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The micromorphology of unconsolidated sediments

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DOI: 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2011.04.013

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 Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232

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Sedimentary Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s e d g e o

Review

The micromorphology of unconsolidated sediments

Jaap J.M. van der Meer a,⁎, John Menzies b, 1
a
Department of Geography (Centre for Micromorphology UoL), Queen Mary, University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
b
Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper aims to describe the use of thin sections/micromorphology in the sedimentology of unconsolidated
Received 10 February 2011 sediments. It provides examples of the use of thin sections in a variety of sedimentary environments, from fault
Received in revised form 19 April 2011 gouge, through caves and volcanics to aeolian, fluviatile, marine, periglacial and glacial. It demonstrates that in the
Accepted 20 April 2011
latter three fields the use of micromorphology is relatively widespread and that in glacial sedimentology it has
Available online 30 April 2011
revolutionised our way of thinking about subglacial sediments. Although micromorphology has been mainly
Editor: B. Jones descriptive so far, methods of quantification observations are demonstrated. Some of the important aspects of
micromorphology are its use for microstratigraphy and the possibility of relating observations to documented
Keywords: processes thereby allowing a more robust sedimentological interpretation of modern and ancient sediments.
Thin sections © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Micromorphology
Sedimentology

1. Introduction microstratigraphy. In many core studies, subsamples are taken at

Micromorphology permits the arrangement of particles, matrix and
other contained components of unconsolidated sediments to be fully
examined (van der Meer, 1996). Through the examination of thin
sections of sediment at low magnifications (20 to 50×), micromorphol-
ogy provides an insight into the architecture of sediments permitting
the internal arrangement of all components to be observed in a large
number of samples allowing general assumptions and statements about
sediment architecture to be made, and from those generalisations an
understanding of the processes involved in sedimentary environments
and processes of formation (deposition, deformation and/or emplace-
ment) can be developed (van der Meer, 1993, 1996; Menzies, 2000).
The advantages of micromorphology are:
i) It is an in situ method. Because the material is not disaggregated
as is done in laboratory sediment analyses, thin sectioning
permits the study of particles in their original relation to each
other. Although a sample is taken from the field, which could be
considered disruptive, it is an undeformed sample, the material
within the sample retains its original position.
ii) It allows precise compositional and positional analyses of the
sample. It is not only possible to know that a particular
constituent (for instance a specific mineralogy, or a microfossil)
is present, but also where it is present, thus allowing detailed
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 44 20 7882 8416; fax: + 44 20 8981 6278.
E-mail addresses: j.meer@qmul.ac.uk (J.J.M. van der Meer), jmenzies@brocku.ca
(J. Menzies).
1
Tel.: + 1 905 688 5550; fax; + 1 905 688 6369.
regular intervals, which only allows the positioning of for in-
stance microfossils, at a vaguely defined position. In thin sections
it is possible to precisely locate the microfossils, for instance
whether they occur in particular laminae, or only in macroscop-
ically non-detectable intraclasts (see below). Certainly the latter
would shine a completely new light on the stratigraphy.
iii) It can be related to process. Observing a process in the field, be
it reworking of silts by wind, or debris melting out of ice,
micromorphology allows microstructures to be related to these
processes. If these processes can be mimicked in the laboratory
under controlled conditions (of e.g. temperature and moisture
content) diagnostic microstructures can be established.
For a sedimentologist studying a bedrock outcrop it is quite common
to take thin section samples of the studied lithified sediments. On the
other hand, when studying unlithified sediments, it is quite uncommon
to take samples for thin sectioning, notwithstanding the fact that the
technique to do so has been available for decades (it has been at least in
use in sedimentological studies since 1940, cf. Lundqvist, 1940). The
inference is that there is only limited knowledge from the active
sedimentary environment relating observed processes to small scale
sedimentary structures. Establishing the link between particular suites
of microstructures and observed processes allows the recognition of
such processes in outcrop and especially in cores. This lack of established
suites of microstructures makes one wonder about the basis for the
interpretation of thin sections of ancient, lithified sediments. When
there is no available data on recent sediments at the appropriate scale,
the interpretation of small scale structures in ancient rocks can only be
based on educated guesses. The emphasis is here on ‘appropriate scale’;

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2011.04.013
214 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
of course there is a large body of observations at the meso- or macroscale
in present day sedimentary environments, simply not on the microscale.
We note with interest an appeal made by Kuenen(1958), in which he
urged a soft-rock approach to sedimentological problems and we think
that this appeal is as valid today when it comes to the microscale.
Evidence for this deficiency in microscale data can, for example, be
found in O`Brien and Slatt (1990) and Maltman (1994) which both
show images of thin sections of lithified rock and offer interpretations
of depositional processes. However, these processes are nowhere
demonstrated to produce such microstructures as should be
evidenced by present day observations on the same scale (O'Brien,
1996). This does not mean that the interpretations are wrong by
definition, only that they have not been tested. In practice these
interpretations are taken further, in the sense that they are then cited
by others as supporting evidence for the invoked relations between
processes and microstructures.
It should be pointed out that in the sedimentological literature the
term ‘micromorphology’ is not common, instead, reference is given to
‘thin sections’, ‘thin section studies’ or (sedimentary) petrology/
petrography. In sedimentology, thin sections are studied mainly from
the objective of composition, whereas in pedology micromorphology
is used to ‘describe, measure and interpret the formation and function
of (soil) materials’ (Stoops, 2003). The latter approach is still rare in
sedimentology. However, it is amazing that the technique is used so
little on unconsolidated sediments, since it is the only one that allows
the detailed study of a sediment in situ.
We are well aware of the large body of literature on the use of thin
sections on consolidated, lithified sediments. However, as stated
before, observations on such thin sections are inherently difficult to
link to processes and thus we do not give reference to that body of
literature in this paper.
The aim of this paper is to i) provide an overview of the use of
micromorphology in the study of unconsolidated sediments from all
sedimentary environments where applicable, ii) highlight successful
and potential applications of this technique for understanding and
recognising depositional and deformational processes, and iii) thereby
encourage its use by sedimentologists, glaciologists and applied
scientists. Partly our demonstration will be based upon existing
publications, and partly on examples taken from our own studies.
2. Sampling and impregnation methods
Sediment samples for the purposes of thin section manufacture can
be obtained either from field sites or from cores taken from boreholes. In
order to obtain in situ, intact samples it is essential that ‘undisturbed’
samples are acquired. Typically, field samples are taken using Kubiena or
mammoth tins gently inserted into an exposed face (Fig. 1A, B). The site
and sample number as well as its orientation in terms of Cartesian co-
ordinates are marked on the tin. The decisions as to sampling strategy
must take into account the rationale behind sampling, and the number
of samples required to satisfy this objective. Likewise the cost of taking
and preparing samples and the time involved predicates the number
and location of samples obtained. In the case of core samples typically an
oriented interval is obtained from the working half of a core (Fig. 1C, D)
and again orientation (Cartesian, if known), position of the top of the
core, and sample number are marked. The number of core type samples
taken must be considered in relation to the objectives of the study and
the, often limited, supply of core available.
In principle all sediments can be sampled: saturated samples can be
gravitationally drained before being wrapped up, we have applied this
to permafrost samples which we left in the field to melt and drain before
further handling. Very hard materials (for instance most tills in summer;
semi-lithified sediments) can be sampled with an angle grinder (Fig. 1E,
F). Only loose gravels and boulders still provide problems, although
interstitial fines can often be sampled.
Once the samples are acquired typically they are wrapped in
plastic or some other form of water-proof material, again marked with
orientation and sample number, and transported to the lab for
standard soft sediment impregnation and thin sectioning (Kemp,
1985; Palmer et al., 2008). Impregnation begins once the sample has
been permitted to slowly dry out. A problem with air drying can be
that clay-rich samples will fracture. However, such fractures tend to
be recognisable as they are more jigsaw-like than ‘normal’ fractures,
secondly one can wonder why the fracture develops at that particular
locality and it is not actually portraying an existing zone of weakness.
Furthermore such fractures aid in bringing the resin inside the sample
(Fig. 1G, H), enabling full impregnation, which can be a problem in
clay-rich samples (Pusch, 1999). Where necessary a saturated sample
may be placed within an acetone bath allowing the acetone to replace
the pore water. Subsequently, an epoxy resin is forced into the sample
by placing the sample in a low vacuum oven (b15 mm Hg) and
soaking the sample in the epoxy resin-acetone mixture. Over a
4–6 week period additional ‘mixture’ is added until full impreg-
nation is achieved. With this method the sample does not crack as
much. The use of vacuum does not cause any disruption to the fabric
of the sample, even the most delicate structures like acicular calcite
(lublinite) are preserved intact (Cailleau et al., 2009 and references
therein) as evidenced by the vast body of micromorphological
literature on soils. In thin sections of lithified sediments it is common
to stain the resin in order to make either pores stand out, or to
discriminate between various carbonate minerals, however, we have
not come across any publications where this has been applied to
unconsolidated sediments. Once fully impregnated, a sample may
take a further 2–4 weeks to fully cure into rock-like hardness and to
a state where actual thin sectioning can begin. In some cases
impregnation and curing can be speeded up by a few days to one or
two weeks with exposure to low temperature heating (b60 °C) or to
just a few days using gamma radiation exposure. Thin sectioning is then
done utilising the normal (Fig. 1G, H) rock thin section techniques
(Kemp, 1985; Murphy, 1986; Lee and Kemp, 1992; Camuti and McGuire,
1999). Thin sections are ground to an approximate thickness of 25–
30 μm. In examining thin sections for micromorphological analyses a
standard petrographic microscope with a rotating stage is used with
magnification typically in the 20–50× range (at QMUL we use Leica©
microscopes with a stepless zoom lense at the range 6.3 to 32×). Thin
sections can be made in 3 sizes viz. petrologic 2.5 × 4.5 cm, Kubiena
5 × 7 cm, or mammoth thin sections 14 × 8 cm in size, Kubiena size being
the most common.
3. Terminology
Much of the terminology used in micromorphology stems from
original work done in soil science and since then supplemented by
terms common to structural geology (Brewer, 1976; Bullock et al.,
1985; van der Meer, 1993, 1996; Menzies, 2000; Stoops, 2003;
FitzPatrick, 2005). In examining a sediment under a petrological
microscope, and using this soil science based terminology, a sediment
can be subdivided into two major components: i) those particles b25–
30 μm in size (or less than the thickness of the thin section, i.e. they
cannot be seen individually) termed plasma (what has in the past
been termed groundmass or matrix) and ii) those particles N35 μm in
size, termed skeleton grains (S-matrix), typically individually visible
mineral or organic particles. Because of the visibility criterion we find
this thin section thickness-related subdivision a more useful analyt-
ical tool than the subdivision (matrix — clast/detrital grains) used in
sedimentary petrology. A third component can also be recognised
where combinations or arrangements of plasma and skeleton grains,
or skeleton grains alone, or discontinuities between plasma and
skeletal components form recognisable sets or microstructures. As
illustrated in Table 1 microstructures and microfabrics, representative
of a sediment's internal architecture can be subdivided into i) those
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 215

