust colored
deposit remains. This period of time can be stated only approximate since the oxidation
processes are retarded or accelerated according to the degree of atmospheric humidity,
the light, the quality of the ink itself, the paper, the condition of blotting condition of
storage, etc.
2. Logwood ink (black) – the color is dependent on the inorganic salt added, but on
drying and standing they turn black. It is made of saturated solution of logwood to which
very small amount of potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to
prevent formation of precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. The ink is
inexpensive, does not corrode steel pen. Will not washed off paper even fresh, flows
freely.
3. Nigrosine ink or aniline ink (blue black or purple black) – made of coal tar
product called nigrosine dissolved in water. It easily smudges, affected by moisture,
maybe washed off from the paper with little difficulty.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India ink – the oldest ink material known. Today,
finely divided carbon is held in colloidal suspension and used to produce deep black
drawing and writing ink. Made of carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate
deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be washed off. Not affected by
the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today most all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline
dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to
render the writing more permanent.
6. Ballpoint pen ink – made of light fast dues solution in glycol type solvents like
carbitol, glycol or eleic acid. Paper Chromatography can best analyze this ink.
195
TEST FOR INK
The different classes of ink may be determined by many different methods such
as the use of reagents on the ink lines., the spectrographic method and the
photographic method. For our purpose only the physical and chemical methods will be
discussed.
1. Physical Method/Test – applied to determine the color and presence of
alterations, erasures, destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, hand lens and
microscope.
2. Chemical Test or Spot Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or
reagents are applied on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristics
color reactions or other changes in the ink are observed.
DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT
1. Age of ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except
when the color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours the color of
ink writings becomes darker the dye contained therein is influenced by the light of the
room, oxygen of the ait, acidity or alkalinity of the paper.
There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink
writing apparently these methods depend upon:
a. Physical phenomena such as matching the color of the ink writing with
standard colors or with itself over a period of time.
b. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of
time the ink has been on the paper.
2. Age of paper
a. Through watermarks
b. In certain cases from the composition of the paper.
OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

The detection and deciphering of illegible writing is one of the major problems in
document examination.
Illegible Writing – is unnecessary writing which is not capable of being read
usually made on checks, birth certificate, passports and transcript of records.
Example of Illegible writing:
1. Erasures – the removal of writing from the paper. It can be made mechanically or
chemically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
materials.
3. Sympathetic ink – substances used for invisible writing.
196
4. Indented writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a
sheet of paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writing on carbon paper – remember that used sheets of carbon paper can be
made readable.
6. Contact writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact
with some writings.
“THE FIGHT AGAINST CRIMES CANNOT BE WON BY ARMS

ALONE, BUT ALSO
BY SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE”
Week 13 (Second Meeting: Review for Final Examination)
WEEK 14: FINAL EXAMINATION
197

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Course Outcomes

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OUTCOMES- BASED TEACHING AND LEARNING (OBTL) PLAN IN

CPS 208: FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

PROGRAM : BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PUBLIC SAFETY (BSPS)

Cadets should be able to show and develop professional competence,

Cadets should be able to integrate themselves into different forms of leadership

Administration and Governance

Cadets should be able to enhance their administration and governance skills in

COURSE TITLE : Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

CREDIT UNITS : 3 units lecture/2 units laboratory

COURSE PRE-CO REQUISITES : NONE

COURSE INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (CILO):

At the end of the course, the students will be able to:

1. Recognize the importance of Forensic Chemistry/Toxicology as one

 Criminalistics – by Richard Saferstein

 PNP Crime Laboratory Manual of Operation

COURSE ASSESSMENTS/ GRADING SYSTEM:

FGPA = Sum of LE’s + 2 x FE

D. Overall Grade Point Average:

OGPA = PGPA + MGPA + FPGA

PGPA -Prelim Grade Point Average

PROFESSOR CONTACT INFORMATION AND CONSULTATION ROOM :

PSUPT MARIA JULIETA G. RAZONABLE (Ret), RChE, MM 09285217361,

Lecture 1: Forensic Science

Forensic science may be defined as the application of various scientific

History and Development of Forensic Science:

 Scene of Crime Operation / Crime Scene Investigation

 Disaster Victim Identification

 Underwater Search and Evidence Response

 Radiological Event Response

 Air Crash Investigation

1. Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence.

2. Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal

3. Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological

4. Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial

8. Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating

9. Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.

11. Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers

24. Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.

WEEK 1 (Second Meeting)

The Role and Importance of A Crime Laboratory

IV. ASSESSMENT TASKS

The Organization of PNP Crime Laboratory

The laboratory underwent several reorganizations and changes of names. It was

The National Headquarters of the Crime Laboratory in Camp Crame was

By virtue of RA 6975 (PNP Law) enacted in 1990, the PC/INP was

The PNP Crime Laboratory in Perspective

The Vision statement of the PNP Crime Laboratory reads:

BY 2020, THE PNP CRIME LABORATORY SHALL BE A HIGHLY COMPETENT

TO PROVIDE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT TO

CORE VALUES: INTEGRITY, CREDIBILITY, ACCURACY

Its’ functions are:

1. Conduct Forensic examination of all physical evidence:

g) Physical and Chemical Examinations

2. Conduct forensic research and training in criminalistics

3. Provide expert testimony in court

4. Provide Scene of Crime Operation

5. Provide other related functions as instructed by higher headquarters.

It upholds the creed that:

1. Medico Legal Division

a. DNA Branch, Medico Legal Division

FUNCTION AND CAPABILITIES

1. PROVIDES FORENSIC DNA FINGERPRINTING/ANALYSIS TO MATCH THE

B. Alleged murder/ homicide to established identity of perpetrator