Pira International LTD - Developments in Printing Technology-Ismithers Rapra Publishing (2012!02!21)

Developments in Printing Technology
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© Copyright
Pira International Ltd 2006
ISBN: 1 85802 532 X
Head of publications and events

Philip Swinden
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Publisher
Rav Lally
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Head of editorial
Adam Page
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Contents
Executive summary vii Gravure 55
1
Silk-screen printing 63
Alternative imaging methods 68
Printing machines 68
Screen ink drying 71
Hybrid printing 71
Introduction 1
Hot and cold foiling
Report objective 1
Scope 1 Diecutting 72
RFID and specialist tags 72
Methodology 1
Die-stamping 73
Definitions 1
Thermography 74
Lithography/offset printing 1
Digital printing 75
Screen printing 1
Digitisation 77
Intaglio 1
Context of digital printing 78
Flexography 2
Technology in digital printing Buyer’s
Letterpress 2
checklist for investment in digital printing
Digital printing 2
85
2
Printing industry overview 3
Challenges 5
Digital print considerations 89
On-press imaging 90
Printer duplicators 95
Variable data printing technologies 95
Potential developments in toner-based
laser printin 103
3
Inkjet printing systems 105
Novel printing systems 112
Printing processes 7
Print process recognition 7
Offset lithography 7
Flexography 8
4
End-use sector developments 117
End-use in industrial printing 117
Gravure 9 Packaging 117
Screen printing 9 Labels 118
Electrophotographic (laser) printing 10 Textiles 120
Inkjet printing 11 Office stationary 121
Die-stamping 12 RFID and barcodes 121
Thermographic printing 12 End-uses in publishing 121
Introduction to printing processes 13 Newspapers 121
Traditional printing methods 14 Magazines and catalogues 122
Offset lithography 15 Directories 123
Letterpress 35 Printed advertisements 123
Flexography 38 Books 123
Envelope machine production 54
Page iii © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Developments in Specialty Papers
Contents
5
Printing forecasts to 2016 125
Future impact on print processes 128
6
Regulations and legislations 149
Environmental issues related to
Sheet-fed offset 128 printing 149
Web offset 129 Volatile organic chemicals (VOC) 149
Flexography 130 Printing waste 149
Gravure 132 Regulatory framework 150
Digital 133 Clean Air Act 150
Future customer interface 135 Clean Water Act 151
Future for commercial print Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
businesses 138 (RCRA) 151
Market issues to 2016 140 RoHS directive for printing
Leakage of commercial print 140 processes 152
New opportunities for printers 143 Emerging standards in the printing
Print technology suppliers 144 industry 158
Inks, coatings and colourants 146
Page iv © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

List of tables
E.1 Global split of print processes x 5.2 Technology adoption roadmap for
2.1 Comparison of major print sheet-fed offset 128
processes 3 5.3 Technology adoption roadmap for
2.2 Different printing processes and their heatset offset 129
applications 5 5.4 Technology adoption roadmap for
2.3 Challenges influencing printing flexo 130
industry 6 5.5 Technology adoption roadmap for
3.1 Global split of print processes gravure 132
3.2 Mesh grades 5.6 Technology adoption roadmap for
3.3 The mesh count and grade for typical digital 134
applications 6.1 Clasiification of printing wastes 149
3.4 Timeline in the development of 6.2 Maximum emission limit values for
digital printing printing processes 153
3.5 Split of print processes across Europe, 6.3 Time period for submission of
1999–2009 emission reduction plan 157
3.6 Criteria to consider in an investment 6.4 Multiplication factors for different
decision printing processes 157
4.1 Various printing processes for label 6.5 Technical CGATS standards 159
printing 118 6.6 ISO safety standards 160
5.1 Printed products and processes 6.7 ISO technical standards
across Europe, 2004–09 126 digital 161
Page v © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

List of Figures
3.1 Illustration of the characteristics 3.26 Automatic plate loading on a

obtained when printing from an Heidelberg Sunday press (now
offset and planographic plate 7 goss) 34
3.2 Flexographic print characteristics 8 3.27 The three principles of letterpress
3.3 Gravure print characteristics 9 printing 36
3.4 Screen print characteristics 10 3.28 Schematic of a reel-fed rotary
3.5 Xeikon print characteristics 11 letterpress label machine 37
3.6 HP Indigo print characteristics 11 3.29 Offset letterpress for container
3.7 Inkjet print characteristics 12 printing 37
3.8 Physical profiles of image carriers 15 3.30 The stages in conventional
3.9 The application of ink and water photopolymer plate production 41
differentiates between image and 3.31 A six-colour web-fed stack press 43
non-image areas 15 3.32 Flexo stock press 44
3.10 Negative- and positive-working 3.33 The arrangement of the print units
plates 19 on a common impression cylinder
3.11 The offset litho press 21 press 45
3.12 The ink wash up system on a 3.34 The arrangement of the print units
sheetfed offset press 22 on an inline press 45
3.13 A small offset sheetfed press 23 3.35 Controlling the inking system in
3.14 Situations in which tracking flexographic process with a doctor
problems can occur 24 blade or a chambered ink system 48
3.15 A ten unit sheetfed offset press 25 3.36 Relative ink volumes transferred from
3.16 Heidelberg Speedmaster 102 anilox rollers by CO2 and YAG lasers
perfecting unit 25 at varying screen rulings 50
3.17 A multi-unit sheetfed offset press 3.37 Dichroic reflector system for UV
with inline coating and drying curing 53
units 26 3.38 Schematic of automatic ink
3.18 Heidelberg Quickmaster DI, showing dispensing system 54
the four printing cylinders sharing a 3.39 Modern 4.3m publication gravure
common impression cylinder 27 press 55
3.19 KBA Compact heatset weboffset 3.40 Tonal gradation on a gravure image
pressline 27 carrier 57
3.20 An example of a coldset web 3.41 An image carrier produced by
newspaper press 28 chemical etching – the cells differ in
3.21 Alternative arrangements of cylinders area 57
in banket-to-blanket web presses 29 3.42 The basic principle of the
3.22 A typical heatset web press 30 electromechanical engraving
3.23 Short-grain and long-grain web press method 58
formats 31 3.43 Electromechanical cylinder engraving
3.24 Detail of MAN Roland double folder with analysing drum 59
former 32 3.44 Principle of the gravure printing
3.25 Schematics showing a ribbon folder unit 60
and a former folder 33
Page vi © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