Fig. 1. A. Sampling till boundary by gradually cutting in a mammoth-sized tin. Photo Martin Rappol. B. Sampling till boundary with tin in place, ready for labelling, removal and
wrapping. C. Sampling marine sediments from core. The sample has been cut and a sturdy plastic sheet (as wide as the length of the sample) is to be squeezed in following the core-
liner. Plastic sheet can then be used to move sample to another container. D. Sampling from core. The use of a plastic sheet allows for clean removal of a coherent sample. E. Hard,
(semi-)lithified and clast-rich sediments can be sampled using an industrial angle -grinder. F. Block prepared by angle-grinder. The block can now partly be wrapped and labelled
before removal. Irish punt coin for scale. G. Impregnated and labelled mammoth-sized sample. The actual thin section is made from the central cut to avoid any sampling disturbance.
H. Surface of impregnated sample. Note the resin-filled crack. Notches on the right indicate the top of the sample.
216 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232

Table 1
Overview of microstructures recognised in glacial sediments. Note that the Brewer, classification of plasmic fabrics is used. From Menzies, 2000.

Microfabrics and Microstructures within the Plasma

and S-Matrix of Glacial Sediments

Plasma Skeleton Grains

Plasmic Microfabric S-Matrix

Ductile Brittle Polyphase Porewater

(Ductile/Brittle) Influenced
SKELSEPIC or Induced
PLASMIC FABRIC

VARIETIES OF STRAIN CAPS FAULTED MULTIPLE "CUTANS"

MASEPIC PLASMIC & SHADOWS DOMAINS DIAMICTON (ARGILLANS)
FABRIC DOMAINS

OMNISEPIC FOLD DISCRETE SHEAR LINES "COMET" WATER ESCAPE

PLASMIC FABRIC STRUCTURE AND LINEATIONS STRUCTURE STRUCTURES

UNISTRIAL LAYERING & SHEAR ZONES SILL & DIKE SILT CAPS
PLASMIC FABRIC FOLIATION STRUCTURES

INSEPIC "NECKING" REVERSE FAULT TILED UNITS "POLYGONAL"

PLASMIC FABRIC STRUCTURES OF LAMINATED STRUCTURES
CLAYS & SILT

"BANDED" PLASMA "ROTATIONAL" KINK BANDS INTRACLASTS SILT & CLAY

STRUCTURE COATINGS

KINKING SECONDARY CRUSHED

PLASMIC FABRIC FOLIATION GRAINS

CRENULATION
FOLIATION

(modified from van der Meer, 1993)

BOUDINS AND OTHER
ATTENUATED STRUCTURES
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
related to plasma (plasmic fabric), ii) those related to the S-matrix
and iii) those that combine plasma and skeleton grains.
i) plasmic fabrics, first elucidated by Brewer (1976; now termed
b-fabrics in soil science, see Stoops, 2003), indicate the presence
or otherwise of oriented (bundles of) clay particles that exhibit
birefringence on a petrographic microscope stage (cf. Zaniewski,
2001). Of the four dominant types of plasmic fabric (masepic,
omnisepic, unistrial and insepic) excluding mixing of plasma
with skeleton grains (skelsepic plasmic fabric, see below) each
type is illustrative of variations in clay particle orientations from
strong random orientation in omnisepic plasmic fabric to strongly,
single, preferred orientation in unistrial plasmic fabric. In general,
plasmic fabrics are symptomatic of ductile deformation of clay-
sized particles that compose a sediment's matrix. In sharp contrast,
unistrial plasmic fabric appears to result in very strongly preferred
but very narrow oriented domains of deformable clay-sized
particles within a sediment unit, possibly illustrative of continuous
and high stress (cf. van der Meer, 1987; Menzies, 1998). Banded
and mottled distribution of plasmic fabrics occur within sediments
where mixing (deformation) of different sediment facies has
occurred. In these cases mixing has not completely homogenised
the sediment. Studying plasmic fabric in sedimentary settings is
important because its presence and patterns are indicative of
stresses imparted on the sediment. A plasmic fabric parallel to
bedding indicates that the main stress is caused by loading, while a
plasmic fabric at an angle to the bedding indicates shearing
(Bordonau and van der Meer, 1994). Much remains to be learned
of the significance of plasmic fabrics and their interpretation
within the processes of sediment deposition and deformation. The
emerging Metripol system, which allows the measurement of the
strength of birefringence as well as the mapping of birefringence
distribution within a thin section will be an important tool in our
understanding of plasmic fabrics. First results on the strength of
birefringence of shear structures in lacustrine sediments affected
by iceberg scouring (Linch, 2010; Linch and van der Meer, in prep)
are very promising.
There are no structural geological terms for the different types of
plasmic fabric, with the exception of unistrial plasmic fabric
which equates with discrete shears. Because in micromorpho-
logical interpretation plasmic fabrics play an important role, the
lack of discriminating structural geological terms prescribes the
pedological terminology.
ii) S-matrix microstructures (Table 1) can be divided into those
forms indicative of ductile, brittle, polyphase (ductile/brittle),
and porewater induced forms (cf. Maltman, 1994; Passchier and
Trouw, 1996; Menzies, 1998). All of these S-matrix structures tell
of complex formation illustrative of pre-depositional, syndeposi-
tional and immediately post-depositional processes.
iii) Finally, a combination of plasma and skeletal grains produces a
skelsepic plasmic fabric (Table 1) in which oriented plasma can
be detected surrounding individual skeletal grains. The causation
of this special fabric remains enigmatic. On the one hand it is
possible that this fabric may develop as clay permeate, under a
localised stress gradient, an initially clast-rich sediment in which
there appears limited bulk deformation. On the other hand it is
also possible that such a fabric may form following intensive
deformation involving rotation (van der Meer, 1993, 1996).
However, the former process tends to produce a distinct micro-
lamination which can be differentiated from the more massive
structure produced by the latter.
4. Micromorphological description and analysis
In glacial micromorphological description and analysis we have
developed a routine, which is nowadays also applied to all other
217
sedimentary environments. The description starts with a macroscopic
characterisation of the thin section to draw attention to any intermediate
sized structure easily overseen under the microscope. This is followed by a
textural description, similar to that used in sedimentary petrology: grain
size and shape, composition and distribution of skeleton grains and of the
plasma in as far as the latter can be observed. This is not considered to be
the most important part of the description, but is mainly used to describe
the sediment and to check on the homogeneity of a set of samples. The
emphasis of the description is on the structure (pores, their size, shape and
distribution; sedimentary structures like grading; deformational struc-
tures; relations between plasma and skeleton as well as between skeleton
grains of different size) and on the plasmic fabric. Together these should
inform about the (post-)depositional, deformational and stress history of
the sample. Interpretation is based on the analysis of all samples in a study,
not on individual thin sections.
5. Application of micromorphology to the study of unconsolidated
sediments, an overview
As said before, in principle it is possible to apply micromorphology
to all sedimentary environments and to almost all textures. By itself
there is no reason why micromorphology should not be applied in all
sedimentary environments and on all (sub)facies. However, when we
look at the grand division in sedimentary environments and the
application so far of micromorphology across these, we get a widely
divergent picture (Table 2).
The literature database developed (up to mid-2010) for the Centre
for Micromorphology, UoL, consists of over 850 references (there is no
claim to be complete), which in one way or another deal with thin
sections of unlithified (mainly Quaternary) sediments (Table 2; full
database in the supplementary material). Lithification is a rather
broad term ranging from very high levels of lithification to limited
lithification to completely unlithified states (the majority) and it will
come as no surprise that some papers (5%) deal with diagenesis. As
outlined above there appears to be a lack of knowledge within the
sedimentological/geological community on the production of thin
sections of unlithified sediments, but strangely enough 16% of our
references deal with technical aspects of, firstly, thin section
production (e.g. Catt and Robinson, 1961; Ashley, 1973; Camuti and
McGuire, 1999; Josephs and Bettis, 2003; Boës and Fagel, 2005) (the
number of publications on this subject appears to have diminished
over the years); and secondly there are technical papers on
methodology, for instance of counting constituants in any thin section
(Clark, 1982) and, more recent, image analysis (Zaniewski, 2001;
Francus, 2004). There is also a relatively large number of publications
(11%) dealing with general sedimentological aspects, such as grain size
(Johnson, 1994), sorting (Harrell, 1984) and orientation (Stroeven et al.,
Table 2
Percentage of references covering different sedimentary environ-
ments and technical aspects. Note that 12% of the publications have
been listed under two headings.
Organic 1
Volcanic 1
Slopes 2
Tectonic 2
Caves 3
Evaporites, incl. carbonate crusts 3
Fluviatile 4
Aeolian and deserts 5
Marine 7
Periglacial 7
General sedimentology 11
Lacustrine 12
Technical 16
Glacial 30
Diagenesis 5
Experiments 2
218 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232

