INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

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DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

PSYCHOLOGY
 Taken from two Greek words “Psyche” and “Logos” which means “Soul” and “Study”
respectively.
 It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
 Psychology like other sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the event it
studies.

Behavior
 Anything that an organism does – any action we can observe and record. The behaviour
may be overt, covert, conscious or unconscious.
 This could consist of physical movements, voluntary or involuntary, of the limbs, facial
muscles, or other parts of the body.
 A particular behaviour is often preceded by mental processes such as a perception of the
current situation and a decision about what to do next.

Mind Processes
 Are the internal subjective experiences we infer from behaviour – sensations, perceptions,
dreams, thoughts, beliefs and feelings.
 Unfortunately, mental processes are not observable in any direct way, so the workings of
the mind must be inferred by studying something else that is observable.

Psychologists at Work: Fields and Specialties

 Psychologists share a keen interest in behaviour, but they may differ markedly in other
ways. Psychologists engage in research, practice and teaching. Some researchers engage
primarily in basic, or pure research.
o PURE RESEARCH has no immediate application to personal or social problems
and has therefore been characterized as research for its own sake.
o APPLIED RESEARCH which is designed to find solutions to specific personal
or social problems.
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 Pure research on learning and motivation in pigeons, rats and monkeys done
in the early 20th century has found applications in today’s school system.
[Learning takes time and repetition]
 Pure research into the workings of the nervous system has enhanced
knowledge of disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and
Alzheimer’s disease.
 Many psychologists do not conduct research. Instead, they practice psychology by
applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behaviour so that they
can meet their own goals more effectively.

FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY
 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
The study of diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behavioural problems.
A psychiatrist is different from a clinical psychologist; the former is a medical doctor, has
specialized training in the medical treatment of mental and emotional disorders, views disorders
as caused by medical conditions, prescribed drugs.

 CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
Unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship
between biological factors and psychological disorders.

 COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
The study that deals with personal problems such as academic, social, or vocational
problems; counseling psychologists deal with less serious problems compared to clinical
psychologists.

 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The study that deals with the evaluation of learning and emotional problems of individuals
in schools. It is concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between
motivation and school performance.

 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
Is devoted to counselling children in elementary and secondary schools who have
academic and emotional problems. Help schools make decisions about the placement of students
in special classes.

 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The study of how people think about, influence, relate with one another, and the ways
interactions with other people influence attitudes and behavior.

 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment.
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 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. The
study of human development and the factors that shape behavior from birth to old age.

 PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
focuses on the consistency in people’s behaviour over time and the traits that differentiate
one person from another.

 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
studies the process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. Uses
people or animals as a subject for observation to study learning.

 EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
considers how behaviour is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.

 CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY
study the behaviour of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behaviour.

 INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The study involving the selection of people most suitable for particular jobs, the
development of training programs in organizations, and the identification of determinants of
consumer behavior.

 PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMAN
focuses on issues such as discrimination against women and the causes of violence against
women.

 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
The study of the cognitive, affective, behavioral and interpersonal factors affecting health
and illness.

 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
The study that applies theories and knowledge in psychology to enhance athletes’ and
coaches’ performance.

 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
The study that applies psychology to the law and legal proceedings, such as determining
the accuracy of witness memories.
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BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is considered as a young science, people throughout history have been
concerned with psychological issues.

Ancient Times (Prehistoric to Egypt)

– Demon Possession
– Presentation (The Good the Bad and the Ugly)
– Exorcism
– Trephining

 The roots of modern psychology can be traced to the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. the
great Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle posed fundamental questions about
mental life. Questions such as: Do people perceive reality correctly? What is
consciousness? Are people inherently rational or irrational? Are people capable of free
choice? These questions, which are as important today as they were two thousand years
ago, deal with the nature of mind and mental processes
o Socrates and Plato concluded that the mind is separable from body and continues
after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate – built within us.
o Aristotle derived principles from careful observations. This told him that the soul
is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the
soul.
o Moreover, he said that knowledge is not pre-existing; instead it grows from the
experiences stored in our memories.
o INTROSPECTION - deliberate looking into one’s own cognitive processes to
examine one’s thoughts and feelings (Socrates).
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Hippocrates: Four Humors