List of figures
3.45 Schematic of a gravure publication 3.64 Schematic showing development of

press 62 image transfer in colour toner
3.46 The principle of screen printing 63 laser 98
3.47 Three grades of mesh, all with the 3.65 Schematic showing paperpath
same thread count 65 through base unit of the Digimaster
3.48 Two photo-stencil making processes: E 99
indirect and direct 67 3.66 Schematic of the Xeikon 5000
3.49 A flatbed hinged frame 68 press 100
3.50 A flatbed vertical lift machine 69 3.67 Schematic of the Xerox DocuColour
3.51 A cylinder-bed press 70 7/8000 range 101
3.52 A rotary screen press 70 3.68 Schematic of the Xerox DocuColour
3.53 Agfa Thieme/M-press 73 iGen3 press 101
3.54 Processes involved in conventional 3.69 Kodak Nexpress 2100 102
and digital printing 76 3.70 Schematic of the HP Indigo printing
3.55 Collation capabilities of digital mechanism 104
printing systems 81 3.71 Schematic of single nozzle
3.56 Typical prepress workflow for digital continuous jet inkjet printing 106
printing 84 3.72 Schematic showing array of inkjet
3.57 Schematic of different types of heads 107
digital printing 85 3.73 Comparison of binary and greyscale
3.58 Technology map showing relative inkjet printing 109
positions of digital printing 3.74 Comparison of M-Class and Galaxy
processes 86 heads 111
3.59 Mechanism of laser ablation for 3.75 Spectra Inc. grouped heads 111
on-press plate imaging 91 3.76 Direct electron beam imaging engine
3.60 TruePress plate exposure from Delphax 112
technolog 92 3.77 Schematic of the indirect belt
3.61 Schematic of the DICOweb imaging transfer system of electron beam
process 94 imaging 113
3.62 Schematic of the Karat24press 95 3.78 Schematic of the magnetography
3.63 Schematic showing the mechanism printing process 114
of laser printing 97 3.79 Schematic of the Elcography
system 116
Page vii © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Executive summary
This report provides an overview of the printing market, technologies and processes with
analysis of end-use developments.
Printing industry Various technological innovations are driving the growth of the printing industry. Due to
overview innovations in printing processes, printing inks and substrates traditional printing
processes like flexography, screen, letterpress and lithography are finding various new
application areas. However, in the near future, digital printing is set to capture the
printing volume of other printing processes.
Printing processes 䊳 Flexographic printing makes use of a resilient relief plate and fluid inks. The relief
surface produces a squash effect like letterpress, but the halo at the edges of type
and on halftone dots is less sharply defined than in letterpress.
䊳 The gravure printing image is recessed from the non-printing surface, an intaglio
process. In conventional gravure, the image is composed of a large number of small
cells, the surface areas of which are similar and square in shape.
䊳 The screen process uses a stencil image formed within a screen mesh.
Medium-viscosity ink is forced through the mesh, in open image areas of the stencil,
onto the substrate or container by the action of a squeegee.
䊳 Electrophotographic (laser) printing uses a photoconductive surface that collects finely
divided pigment particles and transfers them to paper by electrostatic means, and
then fixes the powder image to the paper by heating.
䊳 Inkjet printing creates images by the controlled placement of small droplets of ink.
With low-resolution systems, this will be apparent in the printing of alphanumeric
characters as a coarse matrix of spots. The matrix may not be apparent with
higher-resolution binary systems, but the spots should be visible under magnification
and the edges of characters will be quite ragged.
䊳 Die-stamping is an intaglio process using an engraved female die and a male
impression surface. The female die is charged with ink and the surplus removed from
the non-printing areas by wiping with a cloth or paper.
䊳 Thermography is a printing process using slow-drying ink and powdered resin. The
printed image (usually lithography) is dusted with the resin and passed through a
heating chamber.
Page ix © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Executive summary
TABLE E.1 Global split of print processes

2000 2005 2010
Sheet-fed 19.9% 19.6% 19.6%
Coldset 14.7% 13.3% 12.1%
Heatset 18.1% 17.3% 16.1%
All offset 52.6% 50.2% 47.7%
Gravure 13.5% 12.6% 11.1%
Flexo 20.3% 20.4% 19.8%
Screen 3.9% 2.8% 2.4%
Letterpress 2.1% 1.6% 1.2%
Digital 5.6% 10.5% 15.5%
Other 3.0% 1.8% 2.2%
Source: Pira International Ltd
End-use sector 䊳 Package printing is dominated by flexography and gravure printing processes. These
development processes are better known for their ability of high speed and large volume packaging
printing applications, which is used to produce large quantities of packaging for
consumer and other commercial products.
䊳 The label forms an essential part of product and product packaging. Labels are known
to enhance the marketing appeal of a product or business, which puts the spot light
on the right process for label printing. There are various printing processes used for
label printing such as thermal transfer, flexography, direct thermal, inkjet printing,
laser printing, screen printing, offset printing, die sublimation, engraving and hot
stamp printing.
䊳 Textile printing involves the affixation of a predetermined coloured pattern on a
fabric, which usually has a definite repeat. It is a localised dyeing form of sorts, in
which colour is applied to select fabric areas in order to build the design.
䊳 As a short-run process, digital printing is the most appropriate printing process for
office stationery. It is used to print letterheads, notepads, envelopes, official and legal
documents.
䊳 Printed electronics involves the modification of existing forms of flat bed, inkjet and
rotary printing. The conventional skills are needed to be able to have omnipresent
electronics in our clothing, packaging, books medical treatment and a lot more. The
evolution of printed electronics will throw the silicon chip as well as the discrete
components and wires attached to it.
䊳 The offset printing process is conventionally used for newspaper printing. In
newspaper offset printing presses printing units are arranged vertically instead
horizontally as in case of simple offset printing press. The main purpose behind this is
to conserve the floor space for vast amount of pages to be printed. In this type of
printing process the whole newspaper is printed in one pass.
䊳 Generally, two four-coloured units are assembled in a single press, which ensures
printing on both sides of the web. This is very suitable for printing of commercial
publications like directories as it can print wide web substrate on both the sides at
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Executive summary
single printing operation.