2005). In this paper we will not pay further attention to these technical
aspects and general sedimentological papers, the details of which can be
found in the supporting material to this paper.
In the following we will present the use of micromorphology in
different sedimentary environments on the basis of their frequency in
our database, starting with the lowest. This format of treating
different sedimentary environments in individual chapters is com-
mon to textbooks (e.g. Nichols, 2009) and thus familiar to readers.

5.1. Organic

Of all the variety of organic sediments very few have been studied
micromorphologically for sedimentological purposes. Thin sections of
peat have been studied by pedologists, but mainly to study (de-)
composition and the formation of Histosols. However, a study by de
Vleeschouwer et al. (2007) for which they developed specific
impregnation techniques, demonstrated that thin sections will also
reveal the state of preservation of plant fragments, the vegetation type
as well as the presence of mineral particles and charcoal. The latter is
especially relevant to the study of (crypto-)tephras in peat. Similar to
peats, organic sediments like dy or gyttja have rarely been studied
under the microscope, and then mainly to study their composition
(Hahne et al., 1994; Stolt and Lindbo, 2010).
Liu et al. (2008) studied guano related sediments on Dongdao Island
in the South Chinese Sea. Their microscopy study concentrated on the
phosphatic cements derived from the guano. Their multi-proxy study
revealed that there had been periods of accumulation related to the
presence of seabirds and consequently sea level. Guano derived
sediments have also been encountered in caves (Stephens et al., 2005).
Although few organic sediments have been studied micromor-
phologically there is still much sedimentologically relevant informa-
tion to be found in the micromorphological soil literature. In a recent
paper Kooistra and Pulleman (2010) analyse features related to faunal
activity because bioturbation is an important factor in initial soil
formation. They not only describe sedimentological traces of
bioturbation like burrows, but also demonstrate that faecal pellets
can be ascribed to particular animal groups. Blazejewski et al. (2005)
studied subsurface C in riparian zone soils. Although the title of their
paper is not likely to attract the attention of sedimentologists, it
actually develops a classification system of separating Soil Organic
Matter (SOM) – which here stands for plant remains – by morphology
into functionally meaningful fractions, like roots, fragmental organic
matter, infillings, etc. Not all wetlands develop into soils, and such
classification schemes should be helpful in interpreting ancient
sediments. The role of organic matter in marine sedimentary
processes has been studied by Watling (1988) and Noffke et al.
(1997). The latter demonstrated the role that microbial mats play in
the build-up of siliclastic tidal flats.

5.2. Volcanic

Thin section studies related to unlithified volcanic rocks mainly
deal with tephras, although Pirrung et al. (2008) studied composition
and structure of sediments filling in a recently formed maar.
Weathering of volcanic particles, as studied by for instance Bishop
et al. (2002, and other papers in same volume), illustrate the shape,
structure and alteration of volcanic particles. This work is especially
interesting since today tephra layers in peat profiles (Fig. 2A, B) or in
lake or marine cores are used as geochronologic markers. Since most
tephra layers have a unique fingerprint, identifying these layers has
become a reliable dating tool. However, because distal tephra layers
are usually very thin, they are difficult to detect. Enache and Cumming
(2006) recently published a note on the recognition of tephra
particles and on their migration within a lacustrine sediment
sequence. Based on tephra counts in diatom slides, Enache and
Cumming (2006) discussed the downward displacement of the main
Fig. 2. A. Bruarjökull, Iceland, black tephra particles inserted on surface of moss pillow.
Sample JM3 (courtesy of Kurt Kjaer, Copenhagen); plane light;hvof (horizontal field of
view) 3.9 mm. B. Bruarjökull, Iceland, black tephra particles in more compacted zone of
moss pillow, following 2004 eruption Note how tephra particles get concentrated
between plant material. Sample JM4 (courtesy of Kurt Kjaer, Copenhagen); plane light;
hvof 4.3 mm. C. Bruarjökull, Iceland, black tephra layer as part of tephra-peat-loess
sequence underlying push moraine. Lack of sorting suggests that this is not a free airfall
layer, but that it has been reworked and mixed. Sample 3971; plane light; hvof 2.6 mm.
tephra body giving it ca 2000 years older apparent age. They explain
this by settling through density differences although the bedding
above the tephra appears to be intact. De Vleeschouwer et al. (2007)
highlight the use of micromorphology of impregnated peat in the
detection of tephra. Because the sedimentology and ecology of thin
ashfalls on living vegetation are not clear, recent work has begun in
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 219

taking thin sections from bogs where experimental distribution of

tephra particles has been carried out (Payne et al., 2006) and from
natural ashfalls in Iceland (unpublished; Fig. 2C).
Volcanic deposits like lahars tend to be diamictic and as the clasts they
carry can be striated (Atkins, 2004), it may be difficult to separate from
glacial diamicts. Micromorphological studies of lahars are unknown and
for that reason we have started to sample them (van der Meer and Atkins,
unpublished).