The theory holds that the human body is filled with four basic substances, called humors,
which are in balance when a person is healthy. Diseases and disabilities supposedly resulted from
an excess or deficit of one of these four humors. These deficits were thought to be caused by
vapors inhaled or absorbed by the body. The four humors are black bile (melancholic), yellow bile
(choleric), phlegm (phlegmatic), and blood (sanguine).
• Sanguine – enthusiastic, active, and social. more extroverted and enjoy being part of a
crowd; they find that being social, outgoing, and charismatic is easy to accomplish.
Individuals with this personality have a hard time doing nothing and engage in more risk
seeking behaviour.
• Choleric –also tend to be more extroverted. They are described as being independent,
decisive, and goal oriented. They enjoy being in charge of a group since they have many
leadership qualities as well as ambition.
• Melancholic – tend to be analytical, detail oriented, and are deep thinkers and feelers.
They are introverted and try to avoid being singled out in a crowd. They often strive for
perfection within themselves and their surroundings, which leads to tidy and detail oriented
behaviour.
• Phlegmatic - A phlegmatic individual tends to be relaxed, peaceful, quiet, and easy-
going. They are sympathetic and care about others, yet try to hide their emotions.

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)

 left his mark on psychology by theorizing that animals are machines that can be studied
much as other machines are studied. He also introduced the concept of reflex action, which
has occupied a significant place in psychology.
 “Animal spirits” : discovery of Nerve Function

Ψ – the Greek letter Psi, used as an abbreviation for psychology

WILHELM WUNDT (1832 – 1920)

In 1879, he founded what is generally considered the first

psychological laboratory for the experimental study of
psychophysics in Leipzig, Germany. Thus, marked the formal
birth of psychology as a science and earned Wundt the
recognition as “Father of Modern Psychology”.
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In sum…

 Psychology started as a part of philosophy. It dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers,
although the methods they used were not scientific, they contributed much to the
understanding of human behavior. Aristotle, for one, based his conclusions concerning the
mental life of man on observation and experience.
 Medieval time was marked with famous persons like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas in
their attempts to explain the several faculties and form of the mind though based not on
observation but through “deductive reasoning’.
 In the year 1600, Francis Bacon (an English philosopher) revived the interest in the use of
the objective facts. In 1693, the term ‘psychology’ made its first appearance in the English
language. Sir Francis Galtar fathered the mental tests and the study of individual
differences. Charles Darwin, through his theory of Evolution, made the study of
comparative psychology important. In Germany, four men were considered as the first to
apply the experimental method to the subject matter of psychology, they were: Weber,
Fichner, von Helmholtz and Wundt.
 In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded what is generally considered the first psychological
laboratory for the experimental study of psychophysics in Leipzig, Germany. Thus marked
the formal birth of psychology as a science and earned Wundt the recognition as “Father
of Modern Psychology”. He also published the first journal of psychology “Philosophishe
Studien” in 1881.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
 STRUCTURALISM
Developed by Edward Bradford Titchener, and his mentor Wilhelm Wundt,
Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into objective
sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as
emotional responses and mental images such as memories or dreams.
Structuralists believed that the mind functions by combining
objective and subjective elements of experience. (3 basic
elements: sensation, feelings, images)

 FUNCTIONALIST
Rather than focusing on the mind’s structure,
functionalism concentrated on what the mind does and how
behaviour functions. It is a school of psychology that focused
on how mental and behavioural processes function – how they
enable the organism to adapt, survive or flourish.
Functionalist adapted Darwin’s Theory and proposed
that adaptive behaviour patterns are learned and maintained.
Maladaptive behaviour patterns tend to drop out, and only the WILLIAM JAMES
fittest behaviour patterns survive.
 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified

world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations
and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924).

JOHN BROADUS WATSON

BEHAVIORISM
Focuses on learning observable behaviour.
The term observable refers to behaviors that are observable by means of
specialized instruments, such as heart rate, blood
pressure, and brain waves. These behaviors are
public and different observers would agree about
their existence and features.
Skinner believed that organisms learn to IVAN PAVLOV
behave in certain ways because they have been
reinforced for doing so – that is, their behaviour has a positive outcome.
In 1927 Pavlov showed that by pairing a conditioned stimulus (a
bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food), a dog would begin to salivate
(response) when the bell was rung without presenting the food. This
BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER
become known as Classical Conditioning / S-R Theory.