䊳 Since the era of the poster, the technological advances in printing have enabled
printed advertisements in magazines, newspapers, billboards as well as posters to play
a larger role in mass communications as widely distributed art images.
䊳 Books are printed using offset printing process as it is ideal for printing both text and
illustrations in short to medium length runs of up to 1,000,000 impressions. Offset
printing prints both the sides of the substrate at a single pass.
Printing regulations As the printing industry is growing extensively through different application, a global
concern for environmental protection is emerging. This, and social pressures from several
federal bodies like EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) have caused the development
of regulations designed to control the hazardous effects of printing waste in the
environment. These are summarised in Chapter 6.
Page xi © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Introduction
1
Report objective The objective of this report is to provide detailed analysis of the different technological
developments in printing industry and the related environmental regulations in the
context of raw materials and various other substances used in printing industry all across
the globe.
This report offers the reader an update of printing advances and current printing
practices used.
Scope This report covers advances and developments in printing technology including processes,
applications and legislation.
Methodology This report is based on material researched and published by Pira International Ltd.
Additional secondary research has been carried out into new trends and developments in
the printing industry.
Definitions The main terms, processes and jargon used in this report are defined in this section.
Lithography/offset Lithography, also known as offset printing, is a method of mass production where ink is
printing applied to a metal printing plate. The images on metal plates are transferred to rubber
blankets and eventually to the print substrate. The print media is typically not in direct
contact with the metal plates, which increases the life of these metal plates. Due to the
flexibility of the rubber, it adjusts easily to the print media surface which enables this
process to be effectively incorporated even on rough media surfaces such as canvas, cloth
or wood.
Offset printing is the most common type of printing process and is widely used in
various industries. Although offset printing machines are expensive with high set up cost,
it provides high quality printing at a nominal cost with large volume. This is the most
popular type of printing used to print calendars, books, documents and newspapers.
Screen printing In screen printing the image is carried on a stretched screen of fabric or fine mesh wire.
Ink is deposited on the screen and forced through the image areas by a squeegee onto
the substrate below. The nonprinting areas on the silk screen are blocked out, and the ink
is pushed through the porous areas corresponding to the design.
This process is widely used for posters and for printing on glass, plastics, and textured
surfaces.
Screen printing is also known as silk screen printing. It is a versatile printing process.
A significant characteristic of screen-printing is the application of greater thickness of the
ink to the substrate, which creates very interesting effects, some of which are not possible
with other printing processes.
Intaglio Intaglio printing methods consist of a process where the area of the image which is to be
printed is buried into the surface of the printing plate. This notched image can then be
Page 1 © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Introduction
etched or engraved with chemicals and tools. Currently used for the printing of US paper
currency as well as for alternate fine art printmaking. Some of the other forms of printing
which incorporate the intaglio process are engraving and gravure.
In gravure intaglio printing, tone is produced by varying the thickness of the ink of
the printing surface through depressions of varying depth; minute points constitute the
clean surface that keeps the paper from being pressed into the depressions. In
photogravure, the gravure plate is made by a photographic process.
Flexography Flexography is a printing method which is used for printing on packaging and other
uneven surfaces. The plates used in this process are often made of rubber or flexible
plastic, which enable the inked surface to conform to various substrates. The inks are
distinct as opposed to those used on lithography, and generally have low viscosity similar
to those used in gravure. This quality ensures that both processes are quick drying which
enables relatively high speeds of production for both the techniques. Flexography is a
major printing technique used to on various substrates such as corrugated boards, paper
sacks, folding cartons and plastic bags.
Letterpress The letterpress is a form of relief printing in which ink is applied to the raised sections or
a metal or hard plastic plate. This plate is then pressed against the substrate. This enables
a reproduction of the image in the reverse. Normally the plate is a metal but alternate
materials like carved wood or stone blocks can also be used. Letterpress printing is used
for newspapers, books, business cards, posters, letterhead, billheads, forms and posters.
Digital printing The process of digital printing involves the transferring a document onto a digital storage
device, which accepts both text and graphic output. The information is converted to binary
code in order to enable storage as well as reproduction. Digital printing has in various
market segments replaced alternate printing processes such as lithography. It prints with
toners and special inks, which are capable of variable data printing.
Digital printing process comprises of two major types of processes, inkjet printing and
electrophotography.
䊳 The inkjet printing process involves spraying tiny droplets of liquid ink onto paper.
These are placed with precision enabling almost photo-quality images. Thermal
bubble and piezoelectric are two of the key inkjet technologies.
䊳 Electrophotography printing technology is employed in photocopiers, new generation
digital colour printers and laser printers. Electrophotography works on a principle of
producing an image by causing light to affect the electrostatic charge distribution on
a photoconductive surface. This electrostatic charge attracts the toner and then
transferred to the paper. The toner is then fixed on paper and forms the final image.

Printing industry overview
2
The printing industry has witnessed transition since the mid-1990s with a particular focus
on analogue printing moving to digital workflows where content is received and processed
in electronic form. The printing industry comprises of six major types of printing processes.
These processes are used for different printing applications. Various improvements in these
processes have contributed to the better quality print and faster printing processes.
The six major types of printing processes are:
䊳 Offset
䊳 Gravure
䊳 Flexography
䊳 Screen
䊳 Letterpress
䊳 Digital.
Table 2.1 provides an overview of flexo, litho, gravure and digital printing processes.
TABLE 2.1 Comparison between major print processes

Flexo Litho Gravure Digital
Run lengths from a few hundred Used for runs between one copy Generally longest runs for Generally low run lengths,
to many hundred thousand. to millions of copies publication work, from 200,000 personalised to low thousands.
With care plate cylinders may to 5m+. With packaging regular Inkjet and web mono work for
be reused many times with just reprints of short runs are longer runs
parts of the plate replaced cost-effective
Variable cut-off available by Heatset web has fixed cut-off Cylinders can be replaced to Totally variable print depth on web
changing cylinders and plate gap so may waste provide low paper waste with no machines allowing efficient use of
paper. Stationery presses can plate gap material and ability to produce very
swap cylinder to provide variable long posters
depth for forms. Sheetfed has
many paper and board sizes
allowing best use of material
Stack press registration Excellent multi-colour Excellent multi-colour Electrophotography provides good
capability is limited, better from registration registration. Wet on dry registration, some front to back
common impression overprinting issues with colour duplexing that
involves drying out the sheet
between imaging
Specialist prepress required for Much software development for Digital workflows have been Straightforward to produce
well trapped files. Care when optimising production and used for many years for optimised press-ready files for
handling close or butt registered quality. CTP provides high-quality
standard publications with variable data and on-press imaging
jobs. For packaging the thickness plates, with data to aid press analogue engraving. Laser
of the plate has to be taken into set-up and make-ready engraving now speeds up cylinder
account preparation even more
Plate material is expensive, some Low cost plates produced via CTP High cost of cylinder preparation Effectively no specific prepress costs
applications just place portions very quickly after preparation of file for printing,
of plates onto cylinders to reduce little make-ready required. On-line
cost. Plate processing is lengthy finishing allows single-pass
with drying of plates production of saleable material

TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

Flexo Litho Gravure Digital
Relief plates result in image Clear, crisp text and dots from Very good tonal colour Limited range of formats and spot
squash planographic process. Doubling reproduction with variable colours on high-quality toner
and slurring are rectifiable faults colour depth. May be some systems, text and linework may be
haloing of dots and type jagged on lower resolution devices
and inkjet
Limited resolution of halftone High-frequency screens (+175lpi) Limits on mechanical cylinder Commercial inkjet is limited in
screen, frequency 80–120lpi, show no patterning. FM engraving but no noticeable resolution, toner-based systems
results in noticeable dot screening eliminates moiré artefacts provide excellent results
patterning in images patterning
Minimum dot size provides Full tonal range is achievable Wide tonal range available across Excellent tonal range available from
limited quality in highlight lower quality papers modern colour devices
reproduction and filling in
shadows
Matt result, use Pantone U Ink system can give high gloss Reasonable gloss levels, spot Toner-based systems provide non-
colours (uncoated) with a sealer or overprint varnish, colours either Pantone U or C planographic result with variable
can match cleaner Pantone C gloss according to coverage. Wide
(coated) colours colour gamut allows reasonable
spot colour matching but few real
spot colours available except for
inkjet
Six-colour machines very common Sheetfed machines with 12 units Publication machines are Most digital is mono and process
for multi-colour work are common, five-colour web four-colour process, for colour, inkjet offers pigmented spot
offset machines are available packaging multiple spot colours colour
but most heatset is four-colour are common
process
Water-based inks may result in Few problems of paper expansion Very stable paper stock, liquid Inkjet with water-based inks may
paper expansion during printing; shrinkage during inks do not cause expansion lead to paper expansion, marking
drying that will cause rippling and strikethrough
when the print absorbs moisture
from the atmosphere unless
remoisteners are used
Limited colour saturation of inks Denser inks available than for Widest range of density Wide colour gamut available from
flexo available from gravure inks inkjet, toner-based systems very
close to litho. HP Indigo devices
provide spot colour mixing systems
Plate wear and damage can Plate wear is rare and occurs With good handling gravure Imaging drums and transfer
happen at any time, the printer very gradually, replacement cylinders are very hardwearing blankets are delicate and regular
must carefully monitor image plates are cheap and quick to and can be re-used many times replacement is necessary
through the run produce in applications such as long-run
packaging or wallpaper
Ink properties vary through the Ink more consistent, care to Some viscosity adjustments are Very consistent colour throughout
run, will require viscosity avoid piling is necessary, made automatically on the run the run and across the sheet
monitoring and adjustment automatic washing alleviates this
Plate plugging may cause Piling may cause problems Dot skip may be a problem Toner drum marking and inkjet
problems clogging nozzle
Many machines are integrated Web-fed machines have folders, Publication gravure presses have Folding, slitting and stitching
into conversion lines for some finishing options of finishing in the folder, stitching, available on many machines both
envelopes, extrusion for flexible stitching and gluing gluing and with electrostatic sheetfed and web
and barrier packaging, cartons charge to aid flat folding