5.3. Slopes

Depending on for instance water content, slope angle or slope

material and its availability, numerous slope processes, ranging from
dry rockfalls to very liquid mudflows, can be distinguished. Because
every process is characterised by its own stress field and stress
heterogeneity we can expect resulting slope deposits to be different,
macroscopically as well as microscopically. Mücher (1973) recognised
the need for micromorphological classification of slope deposits. Since
then different types of contemporary slope deposits have systemat-
ically been studied (e.g. Bertran, 1993; Bertran and Texier, 1999 and
references therein). Their conclusion at the time was that different
slope processes can actually generate similar microfacies. As an
example they state that massive poorly sorted material with a plasmic
fabric determined by the presence of small birefringent mineral grains
like calcite may typify debris flow deposits, rock avalanches, earth
flows and the basal matrix-rich part of grain-flow deposits (Bertran
and Texier, 1999, p. 118). They also point at the similarity between
deformation structures observed in for instance earth slides and those
in tills. Texier and Meireles (2003) applied micromorphology to slope
deposits in northern Portugal and could not find evidence to support
alleged periglacial conditions during their emplacement. A similar
approach was taken by Harris (1998) in order to distinguish between
different types of soliflucted (‘head’) deposits on the Welsh coast. He
found that whereas most units exhibit periglacially induced micro- Fig. 3. A. Pebbly structure in which quartz grains appear encased in a shell of
finegrained material, typical for gelifluction. Sample Mi.312 from.Mt Provender,
structures (Fig. 3; see also Section 5.10), one of the units did not.
Antarctica; plane light; hfov 18.0 mm. B. Pebbly structure with strong plasmic fabric
However this was caused by rapid deposition under paraglacial (high birefringence) and carbonate caps, for instance around large particle to the right.
conditions not because of a lack of cold conditions. Mücher et al. Sample Mi.312 from Mt Provender, Antarctica; Xpol; hfov 6.4 mm.
(2010) prepared an up-to-date overview of the micromorphology of
colluvial and mass wasting deposits.
Because flowtills can slide down ice slopes and this slope is of great interest as to what separates them from non-tectonic diamicts
disappears over time, unlike other slope deposits where this relation (van der Meer and Atkins, unpublished).
is retained, flowtills are usually treated under glacial headings and
thus we refer to Section 5.12 for examples. 5.5. Caves

5.4. Tectonic
Fault gouges pertain to small groups of sediments which are the
result of tectonic rather than sedimentary processes. And although
they have been studied frequently in lithified form, the study of
unlithified fault gouges in thin section is relatively new (for instance
Jeong and Cheong, 2005; Mizogouchi et al., 2008) but expanding. The
latter paper uses thin sections extensively to describe the structure of
the gouge. It shows clear examples of plasmic fabric described in
structural geological terms, i.e. foliation and shears. Together the two
papers give a good impression of what can be achieved using large
thin sections: Mizogouchi et al. (2008) use micromorphology to
characterise different types of gouge while assessing the permeability
of the fault and its surroundings. Jeong and Cheong (2005) combined
pedological and structural micromorphology enabling them to
recognise numerous faulting events alternating with infilling, thereby
demonstrating that the Korean Peninsula has not been as tectonically
stable as previously thought.
As with lahars, fault gouge tends to be diamictic and may contain
striated clasts (Atkins, 2004) and consequently can be difficult to
distinguish from glacial diamicts. Because both are cataclastic sediments
or tectomicts (van der Meer et al., 2003) studying them microscopically
There are several different settings in which thin sections have been
used in cave environments. Archaeologists use micromorphology
extensively (Courty et al., 1989), including in excavations in caves.
However, we will not deal, in this paper, with such studies as they
primarily deal with human occupation, not with sedimentology.
Secondly, thin sections have been used to study speleothems, usually
in conjunction with palaeoclimatic, isotopic studies of the carbonates
involved and finally, thin sections have been used to study cave
sediments, derived from solution residues or washed into the cave from
outside. A good example of the second type of thin section studies is
Paulsen et al. (2003) in which a single picture of a ~0.5 mm thick thin
section of a stalagmite is shown to demonstrate very fine laminae. The
thin section is only used to establish that couplets are annual layers,
though no further information on the couplets is given. In a study by
Gradziński et al. (2003) thin sections and SEM of speleothems are used
to establish the nature of black laminae. Pictures demonstrate that
coloration is caused by charcoal particles and organic compounds which
stem from fires during human occupation. The description is about
composition and structure only, and no micromorphological terminol-
ogy is used.
In a paper by Pissart et al. (1988) micromorphology is used to
demonstrate the former presence of segregation ice in cave sediments,
220 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
as an indication of the presence of permafrost. The paper discusses the
microstructure in terms of freezing related fractures and voids, but does
not mention other micromorphological features. Goldberg (1979) and
Goldberg et al. (2003), on the other hand, micromorphologically
analysed cave sediments in great detail, discussing palaeoclimatological
information such as the former presence of ice on the basis of sediment
structure, while variable moisture conditions are discussed on the basis
of the distribution of cements. As (calcite) cements are only present in
some archaeologically datable layers, the authors discuss whether this
represents wetter conditions with more percolating moisture or
whether this represents dryer conditions with formation of an incipient
calcic (soil) horizon. Given the high micrite content of cave sediments,
there is no information on plasmic fabric. A paper by Forbes and
Bestland (2007) is more typical of the general use of thin sections in cave
studies as it only discusses the composition of different sediment types
mainly in terms of the amount and properties of quartz grains. Very little
is said about the matrix and nothing about relations between the
skeleton grains and the matrix.
Tropical cave sediments were studied by Stephens et al. (2005)
and they found that their micromorphological data corroborated field
interpretation but also provided important additional information on
both depositional (alternating wet and dry condition; colluviation;
mudflow) and post-depositional, diagenetic processes.
5.6. Evaporites, including carbonate crusts
Arguably, structures seen in diagenesis and in evaporites are
largely overlapping. It is their setting which is different, with
diagenesis occurring at any depth and in any sediment from the
surface downwards, while evaporites mainly form at or near the
surface. A number of different chemical sediments have been
described and illustrated in Goudie and Pye (1983). Arakel (1980)
described the formation of lagoonal sediments from west Australia
and used thin sections to study their composition (mainly gypsum).
Not surprisingly he found both sedimented gypsum particles as well
as in situ grown gypsum crystals.
Here we would like to draw attention to the use of thin sections in
the study of calcretes and carbonate crusts. Also studied from a
pedological point of view, it is obvious that calcretes can be formed by
precipitation in situ, aided by biological activity, while erosion and
reworking are common processes (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998). The
development of calcretes emerges as a complicated process where
vegetation (root development in response to calcareous deposition)
plays a more important role than direct sedimentation in the final
architecture. The terminology in these studies is mainly sedimento-
logical and biological, but as in diagenesis we suggest that the
approach of carbonate petrologists should be at least considered for
adoption. Recent work by Menzies and Brand (2007) used thin
sections to study carbonate cements within glaciolacustrine ice
marginal deltaic environments. The study shows that these sediments
underwent repeated incursions of glacial meltwater and demon-
strates that brittle fracture occurred within the carbonate cements
due to ice overriding. The latter clearly demonstrates that such
carbonate cements are not just postglacial/Holocene as perceived
wisdom will have it, but can form subglacially (see also Lacelle, 2007).
5.7. Fluviatile
In this section we incorporate all papers dealing with sedimenta-
tion by running water, from shallow surficial runoff to deep river
channel flow. Within aeolian environments reference will be made to
a number of papers dealing with reworking of sediments by running
water. The source of the running water can be either (snow)
meltwater or rain, but each process leaves distinctive microstructures
that can be used as differentiating criteria. In a study of sediment
transport by overland flow in rills Wilkinson and Bunting (1975)
demonstrated that the process led to sediment accumulation on the
valley floor and claimed that sediments would be bioturbated and
thus homogenised very quickly. A thin section shows nevertheless
that after 12 years layers are still recognisable, although a large
number of vughs-type pores had formed.
Active riverbed and heavily polluted sediments of the Rhine were
studied micromorphologically by van der Meer et al. (1994a, 1996).
The aim of those studies was first to establish the nature of the
sedimentation: continuous, episodic or net accumulation by alternat-
ing deposition and erosion (Fig. 4A); and secondly whether the
present sediment package was in a stable position. Micromorpholog-
ical analyses of composition, structure, aggregates and plasmic fabric
demonstrated that sedimentation had been continuous, but that the
sediments were chemically highly unstable with widespread neofor-
mations of different composition. Most remarkable was the observa-
tion of carbonate precipitation (Fig. 4B, C) and clay illuvation (Fig. 4D).
The first occurring both as coating and as quasi/hypocoating. This is
remarkable given the environmental setting of the sediments being
continuously submerged with a water depth of up to seven metres.
The thin sections furthermore showed the widespread presence of
up to 2 mm diameter plastic spheres (Fig. 4E), which demonstrates
that rivers actively contribute microplastics to the overall plastic load
in the oceans (Mato et al., 2001).
Johnson (1982) studied the sediments of an arid zone delta, also
using thin sections. These were only used to describe the composition
of the sediments, not even bedding structures are mentioned. The
compositional mix of the delta sediments is strongly reminiscent of
the Rhine sediments mentioned above. Blazejewski et al. (2005)
extensively used thin sections to classify organic matter in riparian
zone soils as a step in developing functionally different morphologic
classes of soil carbon.
5.8. Aeolian and deserts
In Table 1 only 5% of papers deal with aeolian and desert thin
sections/micromorphology. This sounds surprising as there is such a
vast literature on loess. However, most of this literature deals with
palaeosols in loess, not with the sedimentology of loess. Occasionally
papers deal with both (Kemp, 1999; Mestdagh et al., 1999), but in
most papers the ‘unaltered’ loess between palaeosols is discussed in
soil C-horizon terms only. Kemp (1999) clearly states that in order to
unravel the history of a loess sequence one has to adopt a
pedosedimentary approach, in which alternating pedogenic and
sedimentary processes are taken into account. These papers make
full use of the pedologic micromorphologic terminology.
One of the earliest papers on a sedimentological aspect of loess is
by Matalucci et al. (1969). It deals exclusively with grain orientation,
which is used to establish palaeowind direction. Given the number
of later papers dealing with the different processes that rework loess
under natural conditions, the confidence shown in the paper by
Matalucci et al. (1969), may have been misplaced. Reworking of
loess happens by running water, which can itself be of different
origin, and subsequent drying under different conditions. Micro-
morphological evidence and differentiation is reported in a number
of papers, either dealing with experiments (see above) or with field
conditions (for instance Mücher and Vreeken, 1981; Vreeken, 1984).
Micromorphological features discussed in these papers mainly deal
with the structure of distinct laminae, although aggregates and
translocation of silt, clays and carbonates are mentioned. Under
desert conditions the formation of a near surface vesicular layer is
widespread. Volk and Geyger (1970) and Evenari et al. (1974)
discussed the formation of the vesicles (Fig. 5) and whether these
influenced the establishment of vegetation, which makes vesicles
stand out as the only type of pores warranted dedicated micromor-
phological studies.
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 221

