Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

The first exam will be on Friday, September 29, 2006. The syllabus will be sections 1.1 to 1.6
through page 69.
Following are some of the concepts and results you should know:
• Know the Well-ordering principle: Any set of positive integers which has at least one element
contains a smallest element.

• Know the Induction Principle and how to use it to do proofs by induction.

• Know the Binomial Theorem: If x and y are any numbers, then

n
X
(x + y)n = xn−k y k ,
k=0

where µ ¶
n n!
= .
k k!(n − k)!

• Know the Division Algorithm.

• Know the definition of a divides b for integers a and b (notation: a|b).

• Know the definition of the greatest common divisor of the integers a and b (notation: (a, b)).

• Know the Euclidean Algorithm and how to use it to compute the greatest common divisor of
integers a and b.

• Know how to use elementary row operations to codify the calculations needed for the Euclid-
ean algorithm into a sequence of matrix operations as illustrated on Pages 11 and 12.

• Know the definition of relatively prime integers.

• Be sure to know Theorem 1.1.6 (Page 13) which relates the relative primeness of a and b to
various divisibility conclusions.

• Know the definition of least common multiple of integers a and b (notation: [a, b]).

• Know the relationship between the greatest common divisor, least common multiple, and the
product of integers a and b: ab = (a, b)[a, b]. (Exercise 9, Page 36.)

• Know the definition of prime number.

• Know Euclid’s Lemma (Theorem 1.3.1 Page 26): If p is a prime, a and b are integers, and
p|ab, then p|a or p|b.

• Know the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (Theorem 1.3.3, Page 27), and how to use it
to compute the greatest common divisor and least common multiple of two integers a and b
(Corollary 1.3.5, Page 30).

• Know the argument to show that there are infinitely many prime integers.

• Know what it means for an integer a to be congruent modulo n to another integer b (notation
a ≡ b mod n).

• Know the definition of congruence class of a modulo n (notation [a]n ).

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

• Know the definition of the number system Zn , and how to do arithmetic in Zn :

[a]n + [b]n = [a + b]n

[a]n [b]n = [ab]n

• Know the definition of [a]n is invertible in Zn , and know the criterion of invertibility of [a]n :
An element [a]n ∈ Zn is invertible (or has a multiplicative inverse) if and only if (a, n) = 1,
that is, if and only if a and n are relatively prime. Moreover, if r and s are integers such that
ar + ns = 1, then [a]−1 n = [r]n . (Theorem 1.4.3, Page 43.)

• Know how to use the Euclidean algorithm to compute [a]−1

n , when the inverse exists.

• Know what it means for a nonzero congruence class [a]n ∈ Zn to be a zero divisor: there is
[b]n 6= [0]n with [a]n [b]n = [0]n .

• Every nonzero element of Zn is either invertible or a zero divisor. (Corollary 1.4.5, Page 46.)

• Gn or Z∗n is the set of invertible elements of Zn .

• Gn is closed under multiplication, i.e., the product of any two elements of Gn is in Gn .

(Theorem 1.4.7, Page 47).

• If p is a prime, then Gp = Zp \ {[0]n }. (Corollary 1.4.6).

• Know what it means to solve a linear congruence

ax ≡ b mod n.

In particular, know that the solutions form congruence classes modulo n, so that they can be
identified with elements of Zn .

• Know the criterion for solvability of a linear congruence, namely Theorem 1.5.1, and know
how to find all of the solutions to a linear congruence using the algorithm on Page 52.

• Know the Chinese Remainder Theorem (Theorem 1.5.2), and how to solve simultaneous
congruences.

• Know what it means for an integer a to have finite multiplicative order modulo n (Page 60),
and know the criterion for a to have finite multiplicative order modulo n (Theorem 1.6.1).

• Know Fermat’s theorem: if p is prime and p does not divide a then ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p. (The-
orem 1.6.3, Page 63).

• Know the definition of order of a modulo n (Page 61): ordn (a) = k if k is the smallest positive
integer such that [a]kn = [1]n .

• (Theorem 1.6.2) If a has order k modulo n then ar ≡ as mod n if and only if r ≡ s mod k.

• Know Fermat’s theorem: if p is prime and p does not divide a then ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p. (The-
orem 1.6.3, Page 63).

• If p is prime and a is an integer not divisible by p, then the order of a mod p divides p − 1.

• The Euler phi-function is defined by ϕ(n) = |Gn | = |Z∗n |. (Page 66).