2
Applications for various printing processes are summarised in Table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2 Different printing processes and their applications

Printing process Applications
Offset Offset is the most common type of printing used in printing of calendar, books, newspaper and business documents.
Gravure Gravure printing is widely used for printing of labels, flexible packaging, cartoning, greeting cards, advertising
campaigns and magazines.
Flexography Flexography is used to print packaging material like corrugated boxes, folding cartons, paper and plastic bags, milk
cartons, adhesive tapes, envelopes, newspapers, containers, food and candy wrappers.
Screen Screen is used for printing on a wide variety of materials including textiles, ceramic, metal, wood, paper, and glass. Its
better quality enables it to be used in various industries from clothing to circuit board printing.
Letterpress Letterpress is widely used to print high quality adhesive labels. Other printing applications include business cards,
letterhead, forms, posters, embossing and billheads.
Digital Digital is used for printing of booklets, journals, brochure, credit card and graphic attachments. It is particularly good
for short-run printing.
Various technological innovations are driving the growth of the printing industry. Due to
innovations in printing processes, printing inks and substrates traditional printing
processes like flexography, screen, letterpress and lithography are finding various new
application areas. However, in the near future, digital printing is set to capture the
printing volume of other printing processes.
Digital printing is undergoing several technological advancements in terms of its
printing heads and printing inks. This is proving digital printing as a cost effective printing
solution. Today, digital printing is used in most of the printing applications. Since, digital
printing does not require any plate or make ready plate preparation for printing, it is the
most convenient and much faster type of printing.
The main printing technologies use solvent-based inks for printing. These inks result in
environmental hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs). For this reason, the
emphasis is shifting from solvent-based inks to waterless ink systems such as ultraviolet
(UV) and electron beam (EB) printing.
As ultraviolet and electron beam curable inks do not contain any VOC liquid as their
constituent, they are classified as an environmentally-friendly printing solution or
technology. The global concern for environmental safety and hence the resultant social
pressure have made the printing industry think about and adopt environmentally-friendly
printing solutions.
Challenges The growing global printing industry is facing challenges which are summarised in Table
2.3.

TABLE 2.3 Challenges influencing the printing industry

Trends/challenges faced by printing industry Description
Fluctuating paper cost Paper is the biggest individual manufacturing cost amounting to 25% of total
revenue. Paper prices are increasing more than the average. According to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), producer prices grew by almost 3% for paper, pulp
and allied products since 2005. Environmental issues in paper manufacturing may
increase paper prices. Increased paper prices do not affect the profits of printing
units since they tend to pass this increase to the consumer.
Dependence on various business activities Since advertising is the mainstay of commercial printing, its volume is affected by
the advertising industry. Financial printing has also grown rapidly in past decade.
Both advertising and financial printing activity are largely affected by the
economy.
Electronic media Due to the distribution of information via electronic medium such as the internet,
the demand for printed materials has reduced. Today, company annual reports and
prospectuses are available on the internet and various documents are available in
electronic version only.
Competition from in-house printing Today, many corporations and small businesses carry out laser and colour printing
jobs that were initially handled by commercial printers. These companies produce
their own documents using high volume printers. As per the Association of
Suppliers of Printing and Publishing Industries (NPES) estimate, the use of desktop
colour printers will grow by 10% annually.
Low entry barriers Different technological simplifications in modern printing presses require less
operating expertise than the older presses. This has lowered the entry barrier to the
printing industry.
Increasing ink prices Ink prices are influenced by fluctuation in oil and resin prices. According to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, producer price for ink has increased over 4% in the past
year (March 2005 to March 2006).

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End-use sector developments
4
Each printing process has a different set of applications in various fields. The type of ink
used, printing plates used depends upon the type of printing application. This chapter
elaborates on different applications of printing processes used in the printing industry
today.
End-use in industrial The section provides an overview of the printing industry by end-use.
printing Package printing is dominated by gravure and flexo printing processes. These processes
Packaging are able to print at high speed and produce large volumes. Digital printing for packaging
is an interesting development and is expected to grow as packaged goods companies
implement supply-chain approaches (shorter runs) and more customised brands to suit
geography or demographics. Whilst digital printing for packaging is unlikely to take over
from flexography and gravure printing, it is a good printing process for short and medium
run printing operations.
Packaging applications requiring regular reprints usually opt for gravure for its
superior quality. It is usually used for long runs as cylinder engraving is more expensive
than offset plate production. Though widely used in eastern Europe, the market for
gravure is expected to fall in western Europe as it competes with developments in offset
and digital technology. Standing cylinders are used in gravure, making it very effective for
reprints. Advancements in gravure processes are being worked upon by printers in
developed markets.
Nearly 80% of flexo is used for packaging applications, as part of the overall
conversion of corrugated and flexible packaging and labels manufacture. Flexography is
the most favoured method in the printing for packaging industry. This simple process suits
different substrates from thin plastics to thick rigid board, making it more economical than
offset and gravure. Flexo print units have a clear-cut system giving fast make-readies and
low running waste, and they are easily integrated into complex conversion lines. There
have been noteworthy advancements in quality and productivity facilitated by new
developments in technology.
Flexography is used to print corrugated containers, wrappers of candy and food, milk
and beverage carton, plastic bags, cups and containers. With cost reductions and
improved technologies, more suppliers are entering the plate technology market.
Flexography is simple to operate and it uses water-based ink for printing applications. The
use of water-based ink reduces the emission of volatile organic chemicals to large extent
meaning that there are environmental benefits.
Offset printing is commonly used in the printing for packaging sector. With new
developments in digital and flexo printing, offset’s market share is likely to dip. In order to
compete with digital technology, printers are effecting changes in costing mechanisms for
better price offers. The implementation of digital workflows for most jobs in the West, and
increasingly in the East, have led to prepress control developments which have been
beneficial for offset technology development. Press-ready plates now show better quality
with reduced costs. Automated plate loading has made shorter runs economical while

reducing set-up time and waste.