Fig. 4. Thin sections from River Rhine bed, The Netherlands. Sediments are permanently submerged at c. 7 m waterdepth. A. Mammoth-sized thin section Mi874 from 405 to 420 cm
depth. Notice cross-bedding in centre and loadcasting near the top as well as overall lack of erosion. B. Carbonate coating of void at 150 cm sediment depth. Sample Mi.858; X pol;
hfov 4.5 mm. C. Carbonate quasi/hypocoating (i.e. precipitation following, but away from pore wall) at 260 cm sediment depth. Sample Mi.861; X pol; hfov 5.6 mm. D. Clay coating as
a result of clay translocation at 310 cm sediment depth. Sample Mi.871; plane light; hfov 3.5 mm. E. Translucent plastic spheres (note small one lower right). Sample Mi.857 from
Rhinebed at 119–134 cm depth; plane light; hfov 5.6 mm.

5.9. Marine
The marine environment reaches from the beach or the river
mouth to the deep abyssal plains and in principle thin sections can be
made from sediments in all settings. In reality this has not happened
yet as we have not been able to find thin section papers on all
sedimentary sub-environments. One reason may be that thin sections
have to be made from material collected by diving, by grab or by core.
With the practise of slicing cores and archiving one half there is often
a reluctance to cede complete parts of working half-core for
impregnation (Fig. 1D). Although one could argue that everything
that can be studied in a core, can be seen and analysed in a thin
section, the general sentiment is that impregnation makes the
material inaccessible to other researchers. Even the argument that
core studies of microfossils are most usually performed on taking out
‘bulk’ samples at fixed intervals and thus not strongly related to
sedimentology, has not swayed opinion even although in thin sections
one can actually see the position of the microfossils (Fig. 6).
Since tidal flats are accessible at low tide and thus relatively easy to
sample there are a number of studies related to this environment.
Gerdes et al. (1985) and Noffke et al. (1997) studied tidal flat sediments,
including algal mats from North Germany. Thin sections were used to
describe the position and characteristics of the algal mats and the results
and differentiation of bioturbation by different organisms. A most
222 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
Fig. 5. Vesicles, rounded or ovate voids can form under a multitude of conditions, either
cold or hot. This is an example from a recent supraglacial melt-out till. Note pieces of
vesicular basalt. Sample C.277 from Kotlujökull, Iceland; plane light; hfov 3.4 mm.
extraordinary study of marsh soils was performed by Borchert (1968)
who found that for his structural studies 30 cm2was not enough and
produced 50 cm long and 50–80 μm thick ‘thin’ sections. The author
established differential behaviour of clay particles depending on cation-
adsorption and clay content, for instance Na-clays are said to move more
easily into a vertical position upon ripening and bioturbation than Ca-
clays. A systematic study of the change from sediment to soil was
conducted by Kooistra (1978) who studied all the micromorphological
aspects of a substantial number of thin sections from different settings,
included a comparison with adjoining sediments and soils after land
reclamation. The author demonstrates that each sedimentary sub-
environment produces characteristic microstructures, which are pre-
served for a considerable period.
Kilfeather et al. (2007) used micromorphology to assess its potential
as a diagnostic tool to distinguish tsunamigenic sediments. The study
revealed that micro-rip-up clasts, millimetre-scale banding, organic
entrainment, fining-up sequences and erosive contacts were all
detectable microscopically but not macroscopically, thereby showing
that the technique has great potential to distinguish such sediments.
A paper published by Watling, 1988 is interesting because the
author claims that techniques used at the time to study (from an
ecological point of view) marine sediment microfabric were of limited
use and that thin sections were much better suited. This is clearly
demonstrated in his paper by providing examples of microstructures,
especially the distribution of organic matter. The paper also provides
good examples of the use of epi-illumination to show the organic
matter distribution.
5.10. Periglacial
Periglacial studies can be separated into three distinct groups. In
the first place there are those related to present day periglacial areas
in the Arctic, Antarctic and in high altitudes. Secondly there are those
related to areas formerly (Pleistocene or older) subjected to
periglacial conditions; and, finally, studies related to experiment, for
instance in climate cabinets or rooms. Examples of the latter have
been provided in the section on aeolian environments. In all three
groups, thin sections have been used from an early stage and there is
by now a substantial literature on their use. Some studies attempt to
provide an overview of periglacial microstructures, while others look
at particular periglacial landforms, while using thin sections as one of
the research methods. Examples of the former are Koniščev et al.
(1973) in which turbate structures are described, while also paying
attention to the presence of the plasmic fabric. Harris (1985)
systematically treated a number of microstructures, such as platy
structures and grain coatings, by reviewing the literature. In an
influential paper van Vliet-Lanoë et al. (1984) combined information
gained from active, fossil, and experimental data to analyse structures
caused by repeated freezing and thawing of various loamy sediments.
The microstructures described therein – sorted platy structure, which
is more commonly referred to as a silt droplet structure (Fig. 7A);
vesicles (Fig. 5; see also Bunting, 1977); and grain coatings – are the
most common microstructures found in periglacial settings. Combi-
nations of these microstructures can be used to reconstruct the
presence of segregation ice in the active layer and the process of
gelifluction (Fig. 3). These microstructures were used in reconstruction
by Oh et al. (1987) on samples from northern France, and by van der
Meer et al. (1992a) on Antarctic samples. In the latter study it was
established for the first time that in the Antarctic clay illuviation related
to snow meltwater is common (Fig. 7B–E), where commonly this
process is thought to be exclusive to soil formation. The silt droplet
structure (Fig. 7A) described independently by van Vliet-Lanoë (1976)
and created artificially by Coutard and Mücher (1985) shows-up in
almost all periglacial studies: for instance van Vliet-Lanoë (1988) on
cryoturbation; van Vliet-Lanoë (1991) on differential frost heave; and
Bertran et al. (2003) on permafrost age and degradation. Several other
microstructures developed under periglacial conditions have been
reported, for example, Elliott and Worsley (1999) pointed at the well
developed orientation of clean sand grains in a solifluction lobe from
Norway, while Mol et al. (1993) described microjointing in clay-poor
fluvio-aeolian sediments as a result of contraction cracking following a
sudden drop in temperature. Likewise, Von Buch (1964) described the
occurrence of concretions and pseudoconcretions in a periglacial slope
deposit in Spain and concluded that they were typical for such a
sediment.
An overview on a larger scale has been provided by Huijzer (1993).
In the first place he discusses all known periglacial microstructures,
followed by analyses of specific sites and sequences and how these
microstructures are distributed within the site/sequence and how
they relate to macrostructures. Finally, there is a valid attempt to
relate these observations to frost regime and to come to a regional
reconstruction in which conditions are shown to change between
permafrost-seasonal frost-steppe-temperate conditions over the last
glacial/interglacial cycle.
The most recent overview has been presented by van Vliet-Lanoë
(2010). In this overview microscopic features are treated systemat-
ically according to structure (platy, lenticular, granular), structure
stability, groundmass and pedofeatures as well as the implications for
pedostratigraphy.
5.11. Lacustrine
Ever since it was understood that lake sediments can store
palaeoclimatic information on an annual basis, lacustrine deposits
have attracted attention. This notion started in glaciolacustrine settings
(De Geer, 1912; Sauramo, 1923) but has now expanded to all non-glacial
settings, at least where an annual climate signal can be expected, i.e. in
non-tropical environments. By now there is a large body of literature on
laminated lake sediments (see Zolitschka, 1998; Brauer, 2004; and
references therein). Most of these studies deal with the question of
whether observed lamination is indeed annual or not, and, for obvious
reasons, laminae are studied for their biological components in order to
detect seasonal or non-seasonal events (Francus and Karabanov, 2000;
Lücke and Brauer, 2004). Interestingly one can also use non-biologic,
chemical precipitation of carbonates to detect a seasonal signal (Brauer,
2004). For all of these studies one needs thin sections to establish the
true nature of laminations. The most detailed classification to date is by
Rein et al. (2007) who recognised a multitude of different combinations
of chemical precipitates and biological sediments in an attempt to
classify non-glacial varve type sediments.
Given the variable nature of lacustrine sedimentation, it does not
come as a surprise that the grain size of layers is also used as proxy for
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 223