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

• Know how to use Theorems 1.6.5 and 1.6.6 to compute ϕ(n) from the prime factorization of
n: If n = pk11 · · · pkr r , then
µ ¶ µ ¶
k1 k1 −1 kr kr −1 1 1
ϕ(n) = (p1 − p1 ) · · · (p1 − p1 ) = n 1 − ··· 1 − .
p1 pr

• Know Euler’s Theorem: If n ≥ 2 and a is relatively prime to n, then

aϕ(n) ≡ 1 mod n.

• Corollary to Euler’s Theorem: If a is relatively prime to n, then the order of a mod n divides
ϕ(n).

Review Exercises

Be sure that you know how to do all assigned homework exercises. The following are a few supple-
mental exercises similar to those already assigned as homework. These exercises are listed randomly.
That is, there is no attempt to give the exercises in the order of presentation of material in the
text.
· ¸ · n ¸
2 1 n 2 n2n−1
1. Let A = . Using mathematical induction, show that A = for all positive
0 2 0 2n
integers n ∈ P.

I Solution. For n ∈ P, let P (n) be the statement

· n ¸
n 2 n2n−1
A = .
0 2n
· ¸ · 1 ¸
2 1 2 1 · 21−1
Since A1=A= = , it follows that P (1) is true, which establishes the
0 2 0 21
base step for induction.
Now k
· k assume
k−1
¸ that P (k) is true for some k ∈ P. That is, assume that k ∈ P and A =
2 k2
. Then
0 2k

Ak+1 = Ak
· k· A k−1 ¸ · ¸
2 k2 2 1
= ·
0 2k 0 2
· k ¸
2 · 2 2 + k2k−1 · 2
k
=
0 2k · 2
· k+1 ¸
2 (k + 1)2k
= .
0 2k+1
· n ¸
2 n2n−1
The last matrix is of the form for n = k + 1. Hence P (k + 1) is true whenever
0 2n
P (k) is true, which verifies the induction step, and by the principle of mathematical induction,
P (n) is true for all n ∈ P, i.e., the proposed formula for An is valid for all n ∈ P. J

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

2. Using mathematical induction, verify that

1 1 1 n
+ + ··· + =
1·2 2·3 n · (n + 1) n+1

for all positive integers n ∈ P.

I Solution. For n ∈ P, let P (n) be the statement:

1 1 1 n
+ + ··· + = .
1·2 2·3 n · (n + 1) n+1

For n = 1, P (1) is the statement:

1 1
= ,
1·2 2
which is clearly a true statement. Thus P (1) is true, and the base step for induction is
verified.
Now assume that P (k) is true. This means that

1 1 1 k
+ + ··· + = .
1·2 2·3 k · (k + 1) k+1

Consider the left hand side of the statement P (n) for n = k + 1. That is:
1 1 1 1
(∗) + + ··· + + .
1·2 2·3 k · (k + 1) (k + 1) · (k + 2)

Because of the assumption that P (k) is true, (∗) can be written as

1 1 1 1 k 1
+ + ··· + + = +
1·2 2·3 k · (k + 1) (k + 1) · (k + 2) k + 1 (k + 1) · (k + 2)
k(k + 2) 1 k(k + 2) + 1 (k + 1)2
= + = =
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)
k+1
= .
k+2
This is the statement that P (k + 1) is true, provided P (k) is true, and by the principle of
induction, we conclude that P (n) is a true statement for all n ∈ P. J

3. Find the remainder when b is divided by a if:

(a) a = 6, b = 25

I Solution. 25 = 6 · 4 + 1, so the remainder is 1. J

(b) a = −6, b = −25

I Solution. −25 = (−6) · 5 + 4, so the remainder is 4. J

4. This problem involves arithmetic modulo 16. All answers should only involve expressions of
the form [a]16 , with a an integer and 0 ≤ a < 16.

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

(a) Compute [4]16 + [15]16 .

I Solution. [4]16 + [15]16 = [4]16 + [−1]16 = [3]16 . J

(b) Compute [4]16 [15]16 .

I Solution. [4]16 [15]16 = [4]16 [−1]16 = [−4]16 = [12]16 . J

(c) Compute [15]−1

16 .

I Solution. [15]−1 −1
16 = [−1]16 = [−1]16 = [15]16 . J

(d) List the invertible elements of Z16 .

I Solution. [1]16 , [3]16 , [5]16 , [7]16 , [9]16 , [11]16 , [13]16 , [15]16 . J

(e) List the zero divisors in Z16 .

I Solution. [2]16 , [4]16 , [6]16 , [8]16 , [10]16 , [12]16 , [14]16 . J

5. (a) Show that the square of an arbitrary integer x is congruent to either 0 or 1 modulo 4.