 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
The word “gestalt” means “form, pattern or whole.” Gestalt psychologists believed that
psychology should study human experience as a “whole,” not in terms of separate elements as the
structuralists would contend.
 Their slogan, “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” conveyed the idea that
meaning is often lost when psychological events are broken down; only when these pieces
are analyzed together and the whole pattern is visible do we find true meaning in our
experiences.

MAX WERTHEIMER WOLFGANG KOHLER KURT KOFFKA

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 PSYCHOANALYSIS
Freud believed in studying covert behavior, but unlike his
predecessors, Freud was not content with examining only
conscious thought; he dived head-first into the unconscious.
Freud compared the human psyche to an iceberg – only a
small portion is visible to others with most of it lying below the
surface. Freud also believed that many of the factors that
influence our thoughts and actions lie outside of conscious
awareness and operate entirely in our unconscious. Psychology
therefore needed to study these unconscious drives, motives and
impulses to arrive at a more complete understanding of the
individual. SIGMUND FREUD

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
With the rise of each school of thought mentioned previously, the face of
psychology was gradually taking shape. Yet, not all were satisfied with the way things were
progressing. Foremost among these were the humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers, who
were uncomfortable with the highly deterministic view of two of the major forces in psychology
– psychoanalysis and behaviourism.
Determinism is the idea that our actions are controlled by forces beyond our control. For
the psychoanalysts, these forces are unconscious; for the behaviorists, they exist in our
environment.
Humanistic psychologists, viewed humans as free agents capable of controlling their own
lives, making their own choices, setting goals and working to achieve them.
Humanism asserted a positive view of human nature, stressing that humans are inherently
good.

PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
 Biological Perspective. The biological approach to the study of human beings and other
species attempts to relate overt behavior to electrical and chemical events taking place
inside the body, particularly within the brain and nervous system. This approach seeks to
specify the neurobiological processes that underlie behavior and mental processes.
 Behavioral Perspective. This considers only those external activities of the organism that
can be observed and measured.
 Cognitive Perspective. This is concerned with mental processes such as perceiving,
remembering, reasoning, deciding, and problem solving, and with relating these processes
to behavior. The modern study of cognition is premised on the assumptions that (a) only
by studying mental processes can we fully understand what organisms do; and (b) we can
study mental processed in an objective fashion by focusing on specific behaviors but
interpreting them in terms of underlying mental processes.
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 Psychoanalytical Perspective. Emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from sexual

and aggressive impulses repressed in childhood.
 Phenomenological Perspective. This approach focuses on the person’s subjective
experiences and motivation toward self-actualization. The main concern of this approach
is the individual’s personal view of events – the individual’s phenomenology.

KEY ISSUES and CONTROVERSIES

 NATURE VS NURTURE
How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature, and how
much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is
raised?
 CONSCIOUS VS UNCONSCIOUS
How much of people’s behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware, and
how much is due to unconscious activity – mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious
mind?
 OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR VS INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES
Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers,
or should it focus on unseen thinking processes?
 FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM
How much of our behavior is a matter of free will (choices made freely by an individual),
and how much is subject to determinism, the notion that behavior is largely produced by factors
beyond people’s willful control?
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 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES VS UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES

How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how
much reflects the culture and society in which we live?

HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES?

Psychologists – as well as scientists in other disciplines – meet

the challenge of posing appropriate questions and properly
answering them by relying on the scientific method.

The scientific method is a standardized way of making

observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing
predictions, and interpreting results.

Researchers make observations in order to describe and

measure behavior. After observing certain events repeatedly,
researchers come up with a theory that explains these
observations.

A theory is an explanation that organizes separate pieces of

information in a coherent way. Researchers generally develop a
theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made
sure their research results can be reproduced by others.
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A hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. It stems from theories and
help test the underlying soundness of theories.

A sample is a segment of a population that must be drawn so that it accurately represents that
population.

One way to achieve a representative sample is by means of random sampling. In a random sample,
each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate. In stratified
sampling, which is selected so that identified subgroups in the population are represented
proportionately in the sample.