Fig. 6. Thin section from core ‘Amsterdam Terminal’ The Netherlands from a depth of 39.5 m below surface; laminated sediment from a shallowing marine basin of Eemian age. A, B.
Distribution of microfossils (red) and mollusc fragments (blue) in A, faecal pellets in B. Note alternating levels of either. C. Microfossils (note uniformity of species) and mollusc
fragments. In most cases microfossils are spread at random through sediments, this is a rare case of concentration in single layers, pointing at particular events. This would not be
revealed by sampling the core for microfossils at regular intervals. Plane light, hfov 7.0 mm. D. Concentration of faecal pellets. Plane light, hfov 3.5 mm.

seasonality or even weather patterns (Mangili et al., 2005). Recognising
weather patterns enables detailed analysis of long, continuous
laminated sequences (e.g. the Scottish Lateglacial, MacLeod, 2010)
and effectively study the weather during that period. Studies such as
those by Mangili et al. (2005) automatically lead to more sedimento-
logically oriented studies (Fig. 8), in which not the composition, but the
sedimentary structure is the focus of attention (van der Meer et al.,
1992b; van der Meer and Warren, 1997; Lücke and Brauer, 2004;
Mahaney et al., 2004). Most of these studies report on structure, but in
some studies the presence and strength of the plasmic fabric is used to
ascertain subsequent deformation (van der Meer et al., 1992b;
Bordonau and van der Meer, 1994). Because of the waterlogged nature
of lacustrine sediments, deformation may happen in an almost
unconfined setting and over longer periods of time, which would not
necessarily lead to the development of a strong birefringent pattern. In a
study of lacustrine sediments from central Ireland, van der Meer and
Warren (1997) established how simple loadcasting can lead to the loss
of lamination by complete mixing and hence the loss of palaeoclimatic
signals. It is a relatively recent development to recognise former
earthquakes by the reorganisation of lacustrine and fine-grained
outwash sediments, and Menzies and Taylor (2003) demonstrated
that such strong tremors leave distinct traces in fine grained sediments.
5.12. Glacial
Papers on the micromorphology of glacial sediments are with N30%
best represented in our overview (Table 2). The main reason is that
micromorphology is by now an established technique in studies of
224 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232

Fig. 7. Thin sections of Last Glacial (Weichselian) periglacial microstructures in Penultimate Glacial (Saalian) till. A. Silt droplet structure. Note curved surfaces highlighted by (darker
coloured) silt concentrations. This is the most common structure found in periglacially overprinted sediments. Sample Mi.826 from ter Idzard, the Netherlands; plane light; hfov
18.0 mm. B. Heavy, but disrupted clay cutan, partly filling up void. Disruption is most likely the result of frost. Clay fragments are very consistent and have a high survival potential.
Thin section O.825 from ter Idzard, the Netherlands; plane light; hfov 7.0 mm. Clay coatings (cutans) on and in Tertiary Sirius tillite, Allan Hills, Trans Antarctic Mountains. C. Shiny
clay coating on tillite face, such coatings are very common on near vertical. faces. Icepick handle for scale. D. Thin section of surficial clay coating, which consists of multiple laminae,
suggesting multiple washing events. Washing is a current process, despite the air temperature never coming above zero (°C) and related to the peculiar properties of snow melt
water. Height of sample 6 cm. E. Transition between surficial clay coating and tillite, showing that clay has penetrated in voids in the tillite, while forming the thick surface coat. Plane
light, hfov 18.0mm.

glacial sediments, with overviews in handbooks (van der Meer, 1996;
Carr, 2004) and the Encyclopaedia of Quaternary Science (Hiemstra,
2007). And although the oldest paper in which a thin section of till was
shown dates from 1940 (Lundqvist, 1940), by 1983 no more than a
handful of papers in which thin sections were used, was known (van der
Meer, 1987). Because of a background in soil micromorphology, the use
of thin sections in glacial sedimentology closely follows pedological
practise, although the terminology has drifted apart (see Zaniewski and
van der Meer, 2005). By now a large number of microstructures from
glacial sediments are known (Table 1) and their terminology is generally
used as the standard (e.g. Phillips and Auton, 2000; Larsen et al., 2004;
Thomason and Iverson, 2006; Lee and Phillips, 2008).
As indicated in the section on terminology, microstructures
recognised so far are grouped under several headings (Table 2). In
the first place there is the ‘plasmic fabric’ in which all types of
arrangement of plasma domains as listed by Brewer (1976) are
represented, with the addition of the kinking plasmic fabric (Fig. 9),
first recognised in tills (van der Meer, 1982). Other microstructures
are related to deformation, either ductile or brittle or polyphase, or
related to porewater (Fig. 10A). Because tills are immature sediment
mixes (Fig. 10B) different grain sizes occur side by side, which means
that even under the same moisture conditions, there are different
responses to stress. From an early stage it was recognised that the
plasmic fabric can be used to reconstruct the kind of stresses that had
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 225

Fig. 8. Lacustrine sediments. A. Thin section from Lateglacial lake deposits near Clara, Ireland. Note rhythmic bedding with clear, graded couplets (varves?) at base and repetition of coarse
layer in second couplet. The central bed shows scouring of the basal clay layer. The bed itself shows cross lamination, which together with the scouring indicates current activity. The center
of the scour shows a minor offset indicating microfaulting. The top layer shows a diffuse wavy boundary suggesting load casting. Top right cut and fill structure. Images like this show the
great potential of thin sections for analysing sediments and sedimentary processes. Sample Mi.786; plane light; hfov 18 mm. B. Deformation of rhythmites caused by glacial overriding and
rafting. Rhythmites have been dragged along and put in a steeply dipping position. This process results in faulting but does not destroy the original sedimentary evidence. Sample R.659
from Lunteren, the Netherlands; plane light; hfov 18.0 mm. C. Bioturbation with filled-in burrows in Lateglacial lacustrine rhythmites. Sample 4545 from Kap James Hill, northernmost
Greenland; plane light; hfov 5.3 mm.