I Solution. An arbitrary integer is congruent to either 0, 1, 2, or 3 modulo 4, that

is [x]4 = [0]4 , [x]4 = [1]4 , [x]4 = [2]4 , or [x]4 = [3]4 . Since [0]24 = [0]4 , [1]24 = [1]4 ,
[2]24 = [4]4 = [0]4 , and [3]24 = [9]4 = [1]4 , it follows that [x2 ]4 is either [0]4 or [1]4 . That
is, x2 is congruent to either 0 or 1 modulo 4. J

(b) Let x and y ∈ Z and assume that x2 + y 2 ≡ r mod 4 for a non-negative integer r which
is chosen as small as possible. What are the possible values of r? Why? (Hint: Part (a)
will be useful.)

I Solution. From Part (a), [x2 ]4 and [y 2 ]4 can be either [0]4 or [1]4 . Hence, the possi-
bilities for [x2 + y 2 ]4 = [x2 ]4 + [y 2 ]4 are as follows:

[x2 ]4 [y 2 ]4 [x2 + y 2 ]4
[0]4 [0]4 [0]4
[0]4 [1]4 [1]4
[1]4 [0]4 [1]4
[1]4 [1]4 [2]4

Hence, the possibilites for r are 0, 1, 2. In particular, note that no integer that is
congruent to 3 modulo 4 can be written as the sum of two squares of integers. J

(c) Show that not every positive integer is the sum of two squares of integers.

I Solution. This was answered in the previous part. J

(d) List the first 4 positive integers that are not sums of two squares. (Note that 1 = 12 + 02
is a sum of two squares.)

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

I Solution. From Part (b) we know that 3, 7, 11, and 15 are not sums of two squares
since they are congruent to 3 modulo 4. However, there may be additional numbers that
are not sums of two squares. The first few squares are 0 = 02 , 1 = 12 , 4 = 22 , and
9 = 32 . So we ask if there are any numbers smaller than 15 that cannot be written as a
sum of two of these squares: 1 = 12 + 02 ; 2 = 11 + 12 ; 4 = 22 + 02 ; 6 cannot be written
as a sum of two of the integers 0, 1, and 4; 8 = 22 + 22 ; 9 = 33 + 02 ; 10 = 32 + 12 .
Therefore, 3, 6, 7, 11 are the four smallest integers that cannot be written as a sum of
two squares. J

6. Let a, b, c, and d be positive integers. Determine if each of the following statements is True
or False. If False, provide a counterexample.

(a) If a|c and b|c, then ab|c.

I Solution. False. 2 | 2 and 2 | 2 but 2 · 2 - 2. J

(b) If (a, b) = 1 and (c, d) = 1, then (ac, bd) = 1.

I Solution. False. (2, 3) = 1 and (3, 2) = 1, but (2 · 3, 3 · 2) = 6. J

(c) If there exist integers r and s such that ra + sb = d, then d = (a, b).

I Solution. False. 4 · 3 − 5 · 2 = 2 but (3, 2) = 1. J

(d) [a, b] > (a, b).

I Solution. False. If a is any positive integer, then [a, a] = a = (a, a). J

(e) For every positive integer n, the number system Zn always contains nonzero zero divisors.

I Solution. False. If n is a prime, then every nonzero element of Zn is invertible, and

hence not a zero divisor. J

(f) Every nonempty set of positive integers contains a largest element.

I Solution. False. The set of all positive integers does not have a largest element. J

7. Express 24 and 102 a products of primes and use this information to calculate (12, 102) and
[12, 102].

I Solution. 24 = 8 · 3 = 23 · 3 and 102 = 2 · 3 · 17. Then (12, 102) = 2 · 3 = 6 and

[12, 102] = 22 · 3 · 17 = 204. J

8. How many elements does G8 = Z∗8 contain? List them.

I Solution. G8 − {[1]8 , [3]8 , [5]8 , [7]8 } so G8 has 4 elements. J

9. Determine all x ∈ Z that solve the linear congruence

6x ≡ 9 mod 15.

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

I Solution. If we divide the congruence by 3, we conclude that 6x ≡ 9 mod 15 is equivalent

to the congruence 2x ≡ 3 mod 5. But [2]−1 2
5 = [3]5 and [3 ]5 = [4]5 , so multiplying this last
congruence by [3]5 gives a congruence x ≡ 4 mod 5. Hence the solutions of the original
congruence are all integers of the form x = 4 + 5k for k ∈ Z. J

10. (a) Find the greatest common divisor d = (803, 154) of 803 and 154, using the Euclidean
Algorithm.

I Solution. Use the matrix method illustrated on Page 14.

· ¸ · ¸ · ¸
1 0 803 Ã 1 −5 33 4 1 −5 33
0 1 154 5 0 1 154 Ã −4 21 22
· ¸ · ¸
à 5 −26 11 2 5 −26 11
1 −4 21 22 Ã −14 73 0

Hence (803, 154) = 11. J

(b) Write d = (803, 154) in the form d = s · 803 + t · 154.