Digital printing has become an essential constituent and one of the significant new
technologies in the printed packaging market. It has altered the nature of the industry
since the early 1990s. The success of digital printing is attributed to its high-quality print
for very short runs at economic prices and the provision of customised and personalised
print.
Until recently, majority of packaging materials were printed with simple graphics
because better quality options were too expensive for short run printing. Inkjet printing
now provides a variety of colours and opportunities for better graphics. It is possible to
modify the look of a package to complement the geographic location, languages and
other demographics. Digital printing helps to easily target-market the product and also
offers print on demand, which means the package can be produced only when needed.
Labels The label forms an essential part of product and product packaging. Labels are known to
enhance the marketing appeal of a product or business, which puts the spot light on the
right process for label printing. The various printing processes emphasise the different
specialities that enhance the overall look of the label.
Table 4.1 summarises the print processes used for labels.
TABLE 4.1 Various printing processes for label printing

Print method Print on-site Outdoor durable Low cost Colours available Chemical resistance
Thermal transfers Yes Yes Yes Sometimes Fair
Flexography No Limited Yes Yes Fair
Direct thermal Yes No Yes Rarely Poor
Inkjet printing Yes No No Yes Poor
Laser printing Yes Yes Yes No Fair
Screen printing No Yes No Yes Good
Offset printing No No Yes Yes Poor
Die Sublimation Yes No Yes Yes Poor
Engraving Yes Yes Yes 2 colours Fair
Source: Polyonics
Thermal transfer In the thermal transfer process, heat is made use of to transfer a resin/wax based ink
from a ribbon coated on one side to a blank label stock. Resin ribbons are known to be
durable, however wax ribbons are not recommended in applications which involve
abrasion or prolonged chemical exposure. A number of tags signs and barcode labels are
printed with thermal transfer printers.
Flexography Flexography is an ideal printing process for printing of labels as it uses water based ink
provides good quality printing impressions. Adoption of water-based ink reduces the
hazardous environmental emission due to evaporation. Improvements in flexo output
quality standards combined with increased flexibility, allowing the incorporation of in-line
hybrid processes, has attracted the interest of many printers who were previously

4
somewhat sceptical as to the benefits of flexo.
Direct thermal In this process, the printer functions like a thermal transfer printer, selectively heating a
coated plastic/paper label stock with resistive pins to form a pattern. The base films have
a distinctly coated surface that becomes dark when exposed to high heat. While bar
coded labels play the role of tracking luggage, UPS shipping labels are often printed with
an indirect thermal printer.
Inkjet printing In inkjet printing a stream of ink is released onto the substrate. Specific inkjet labels have
been designed so that the ink is easily absorbed by the paper and does not smudge. This
is a cost effective label printing process.
Laser printing The most advanced laser printers for labels provide a straight paper path so that a large
number of pages or heavy media will not get stuck in the printer or crinkle during
printing. The black toner of the laser printer is protected with over-laminates that possess
exceptional durability.
Screen printing Screen printing is a versatile printing process and can be used for labels including in-
mould designs, web-fed labels and flat-bed labels. The sheet-fed label sector is also
generally positive for silk screen printing, often used in conjunction with other
technologies in hybrid conversion and print lines
Offset printing Whilst there is some limited use of offset for pressure sensitive labels, the vast majority of
its use is to be found in the wet glue sector. On a global basis, offset is the dominant
print process used in the label market. Whilst this dominance has been challenged by
both flexo and digital processes, press suppliers have responded energetically with the
introduction of computer-aided systems that enable shorter make-ready times and, in turn,
allow for shorter run lengths at more economic rates than before.
Dye sublimation Dye sublimation is useful for printing short-run custom design labels on mouse pads, T-
shirts and promotional mugs.
Engraving The engraving technique is used to print the labels on office nameplates, trophies and
awards. In this technique, a rotating diamond-tipped tool scratches lettering into metal or
plastic.
Hot stamp printing Labels printed with hot stamp printing are generally high quality, with opaque and bright
colours, holograms, metallic mirrors and other special effect prints. Hot stamp printing is
one of the preferred methods to print labels with special effects.

Textiles Textile printing involves the affixation of a predetermined coloured pattern on a fabric. It
is a localised dyeing form of sorts, in which colour is applied to select fabric areas in order
to build the design. Print processes used on textiles include screen printing and digital
printing.
Screen printing, which involves the application of the printing paste through a fine
screen which is placed in contact with the fabric. The design is created in reverse on a
screen by blocking areas of the screen with a material like opaque paint. The screen is
eventually placed over the fabric that needs to be printed upon and the paste is forced
through the open areas of the screen, with the incorporation of a flexible synthetic rubber
or steel blade which is known as a squeegee.
Completely automated screen printing techniques involve the continuous rotation of a
cylindrical screen which is kept in contact with the fabric and which ensures constant
movement of the fabric through the machine. While the screen rotates, the printing paste
is forced through the open areas of the screen, with the stationary squeegee.
Rotary screen printing is made up of a series of revolving screens, each present with
stationary squeegee inside, compelling the print paste into the fabric. This enables the
simultaneous printing of more than 20 colours. This process is quicker and more efficient
than flat screen printing and has grown since its inception in the 1970s to play a
dominant role in the textile printing market.
Until recently, the majority of printed textile fabric was printed using screen printing.
Now however, the trend is shifting from screen printing to digital printing of textiles.
Digital printing provides simplicity and ease of use for textile printing. Digital printing has
undergone various innovations in recent period. Inkjet printing is the most preferred type
of printing in commercial applications. Different technological innovations in printing
heads of inkjet printing have made this possible.
Jet printing is a process in which the desired pattern with its individual colours is built
up by projecting miniscule droplets of ink of different colours, in pixels onto the substrate
surface. Since most inkjet printers were originally designed for paper printing, the
technical specifications are more related to those which are used in the reprographics
industry than to those that a textile printer would normally make use of.
However in textiles, inkjet printing is very different from all other techniques, due to
two aspects: the non-contact between the print head and substrate, and the use of
individual colour. This requires detailed computation, which is necessary to produce each
of the millions of pixels in design and this will continue for as long as the machine is
printing the fabric.
In past few years digital printing technology has been upgraded and improved which
has enabled the manufacturer to produce digital sampling. This means that test runs can
be done allowing for design and colour alteration. Printed textile designs can now be
produced more quickly, effectively and efficiently than with conventional printing methods
to meet the market demand.
In textile printing, first designers have to experiment with multiple designs and