been effective (Fig. 10C), whether these were caused by static loading,
by sliding of the sediment itself (Menzies and Zaniewski, 2003;
Hiemstra et al., 2004) or by glacier overriding (Menzies and Maltman,
1992; van der Meer, 1993) and in this respect micromorphological
analyses are further developed for the glacial environment than for
most other sedimentary environments. The exception being micro-
morphology of periglacial sediments as such sediments have been
studied for quite some time and by researchers with a similar
pedological background. Although it is not assumed that all possible
microstructures are known, till micromorphology is now moving into
the next phases of scientific development, i.e. interpretation and
quantification instead of sole description. It can be argued that so far,
till micromorphology has mainly dealt with inventorying, and
comprehending what microstructures exist and where they occur
and in what sub-environments of the glacial system.
Recently a statistical quantification method has been developed that
collates the number of differing types of individual microstructures on a
statistically large enough sample of thin sections derived from
individual tills and other diamictic sediments. This technique permits
subglacial tills, for example, to be objectively distinguished from other
till-like sediments such as terrestrial debris flow and submarine
turbidites (cf. Menzies et al., 2006, see below; Neudorf, 2008). On the
other hand a new method of till microstructural analysis based on the
methods employed by metamorphic petrologists has been developed
(Phillips et al., in press). This is a promising method that allows the
detailed separation and stratigraphy of different phases of deformation.
The application of micromorphology to glacial sediments started
on the assumption that it might be possible to separate the different
types of tills (van der Meer, 1987). However, instead of enabling
differentiation it led to the recognition that the different till varieties
do not exist (van der Meer et al., 2003) and the classification scheme
has to be abandoned. By now the outcome of till micromorphology is
starting to advance to the analyses of ice dynamics, what the till
microstructures tell us about subglacial conditions and how this
affects glacier or ice sheet behaviour (van der Meer et al., 2003;
Menzies et al., 2006). In a paper on clastic dykes in subglacial settings,
van der Meer et al. (2009) demonstrate not only that their
characteristics are based on pressure gradients (Fig. 11), but also
the settings in which they form and how this immediately affects
glacier dynamics.
5.13. Diagenesis
Almost all unconsolidated sediments show evidence of diagenesis,
although the term is not often used by Quaternary scientists. However,
iron translocation, carbonate cementation, etc., which they do refer to,
are all signs of post-depositional alteration of the original sediment and
thus diagenetic. In studies of diagenesis the use of thin sections is very
common, as these show composition as well as the position and the
microstratigraphy of (neo-)formations (Ledésert et al., 2003). Most
studies deal with the presence of carbonate cementations in both
terrestrial (James, 1985) and marine sediments (Vrolijk and Sheppard,
226 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
Fig. 9. A. Crenulated lacustrine silts, as a result of glaciotectonism; coin is 2 cm. Tirvia,
Pyrenees, Spain; photo Jaume Bordonau, Barcelona. B. Wavy, lacustrine sediments.
Sample Mi.586, derived from sample in A; plane light, scale in cm. C. Alternating bands
of highlighted and extinguished birefringence, making up kinking plasmic fabric,
related to the wavy bedding as outlined by white quartz grains. Note subhorizontal
shearing depicted by unistrial plasmic fabric. Sample Mi.586 from Tirvia, Spain; X pol,
hfov 18.0 mm.
1991; Aghib et al., 2003). As in (neo-)formations (minerals formed from
solutions in interstitial water) in soils, multiple events of (dis-)solution
and precipitation can often be discerned. It should be noted that the
geological terminology used to describe the structure of carbonate
cements is completely different from that used to describe secondary
carbonates in pedology. It could be interesting for Quaternary workers
to adopt the approach of carbonate sedimentologists/petrologists to
diagenesis and carbonate-rich rocks. Not only to the description, but also
the use of staining carbonate minerals as such an approach would reveal
more detail about the diagenetic history.
But carbonates are certainly not the only cements/neoformations
encountered in non-lithified sediments. In a study of Tertiary tillites
from Antarctica, Dickinson and Grapes (1997) demonstrated that
chabazite (a zeolite) was a common pore-lining mineral. On the other
end of the temperature scale, diagenetic zeolites from a tropical
setting were described by Renaut (1993).
Other cements/neoformations encountered in unlithified sedi-
ments are phosphatic in nature. These include calcium phosphate
coatings on Antarctic islands (Arocena and Hall, 2003) and wide-
spread vivianites: in Lake Baikal sediments (Fagel et al., 2005; Sapota
et al., 2006), in till (Riezebos and Rappol, 1987) and in fluviatile
sediments (Figs. 4, 12; van der Meer et al., 1996).
6. Experiments
Experimentation has a long tradition in earth sciences, either in
order to understand how processes operate, or to understand structures
resulting from processes operating under controlled conditions. The
scale of experiments ranges from large flumes, shear boxes to wind
tunnels. In a number of cases the sediments resulting from experiments
are thin sectioned, for instance to study crystal structure of cementa-
tions (Badiozamani et al., 1977). However, in most experiments thin
sections are a means of studying the results of specific processes, with
the objective of understanding these processes. Only occasionally is it
the aim of the experiments to directly understand a known microstruc-
ture. Examples of the group of process-oriented studies are the papers
by Mücher and de Ploey (1977, 1984), Mücher et al. (1981) and Coutard
and Mücher (1985). In all of these papers the examined sediment
packages are produced by either aeolian sedimentation or reworking of
such sediments by running water. Thin sections demonstrate the
formation of laminae of particular structure or grain size, depending on
process. Some of the artificially produced sediment packages have been
subjected to different temperature regimes in order to produce macro-
and microstructures that can be compared to fossil sequences. Typical
microstructures are cracks and vesicles. In an experiment by Dijkmans
and Mücher (1989) ‘packages’ of sand or loess were sedimented
alternating with natural snowfalls under open (winter) field conditions
in the Ardennes (Belgium) in order to study the development of
microstructures of niveo-aeolian deposits upon melting of the snow.
The results show a spongy structure plus the effects of freezing and of
running water and are – not surprisingly – reminiscent of melt-out
structures in the glacial environment (see Section 5.12). None of these
papers refers to the presence or development of plasmic fabrics.
The development of shears has been the subject of a number of
experiments and this is an example where microfabrics have been
produced specifically for microscopic examination. In these experi-
ments clays were subjected to deformation, mainly through compres-
sion tests, after which the samples were thin sectioned. Because of
different factors influencing the shearing process (e.g. water content,
strain rate, primary fabric, clay composition) there is a whole range of
experiments, including incremental sampling (Maltman, 1977, 1987;
Arch et al., 1988; Will and Wilson, 1989). The results are described in
patterns of shears, their complexity and orientations. Because we are
dealing with shears in clays, it would be possible to describe these in
terms of plasmic fabrics. However, this is seldom done, as there is a well-
established geological nomenclature for shears. Exceptions to this are
papers by Dalrymple and Jim (1984) on the development of
microfabrics as a result of unconfined, alternating wetting and drying
which leads to the formation of for instance masepic and skelsepic
plasmic fabrics in dependence of sand-silt-clay ratios. Hiemstra and
Rijsdijk (2003) performed uniaxial compression tests of clays mixed
with coarse sand grains as analogues for subglacial deformation. They
discuss the gradual development of microstructures resulting from
small-scale slip or shear displacements as well as rotational movements,
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232 227

Fig. 10. Glacial sediments. A. Thin section of till from Oakville, Ontario, Canada. Note the porewater escape structures, contorted laminations within the till unit sand ‘floating'micro-
intraclasts. Xpol; bar for scale. B. Intimate mixture of non-homogeneous diamict ground mass with multiple clay/silt and diamict pebbles, which demonstrates how immature many
supposedly massive tills are in reality. Saalian till in Lunteren, The Netherlands. Sample R669; plane light; hfov 18.0 mm. C. Thin section from LGM till in Moneydie, Scotland. Unistrial
plasmic fabric shows that shears in diamicts split up into numerous strands. Sample R.756; X pol; hfov 4.5 mm.

made visible by skelsepic, masepic and unistrial plasmic fabrics and the
relations between them. Their study clearly demonstrated how
combinations of planar and rotational microstructures help in distin-
guishing subglacial tills from mass movement deposits. In a recent paper
Thomason and Iverson (2006) discuss the development of shears in
remoulded till subjected to deformation in a ring-shear box. Although
discussed in terms of shear, the results clearly demonstrate that the
microstructures can also be discussed in terms of bimasepic plasmic
fabrics.
7. Differentiation and correlation of sedimentary environments
Micromorphology, by permitting detailed examination of sediments
at the microscopic scale, enables the differentiation and linked
association of various sedimentary environments (cf. O`Brien and
Slatt, 1990; Maltman, 1994; Carr, 2001, 2004; Lachniet et al., 2001;
van der Meer et al., 2003; Menzies et al., 2006). As the range of
sediments examined using micromorphology has expanded, so the
ability to compare and separate sediments derived and/or deposited in
228 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232

Fig. 12. Diagenesis. A. Thin section of river Rhine sediments, showing the actual surface
of the river bed. Formation of vivianite is happening throughout the sediment right
down from the surface. Sample C.161 from the Biesbosch, the Netherlands; plane light;
hfov 3.5 mm. B. Widespread formation of vivianite in plant material. Sample Mi.870
river Rhine bed at 210–225 cm depth; plane light; hfov 3.5 mm.