I Solution. From the top row of the last matrix in Part (a), it follows that

5 · 803 − 26 · 154 = 11.

(c) Find the least common multiple [803, 154].

I Solution.
803 · 154 123662
[803, 154] = = = 11242.
(803, 154) 11
J

11. Solve the system of congruences:

x ≡ 5 (mod 25)
x ≡ 23 (mod 32).

I Solution. Use the Euclidean algorithm to write 9 · 25 − 7 · 32 = 1. Then x = 9 · 25 · 23 −

7 · 32 · 5 = 4055 modulo 25 · 32 = 800. Reducing modulo 800 gives x = 55 modulo 800. Thus
all solutions of the simultaneous congruences are x = 55 + 800k for k ∈ Z. J

12. Solve the system of congruences:

5x ≡ 14 (mod 17)
3x ≡ 2 (mod 13).

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

I Solution. First note that [5]−117 = [7]17 since 5 · 7 = 35 = 1 + 2 · 17 and [7]17 [14]17 =
[98]17 = [13]17 , so the congruence 5x ≡ 14 (mod 17) can be multiplied by [7]17 to get an
equivalent congruence x ≡ 13 (mod 17). Similarly, the second congruence can be multiplied
by [3]−1
13 = [9]17 to give an equivalent congruence x ≡ 5 (mod 13). Hence, we need to solve
the equivalent system:

x ≡ 13 (mod 17)
x ≡ 5 (mod 13).

Use the Euclidean algorithm to write 4 · 13 − 3 · 17 = 1. Then the solution of the system of
congruences is x = 13 · 4 · 13 − 5 · 3 · 17 = 421 modulo 13 · 17 = 221. Hence all of the solutions
are of the form x = 200 + 221k for some k ∈ Z. J

13. Give an example of integers a, b, m, n such that the system of congruences

x ≡ a (mod m)
x ≡ b (mod n)

has no solution.

I Solution. One example is

x ≡ 1 (mod 2)
x ≡ 0 (mod 2)

14. (a) Compute 597 mod 127.

I Solution. First write the exponent 97 in binary form as a sum of powers of 2:

97 = 64 + 32 + 1.

Then compute the binary powers of 5 by successive squaring:

51 = 1
52 = 25
54 = (52 )2 = 625 ≡ 117 ≡ −10 mod 127
58 ≡ (54 )2 ≡ (−10)2 ≡ 100 ≡ −27 mod 127
516 ≡ (58 )2 ≡ (−27)2 ≡ 94 ≡ −33 mod 127
532 ≡ (516 )2 ≡ (−33)2 ≡ 1089 ≡ 73 mod 127
64 32 2 2
5 ≡ (5 ) ≡ 73 ≡ 122 ≡ −5 mod 127.

Then
597 = 564+32+1 = 564 532 51 ≡ (−5) · 73 · 5 ≡ −1825 ≡ 80 mod 127.
J

(b) Compute 4126 mod 127.

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Exam I Review Sheet Solutions Math 4023

I Solution. Since 127 is prime and 127 does not divide 4, Fermat’s theorem applies to
give 4126 ≡ 1 mod 127. J

(c) Compute 463 mod 127.

I Solution. Since 44 = 28 = 256 ≡ 2 mod 127, it follows that

47 = 44 · 43 ≡ 2 · 64 = 128 ≡ 1 mod 127.

Hence
463 = (47 )9 ≡ 1 mod 127.
J

15. Compute the Euler phi function ϕ(n) for each of the following natural numbers n.

(a) n = 221

I Solution. n = 221 = 13 · 17 so ϕ(221) = 12 · 16 = 192. J

(b) n = 6125

I Solution. n = 6125 = 53 · 72 so ϕ(6125) = (125 − 25) · (49 − 7) = 4200. J

(c) n = 341

I Solution. n = 341 = 11 · 31 so ϕ(341) = 10 · 30 = 300. J

(d) n = 6860

I Solution. n = 6860 = 22 · 5 · 73 so ϕ(6860) = (22 − 2) · 4 · (73 − 7) = 5376. J

16. Let p = 29 and q = 31 so that n = pq = 899, and let e = 101 in the RSA algorithm.

(a) Compute d so that ed ≡ 1 mod ϕ(899).

I Solution. Use the Euclidean algorithm to compute that d = 341. J

(b) If M = 555, compute N = M e mod 899 and compute N d mod 899.

I Solution. Use the method in Exercise 1 to get 555101 mod 899 = 731 and 731341
mod 899 = 555. J