METHODS OF OBSERVATION
• Case Studies – a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews,
questionnaires and psychological tests
• Survey Research – a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people
answer questions about their behaviour, thoughts and attitudes.
• Archival research – research in which existing data, such as census documents, college
records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
• Naturalistic Observation – research in which an investigator simply observes some
naturally occurring behaviour and does not make a change in the situation.
• Correlational Research – research in which the relationship between two sets of variables
is examined to determine whether they are associated.
 Variables – behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in
some way
• Experimental Research – investigation of the relationship between two (or more)
variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing
the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
 Experimental Group – any participating group that receives treatment
 Control Group – any participating group that receives no treatment
 Independent Variable – The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter.
 Dependent Variable – The variable that is measured and is expected to change as
a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent
variable.

ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH HUMANS

Psychologists adhere to a number of ethical standards that are intended to promote
individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. The standards are also intended to
ensure that psychologists do not undertake research methods or treatments that are harmful.
Today, individuals must provide informed consent before they participate in research – a
participant’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes
of the study and the nature of the treatments.
 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Debriefing – to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a

participant.

ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS

They frequently use animals to conduct research that cannot be carried out with humans.
Formation of parent-child bonds of attachment (Harry Harlow: Monkey Studies)
According to the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association, animals
may be harmed only when there is no alternative and when researchers believe that the benefits of
the research justify the harm.

KEY POINTS

WHY PSYCHOLOGY IS MORE THAN JUST COMMON SENSE

 Psychology is the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior. Although we often rely
on our common sense to understand the psychological world, our intuitive understanding
of ourselves and others is often mistaken. Naive realism is the error of believing that we
see the world precisely as it is. It can lead us to false beliefs about ourselves and our world,
such as believing that our perceptions and memories are always accurate.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE AS A SET OF SAFEGUARDS AGAINST BIASES

 Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and
deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that doesn’t. Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling
to our beliefs despite contrary evidence. The scientific method is a set of safeguards against
these two errors.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PSEUDOSCIENCE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

 Pseudoscientific claims appear scientific but don’t play by the rules of science. In
particular, pseudoscience lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief
perseverance that characterize science.

REASONS WE ARE DRAWN TO PSEUDOSCIENCE

 We are drawn to pseudoscientific beliefs because the human mind tends to perceive sense
in nonsense and order in disorder. Although generally adaptive, this tendency can lead us
to see patterns when they don’t exist. Pseudoscientific claims can result in opportunity
costs and direct harm due to dangerous treatments. They can also lead us to think less
scientifically about other important domains of modern life.

THE KEY FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC SKEPTICISM

 Scientific skepticism requires us to evaluate all claims with an open mind but to insist on
compelling evidence before accepting them. Scientific skeptics evaluate claims on their
own merits and are unwilling to accept them on the basis of authority alone.
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SIX PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING

 Six key scientific thinking principles are ruling out rival hypotheses, correlation versus
causation, falsifiability, replicability, extraordinary claims, and Occam’s Razor.

THE MAJOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 Five major theoretical orientations have played key roles in shaping the field. Structuralism
aimed to identify the basic elements of experience through the method of introspection.
Functionalism hoped to understand the adaptive purposes of behavior. Behaviorism grew
out of the belief that psychological science must be completely objective and derived from
laws of learning. The cognitive view emphasized the importance of mental processes in
understanding behavior. Psychoanalysis focused on unconscious processes and urges as
causes of behavior.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS AND IDENTIFY WHAT EACH OF THEM

DOES
 There are many types of psychologists. Clinical and counseling psychologists often
conduct therapy. School psychologists develop intervention programs for children in
school settings. Industrial/organizational psychologists often work in companies and
business and are involved in maximizing employee performance. Many forensic
psychologists work in prisons or court settings. Many other psychologists conduct
research. For example, developmental psychologists study systematic change in
individuals over time. Experimental psychologists study learning and thinking, and
biological psychologists study the biological basis of behavior.

THE TWO GREAT DEBATES THAT HAVE SHAPED THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY
 The two great debates are the nature–nurture debate, which asks whether our behaviors are
attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or our rearing environments (nurture), and the
free will–determinism debate, which asks to what extent our behaviors are freely selected
rather than caused by factors outside our control. Both debates continue to shape the field
of psychology.

HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH AFFECTS OUR DAILY LIVES

 Psychological research has shown how psychology can be applied to such diverse fields
as advertising, public safety, the criminal justice system, and education.