4
colours on fabrics prior to getting in to final printing of the textiles on a large scale.
Digital textile printing satisfies this requirement by providing support to designers to
experiment with different images on textile fabric. Now, fashion designers can create their
own printed textile design by just operating a digital printer, without depending on textile
designers. The latest developments in continuous inkjet printers ink systems have ensured
the durability of print quality on printed textile material. The print can retain its existence
for a longer period of time.
Office stationary Digital printing is the most appropriate printing process for office stationery. It is used to
print letterheads, notepads, envelopes, official and legal documents. Digital printing is a
fast and cost-effective printing process.
Inkjet laser printing is used to print the office stationery. Hence, it proves to be the
most efficient way of printing stationery items.
RFID and barcodes Printing of security products such as anti theft devices is one of the key application areas
of screen printing process. Screen printing is an efficient and versatile printing process
used to print on a wide variety of substrates including paper, plastic, glass, metal and
fabric. The appreciable characteristic of screen-printing process is that it can print on any
substrate of any size, thickness and shape. In screen printing greater thickness can be
applied to substrate to create the required effects.
Screen-printing has wide and emerging applications in printing of security products.
RFID (radio frequency identification technology) makes use of wireless readers to get data
that is encoded in chips. An antenna that is built up on the chip receives signals from the
read/write device. The most elementary kind of chip that is attached to an antenna is
referred to as a transponder or tag.
This application of RFID is of great importance in retail logistics systems. Products
with RFID tags can be easily traced electronically so as to protect them from illegal trade.
RFID application is also useful in inventory control in retail industry.
Screen printing tends to be used for printing RFID tags. Silver conductive ink imparts
resistance to the printed RFID label. This ink should be used as per its desired profile or it
may lose its conductivity. After printing the RFID labels they are subject to curing. During
the curing process, the particle of conductive ink softens and boosts the resistance.
Chip-based RFID tags contain silicon chips and antennas. Making silicon chips usually
involves a technique known as photolithography, which has more to do with optical and
etching technology than with a reel to reel lithographic process. Printed electronics
involves the modification of existing forms of flat bed, inkjet and rotary printing.
End-uses in Offset and flexography are suitable processes for newspaper printing. Offset printing is
publishing conventionally used for newspaper printing. In newspaper offset printing presses printing
Newspapers units are arranged vertically instead horizontally. The main purpose behind this is to
conserve the floor space for vast amount of pages to be printed. In this type of printing

process the whole newspaper is printed in one pass.

Flexography printing process is widely used in the printing of newspapers, directories
and newspaper inserts. Newspaper flexographic printing comprises of multiple printing
units. Each unit consist of two printing stations, which are assembled back to back in a
common frame. These printing stations print the multiple pages constituting a typical
newspaper. The paired printing stations allow both sides of the continuous sheet of web
to be printed at a single pass.
It also employs use of single and double colour decks, stack units and multi colour
units. These colour units are positioned over those units where single or multicolour spot,
or spot colour for both the sides of the web is required. The flexographic printing process
is most suitable for newspaper printing as the printing stations print both sides of web at
a single pass and the speed of overall operation is increased considerably.
Magazines and Gravure printing is generally used for long run high quality printing producing sharp
catalogues images. It is best suited for printing large quantities of magazines and it provides a wide
variety of page size options. Today, almost all gravure printing is done using engraved
copper cylinder which is coated with a thin electroplate of chromium to protect it from
wear. A gravure printing press used for commercial publication printing can be six to eight
feet wide meaning it can print a large web with faster speed and efficiency.
In this process images are transferred onto paper using a metal cylinder. Publication
gravure is primarily used for very long press required to print mass circulation magazines
and periodicals. Publication gravure has edge in printing mass circulation magazines as
the process offers high speed, sharper images and high quality colour illustrations on less
expensive paper. It also offers variable cut-off length and folding equipment.
Publication gravure presses have ten printing stations, four for colour and one for
monochrome text printing situated in both directions so to provide both sides of the paper
can be printed in a single operation. It can handle web width of up to 125 inches and is
designed to print most of the large format publications today.
The different types of chemicals used in publication gravure are adhesives, inks, metal
plating solutions and cleaning solvents. Publication gravure largely uses toluene-based
inks. The use of water-based inks is not successful in publication gravure printing as the
substrate used is always a paper and it takes lot of time for ink to dry. It also does not
provide the print quality as required by the commercially acceptable printing production
runs of 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute.
Digital magazine printing enables effortless printed outputs due to the support of
high capacity printers available in the market. The incorporation of a digital printing press
increases the speed of print production. The printing products are generated with
multicoloured features to emphasise all that is needed to be communicated to the target
audience.
Some of the benefits of digital printing of magazines are:
䊳 It is faster and at more cost-effective

4
䊳 It is most suitable for printing smaller quantities of magazines

䊳 It produces images of excellent quality
䊳 It minimises the production costs of print jobs
䊳 It delivers print solutions which are advanced and which help enhance the function of
marketing.
For catalogues, heatset litho printing is normally used for long run printing jobs with
high speed. It has speed of about 40,000 impressions per hour. The ink used in this
process is dried faster with the help of recirculated hot air systems fuelled by natural gas.
Directories In flexographic printing process, the substrate is fed in press from a roll. Image is printed
as the substrate is pulled through a series of printing stations. Commercial publication
flexographic printing process is used for printing directories. These publication
flexographic printing presses are compact, high-speed presses with wide web printing
efficiency, using a multicolour unit.
Generally, two four-coloured units are assembled in a single press, which ensures
printing on both sides of the web. This is very suitable for printing of directories as it can
print wide web substrates on both the sides at single printing operation. Publication
flexographic printing uses waterborne ink as a substitute for solvent based inks. This
reduces the hazardous emissions in the environment. These printing presses use infrared
dryers to dry the waterborne ink after printing on each side is finished.
Printed advertisements Since the era of the poster, the technological advances in printing have enabled printed
advertisements in magazines, newspapers, billboards etc. to play a larger role in mass
communications as widely distributed art images. However posters have emerged as more
than just a means of advertisement and also as an expression of art.
The publication gravure process offers high speed, sharper images and high quality
colour illustrations on less expensive paper. Gravure printing presses used for commercial
printing is six to eight feet wide, so it can print large web of substrate with faster speed
and efficiency. Gravure printing is long run high quality printing process which provides
variety of page size options. Due to these characteristics it satisfies the requirements of
printing ad magazines, banners and other printed materials.
Books Books are printed using offset printing process as it is ideal for printing both text and
illustrations in short to medium length runs of up to 1,000,000 impressions. Offset
printing prints both the sides of the substrate at a single pass. This increases the printing
speed. Offset printing uses blanket made up of high tech polymer, to transfer the image
on substrate. Developments in blanket systems have increased the printing quality,
robustness and durability as well.
The advances in printing technologies have brought about the revolution of custom
book printing and lead the way towards on-demand technology.
Today the competitive digital book industry is leaning towards the print-on-demand

model, and professional printers need a solution that will enable them to print higher
quality books at a lower cost and in quantities that are demanded by the customer. The
introduction of digital printing, initially produced print-to-order runs for out-of-print books
or proofs. With the latest advances in digital printing technology, digital publishing has
grown to incorporate print-on-demand not solely for retail or trade books but also for
popular or genre books, which have provided rapid reprints as required also eliminating
the cost of warehousing pre-printed books.
The advent of digital technology enables one to write a book and print just the
required number of copies whether it is 1,100 or 1000.