In studying a range of diamictons, for example, from glacial tills to

Fig. 11. A. Intricate bedding in Water Escape Structure. Note cross-cutting relations,
grading and clay linings. Sample O.929 from. San Martin de los Andes, Argentina; plane
light; hfov 18.0 mm. B. Intricate bedding in Water Escape Structure with water moving
up. Note different directions of grading, directed by pressure gradients. Sample R.168
from Donatyre, Switzerland; plane light; hfov 18.0 mm.
glacial marine diamictons to marine debris flow diamictons a
statistical test of a range of microstructures using a simple Chi-square
test permitted statistically significant differentiation between these
remarkably visually similar diamictons (Table 3). In carrying out this
statistical analysis, a series of individual thin sections from each
diamicton type was examined on the basis of the number of
microstructures present in each thin section. First, the thin sections
were subdivided into individual frames (25 × 25 mm) and within each
frame all recognisable microstructures were counted; then all frames
from each thin section were summed. The resultant microstructure
Table 3
Frequency of microstructures and other sedimentary attributes within examined
diamictite/diamicton thin-section frames from Brora–Helmsdale, Scotland and Ontario,
Canada.

n = 81 ls lmd sdl rt ee sa sr ne im gmx cmx wsx gls

differing environments has become possible. Within the plethora of
KBB 19 3 17 5 20 38 3 5 8 35 4 – 5
individual microstructures that occur within sediments it is rare, if
HBB 22 4 21 5 27 39 2 6 7 36 5 3 4
unlikely, that any one microstructure type is diagnostic of a particular QDmm 20 11 23 8 19 34 11 8 10 13 24 8 9
sedimentary environment (cf. Menzies et al., 2006). However, ‘tile’
KBB—Kintradwell Boulder Beds, NE. Scotland; HBB—Helmsdale Boulder Beds, NE.
structures noted within debris flow sediments (e.g., Bertran and Texier, Scotland; QDmm—Quaternary Diamicton, Oakville, Ontario, Canada; n—number of thin
1999; Menzies and Zaniewski, 2003; Theler, 2004) and ‘silt droplets’ sections.
within sediments affected by periglacial activity (e.g. van Vliet-Lanoë et ls—single lineations; lmd—multiple directional lineations; sdl—short distance
al., 1984) do seem specific to these environments and/or processes. In lineations; rt—rotational structures; ee—edge-to-edge grain crushing; sa—subangular
clast fragment (b15 mm); sr—subrounded clast fragment (b 15 mm); ne—necking
general it is not one single microstructure but rather an assemblage of structures; im—imbricate structures; gmx—grain-dominated matrix; cmx—clay
differing microstructures that are more or less indicative of a specific dominated matrix; wsx—well sorted, evenly distributed clast fragments within
sedimentary environment. matrix; gls—grain line stacking.
 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
type numbers for each diamicton were then statistically compared,
testing whether the thin sections were from one large population or
from statistically significantly different populations. The results of this
exercise permitted differentiation of one diamicton from another.
The converse also applies such that by making statistical comparison,
the ability to correlate similar sediments based on statistically ‘common’
microstructure elements permits the identification of sediments from
similar environments to be identified. As a result, sediments, for
example, taken from a core can be compared to a master sediment list of
‘known’ sedimentary environments allowing less speculation and
clearer specific identification of sediment sources.
In addition to statistic testing, visual comparison of ‘sets’ of
microstructures permit differentiation or co-association of sediments
from the same or different sedimentary environments (cf. van der Meer
et al., 1994b; Carr, 2001; Lachniet et al., 2001; Larsen et al., 2004). This
non-statistical, subjective, method can be successful when clear and
marked differences between microstructure ‘sets’ are clearly discern-
able, especially when coupled with other data such as the geomorphic
context or the presence of discriminating evidence such as specific clast
provenance or the presence of features diagnostic of specific environ-
ments. Considerable research work in the development of large data sets
of thin sections, ideally aided by image analyses, should in the near
future allow discrimination and co-association links to be developed.
These data sets will then allow an innovative method of rapid and
objective comparison to be made between known and unknown
sediments.
8. Geogenetic microstructures in soils
When sedimentation and deformation cease or when subaqueous or
subglacial sediments become subaerial the top of the sediment pile will
be subjected to soil formation. As we have seen all of these sediments
will have their own suite of microstructures; soil formation does not
start on a blank sheet. Thus the question is whether all sedimentary
microstructures will be overprinted or obliterated by soil microstruc-
tures, or whether some are preserved and still present in mature soils.
The second question is whether all sedimentary microstructures are
equally affected by pedogenesis or whether particular microstructures
are more resistant than others. For instance clay illuviation and clay
coating under periglacial conditions are well established (see above),
and it has been demonstrated that the coatings produced by this process
easily break up after a limited number of frost cycles (Fig. 7B). The
resulting ‘papules’ could easily become part of an emerging soil and
survive pedogenesis (van Vliet-Lanoë, 2010).
9. Discussion
The above overview demonstrates that thin sections have been
and are used in almost every sedimentary environment. In this
overview the emphasis is on unconsolidated to weakly lithified
sediments as these best provide an unimpeded idea of the
relationship to active sedimentary processes. What is clear is that
thin sections are not often used to their full potential. There are
several reasons for this. First, in many cases only petrographic thin
sections are used, which are so small that relationships between the
constituent particles, microstructures and fabrics are difficult to
assess. But even if larger sized thin sections, up to Kubiena size, are
produced, the emphasis, in the past, has too often been solely on
grainsize and composition. Especially in laminated lacustrine sedi-
ments, the organic composition of certain layers is emphasised. A
good example is the Antarctic Cape Roberts Project (Davey et al.,
2001). In this project each aspect of the cores was studied and
described, including thin sections. Stratigraphically a large number of
sedimentary cycles were recognised, many cycles starting with a
diamicton overlying a hiatus. Thin sections of the diamictons were
used to establish the glacial history of the drillsite (van der Meer and
229
Hiemstra, 1998; van der Meer, 2000) but it was also noticed that some
of the diamicts contained microfossils, sometimes in intraclasts. Since
the diamicts consist of locally reworked (glaci-)marine sediments,
they represent the hiatus. In reality the sediments that made up the
part of the sequence that is now the hiatus are still present but in a
different, thoroughly mixed shape and displaced position. The
‘missing’ microfossils can be studied by studying them in the diamict
thin sections, but this has still to be done. The thin sections of the
diamicts have also shown the presence of intraclasts which
themselves contain microfossils, allowing further detail in the study
of the microfossils. This example demonstrates the microstratigraphic
detail that thin sections allow, a potential that has hardly been tapped
into.
Secondly, micromorphology permits an in situ view into a sediments
‘undisturbed’ structural geology such that the specific grain by grain,
lineations, and essential rheology of the sediment as it was being
deposited or emplaced can be witnessed. For example, in studying a set
of thin section samples from a Jurassic diamictite from northeast
Scotland that could, in hand view, be regarded as a sediment deposited
by glacial transport, river flood deposits, subaerial mass movement,
subaerial mass movement into the sea, or a subaquatic debris flow from
a submarine fault scarp. It becomes only too apparent in thin section that
the diamictite is a subaqueous debris deposit emplaced within a tropical
oceanic environment (Menzies and Whiteman, 2009). Thirdly, in
examining experimentally produced thin sections Piotrowski et al.
(2006) have demonstrated the ability to derive not only sense of shear
and rheology but stress levels involved in the deformation processes
ongoing with the sediment being transported and emplaced. As a
further example of the intrinsic value of micromorphological analyses it
is possible to determine from thin section analyses the impact of seismic
activity on sediments and in areas where known seismic activity has
apparently long ceased to be regarded as significant but may constitute
considerable future environmental risks where, for example, a nuclear
plant or high-pressure buried pipelines are located. As a final example of
the value of micromorphology, recent work on the depth of pervasive
deformation on sea-bed sediments off the east coast of Canada in areas
of iceberg scouring where oil and gas pipelines come on shore and are
therefore in danger of rupture has shown that the depth of penetration
of stress levels within these sediments in much greater detail and to
much greater depths than visual examination has led past investigators
to assume. At this stage in the science, micromorphology has, for
example, fundamentally changed our views on glacial sediments and of
subglacial dynamics (van der Meer et al., 2003; Menzies et al., 2006).
Likewise other areas of sedimentology and geoarchaeology show
enormous potential. There is still a lot to discover and it is our
conviction that systematic application of thin sections or micromor-
phology in all aspects of all sedimentary environments will be very
rewarding. This will be aided by moving into 3D studies of microstruc-
tures by the use of X-ray μCT (Kilfeather and van der Meer, 2008; Tarplee
et al., in press) in combination with traditional thin sections.
10. Conclusions
From the above we can reach the following conclusions:
• micromorphology is slowly becoming a recognised research tool in
sedimentology,
• micromorphology has clearly established itself as such in aeolian,
lacustrine, periglacial and glacial sedimentology, but is slow to catch
up in other sedimentary environments,
• in many studies thin sections are mainly used to study composition,
not structure, diagenesis or plasmic fabric development,
• plasmic fabric development should be one of the most interesting
aspects of micromorphological studies of sediments as it strongly
related to imparted stress fields.
230 J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Menzies / Sedimentary Geology 238 (2011) 213–232
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the technicians that over the years have
provided us with thin sections of good quality, despite the difficult
nature of the material: Frans Backer, Candy Kramer, Jerry Lee, Marty
Ouellette, Adrian Palmer, John Taylor, and Cees Zeegers. We would
also like to thank Ed Oliver and Mike Lozon for their help with the
figures.
Furthermore we would like to acknowledge Georges Stoops,
Emrys Phillips, John Hiemstra, Simon Carr and Jim Rose for improving
the quality of this paper by their comments to different drafts.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10.
1016/j.sedgeo.2011.04.013.
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