Printing forecasts to 2016
5
The print sector is still broadly similar to that of ten years ago with the huge bulk of the
revenue earned from ink on paper with allied prepress and finishing/distribution
activities. The biggest change has been the acceptance of digital technology in
communication, design and prepress, manufacturing and administration. The rise of the
internet and e-commerce has altered the way we do business. There has also been a
change in the behaviour of consumers. The growth of email in volume and sophistication
helped the acceptance of electronic communications for books, newspapers, directories
and catalogues, using search engines rather than printed classified advertising. The major
internal changes for printers have been:
䊳 Additional customer interfaces – evolving of electronic communication from email to
online systems. This has made administration more efficient and reduced turnaround
times for some customers while maintaining traditional methods for others;
䊳 The acceptance of totally digital workflows – the receipt files via the web from many
sources and more printers operating design and prepress services;
䊳 Offering digital printing as a service – one that makes manufacturing more efficient;
䊳 The acceptance of high-quality inkjet for proofing and wide-format for signage;
䊳 Productivity improvements in new technology, quicker make-readies with less waste
and faster machines, better quality through gearless presses with improved formats
lowering unit cost in all print sectors and integrating quality assurance into presses;
䊳 Reductions in run lengths and turnaround times, increasing the number of lower
value jobs;
䊳 Widening the service offering to customers, including design and prepress, data
handling and management, finishing, addressing and mailing, distribution and
fulfilment.
Technology, of course, is not the driver of change, it is the enabler. Other factors include
the economic climate and increasing internationalisation, with the improvements in
quality from low-cost eastern European and Asian printers and rise of specialist
intermediate print management companies in certain markets. It is the combination of
these pressures that has resulted in the radical restructuring of all major print and
publishing markets (of printers, their equipment, consumable and service suppliers and
their customers), with significant reductions in the number of print companies through
closure, both forced and through consolidation. Many have followed their customers into
new geographic markets.
The remaining companies have either found a profitable niche or are more productive
through the adoption of new technology and techniques. The supply side has changed,
and the major investment is in the development of digital technology, particularly inkjet.
Over the past ten years the biggest disruptor was been the increasing power of
computers and the rise of the internet. These factors will continue for the next ten years
with the maturing digital workflows growing to incorporate the administration as well as
the production, covering all the process of printing. There will be incremental
developments in technology to provide productivity improvements in digital and

conventional print processes. More powerful computers and faster internet access will
improve communications with customers and suppliers. The most significant outcome of
this will be the increased transparency of the market price, print supplier capability and
capacity availability, allowing more choice for informed buyers. One effect of this will be
to promote low-cost production in the developing markets of Latin America, eastern
Europe and Asia, particularly India and China, for non-time sensitive items.
The improvements in computing will fuel major growth in personalised colour direct
marketing, boosting digital print from the use of customer relationship marketing (CRM).
Digital printing will improve in quality and speed, with easier data preparation and job set
up as software improves. Inkjet printing will improve its technical capability with more
leading inkmakers joining the suppliers to formulate inks for specific applications. This will
be instrumental in boosting the technology in commercial print, labels and packaging. The
industrial and wide-format inkjet sector will become increasingly indistinguishable from
the graphic arts sector.
It is very difficult to forecast future markets over a ten-year period. Most
commentators concentrate on a maximum five-year horizon for more realistic predictions.
Pira research suggests the following trends for print processes between 2004 and 2009.
TABLE 5.1 Printed products and processes across Europe, 2004–09

€ million 2004 Split (%) 2009 Split (%) Growth 2004–09 (%)
Total 125,980.5 100.0 138,585.5 100.0 10.0
Sheet-fed 26,731.4 21.2 29,149.3 21.0 9.0
Heatset 26,425.3 21.0 28,951.0 20.9 9.6
Coldset 22,545.5 17.9 23,349.6 16.8 3.6
All offset 75,702.2 60.1 81,450.0 58.8 7.6
Gravure 14,968.2 11.9 15,246.6 11.0 1.9
Flexography 16,003.1 12.7 18,303.3 13.2 14.4
Letterpress 364.8 0.3 324.1 0.2 –11.1
Digital 10,892.3 8.6 13,129.7 9.5 20.5
Other* 8,049.9 6.4 10,134.8 7.3 25.9
* with ‘other’ including hybrid printing, some of which includes digital.
Overall growth is forecast to be 10%. Of the conventional print processes, only flexography
is increasing its market share in packaging and conversion applications. Only letterpress
will see real contraction in volumes with coldset offset and gravure losing significant share
to flexography and digital print. These figures are expressed in current year values and
include the impact of inflation. When the effect of inflation is stripped out they show
lower real growth with only digital posting significant increases. A share of the sales
figure is accounted for by a wider range of services (database management, mailing,
fulfilment), so ink on paper printing in Europe and most developed markets will show a
real decline over the period. The next five years will see significant growth in digital
print technology, with the arrival of high-quality fast inkjet in transactional printing,

5
packaging and general short-run printing. This top line digital figure covers commercial
printing; there will also be significant growth in digital printing in offices, retail outlets
and at home for material that would otherwise be printed. Other shows a high growth
in a relatively small sector; this includes silkscreen, which will decline significantly over five
years.
These market developments will be broadly similar in most developed markets. There
will be higher growth in the developing regions of Asia (particularly China and India),
eastern Europe and Latin America. Their growth is driven by market developments, the
liberalisation of newspaper and magazine opportunities, improved logistics and retail
boosting packaging, increasing literacy, and exporting to developed markets, taking
advantage of lower-cost production. The introduction of e-commerce and communication
developments makes the export of non-time sensitive printed items much easier.
The market for specialist industrial inkjet printing will be closer to the graphic arts
than is the case now to produce decorative wall and floor coverings, large-format posters
and the new markets of printed electronics, smart materials and organic semiconductors
for display, battery and solar panels. These applications will develop significantly to offer
high added-value opportunities for litho, gravure, flexography and inkjet printing.
Much commercial printing will become a worldwide document output industry,
reflecting the move toward a service function. A much wider range of functions will be
offered, broadening the services from ink on paper to include database management,
mailing, subscriptions, fulfilment, stock management and response handling. The impact
of content management and workflow systems will make it easier for buyer and supplier
to communicate and swap press-ready files. The improved communications, through
machine to machine (M2M) communication and the semantic web will offer a way for
printing to further automate administration and the sales function, attracting available
jobs for available capacity. The development of M2M communication could lead to a
‘printernet’ situation where print machines can broadcast their availability to potential
customers thus aiding the sales function by adding automation to the sales process and
allowing printers to concentrate on their manufacturing performance. Print buyers will
interrogate prequalified print companies with jobs suitable for print loaded into the
automated workflow and print preparation systems at the printer.
If quantum computing is successfully implemented by 2015, which is unlikely, the rate
of adoption of new technology will accelerate and the successor to the digital age will
be born.
The developments in material technology offer specialist print companies the potential
to produce new, high added-value products in the field of smart materials, organic
semiconductors and printed electronics. These companies will use modified printing and
coating technologies based on offset litho, flexo, gravure, screen and inkjet. Nanotechnology
will provide improved ink capabilities and substrates with particular properties.

Future impact on Sheet-fed is the most widespread print process used. It offers a wide variety of machine
print processes formats (from single colour B3 to 12-colour B1 and multi-unit large-format presses capable
of printing sheets 2.05 ∞ 1.50m). Many small printers operate single colour,
Sheet-fed offset second-hand machines while manufacturers supply multi-unit perfectors capable of fast in-
line production including varnishing on both sides. Plates may be paper or polyester for
short runs and aluminium for longer runs and automated operation. Most plates are now
imaged digitally through computer-to-plate (CTP) systems with on-press imaging a very
small niche market, although this may change if re-imageable plates are successfully
introduced.
TABLE 5.2 Technology adoption roadmap for sheetfed offset

2005 2016
Status 21.2% of European printing ~20% share
Format Range from A4-ultra large format 8–12 unit Same range, increasingly multi-unit with coaters
B1 and B2
Most plates produced by CTP with violet light Potential for on-press re-imageable plates, for off press
and thermal imaging most plates will not require processing
Features Auto plate loading and set up, automatic ink roller, Full JDF set up for 12 unit press in 5 minutes,
blanket and impression cylinder wash up, sidelay and 10 minutes for sheet size/colour differences. Increasing
infeed paper setting. Makeready takes 15 minutes use of web/sheeter infeeds. Re-imageable plates, retro-
fittable to presses. Automatic sheet monitoring through
pattern recognition to detect defects
Functions Manual print monitoring Closed loop colour control offset at the touch of a
button for B1 printing
Sheets in, sheets out Web infeeds and folded section deliveries common
Increasing use of UV drying and coatings to provide Online folding and finishing offered with water varnish
dry sheets for processing at delivery and UV curing for instant drying.
Disruptive factors Re-imageable plates, hybrid printing, Many sheet-fed machines incorporate inkjet variable
Fast inkjet, print capability
Modern sheet-fed presses will be high-speed perfectors, up to 12 printing units with

coating capability in primarily B1, B2 and some B3. These are aimed at improving
productivity. There will be fewer single-colour presses in developed markets, which will
largely be replaced by high-speed mono digital presses, often web fed. Sheet-fed presses
will improve in quality through the use of extended colour sets, offering a wider gamut of
colours for better matching of spot colours in packaging, and special effects such as
integrated metallics. The coating units will improve with flexo and anilox designs to offer
water-based sealers to allow sheets to be handled and finished immediately on delivery,
and UV coatings for high gloss and decoration, including spot varnishing on-press.
Several factors will be equally applicable to both sheet and web litho printing. For
example, the use of waterless printing that has been around since 1980 will remain as a
small, specialist niche, probably declining. Waterless inks are more expensive than
conventional inks and require a more limited temperature range to operate successfully.

5
The lack of competition in plate supply makes the plates significantly more expensive than
wet-offset plates, and they cannot be imaged in the same CTP systems as conventional
plates; they also require specialist processing.
Increasing automation will allow faster changeovers and less reliance on operator
craft skills to control the printing press. The economics of the process will be squeezed
further demanding significant productivity improvements that can only be realised
through the adoption of CIM techniques, possibly the dark pressroom.
Offset presses will be augmented with other processes and capabilities, with inkjet
growing in importance to add personalisation and versioning capability without the
requirement for plate changing. The inking systems are being developed to improve the
transfer of paste inks with developments such as the single fluid anilox metering as used
in the Karat press, gravuflow system.
Web offset The sector comprises the declining coldset process for directories and newspapers, the
continuous stationery sector using coldset, UV curing and heatset printing for documents.
The process is very flexible but it is being attacked by digital to obviate the need for
preprint. Heatset web, for periodicals, catalogues and general print will show the greatest
development over the next ten years.
TABLE 5.3 Technology adoption roadmap for heatset offset

2005 2016
Status 38.9% split: 17.9% coldset, 21.0% (heatset) ~35%: 20% heatset and 15% coldset
Pagination 16, 24, 32 and 48pp now joined by single web Larger formats, faster linear speeds. Wider multi-web
64pp, 72pp and 96pp presses, 192pp delivered as finished products.
Standard Features Set up aids link ink key setting to prepress data or JDF presetting reduces make-ready to <10 minutes
plate scanners, CTP plates provide good register. on new presses. Variable cut-off in 16 and 32pp
New presses have plate loading and closed- common. Reimageable plates for very quick make-ready
loop colour control Automatic web inspection using pattern recognition to
detect defects
Solely web offset printing, some coaters and Hybrid press lines include an inkjet unit for
specialists have inkjet printing in-line for multi-language/edition changes
personalisation/numbering
Presses deliver reels, and foded sections for Growth in in-folder finishing (stitching and gluing) to
binding, limited in-line finishing deliver finished products from press
Key disruptive factors Variable cut off, automation and CIM
There are two main development strands, increasing flexibility (variable cut off and
re-imageable plates) and higher productivity through higher pagination with print quality
closed-loop monitoring, in-folder finishing, robotic take-off and faster linear paper speeds.
Heatset web technology will develop to provide productivity improvements in several
ways. Heatset presses become wider and larger format. In 2005 the widest commercial
heatset machine has a web width of 2,060mm, installed at arvato’s Mohn Media plant,
printing 72 ∞ A4 pages, or 80 in narrower format per revolution. Incremental advances

include further automation, involving auto-plate loading, webbing up, including infeed
and folder, closed-loop colour and register control, faster print speeds, folder and delivery
automation to reduce the manning requirements. Other flexibility improvements will
include the use of CIM based around JDF to reduce set up and waste. Materials will
develop to provide more energy efficient lower temperature setting inks that disrupt and
dry the paper stock less. There will be a wider range of paper grammages capable of being
converted.
Single web presses with 5–6 units will become more common with coating units for
spot colour and varnishes, although four colour presses still dominate. There will be
growth in the use of digital imprinters to provide versioning and fast changeovers of
minor changes, e.g. multi-language blacks.
There will be opportunities for web printers to coat new organic light-emitting diodes
(OLED) and polymer semiconductors for high-volume applications of batteries, solar panels
and flat lighting panels. These applications will be a way of using older equipment
although special clean-room environments will be necessary to achieve the precision
coating.
Flexography Flexography has a rosy forecast because of its relative simplicity and flexibility with strong
growth forecast over the next ten years. It has the potential to compete with offset and
gravure in label and packaging applications where it is much easier to integrate the
printing heads into conversion lines. Improvements in quality are leading to advances into
commercial printing, with significant inroads into newspaper production where the low
waste and fast set-up is a major advantage.
TABLE 5.4 Technology adoption roadmap for flexo

2005 2016
European market share 12.7% of European print market. Only ~15% of market
conventional process to increase its share
Technology New presses use direct drive, gearless technology Widespread acceptance of standard prepress and
Move to common impression for high-quality predictable high-quality reproductions
colour in conversion lines. 10–12 colour presses common
Unit presses including hybrid lines
Digital prepress and direct engraving of plates Digital prepress, gearless CI presses, radiation
in-the-round improves quality and turnaround. curing inks
New laser-engraved anilox provides high
resolution and high ink transfer capabilities
Stack, unit and common impression cylinder Unit presses with other print technologies and CI for
presses highest quality predominate
Board, foil, paper and plastic substrates Lighter weight materials, higher-quality results
Disruptive factors Flexo developments CIM, workflow, hybrid and inkjet printing
To improve the quality more flexo presses will adopt the common impression cylinder
arrangement with eight to 12 printing units. The use of direct drive, gearless presses will

5
become standard for new installations, with retro-fits providing new life for some installed
machines. These will have greater control systems applied and the whole process will
become more complex as productivity and quality both rise. The print units will be
enclosed chambers, coated internally with easy cleanable surfaces designed for quick
release and replacement with off-line cleaning to minimise press downtime. Ink
temperatures and viscosity will be continually monitored with additives automatically
dispensed to optimise runnability. Anilox rollers will be YAG laser-engraved ceramic
coatings with very high-resolution cell counts and a high ink holding capability. Line
rulings of 1,500lpi will be widely used with CTP plates capable of holding screen rulings of
175 or 200dpi for continuous tone printing, using six and seven process colours to extend
the colour gamut of the process.
Increasingly radiation-cured inks will be used, the instant cure eliminating potential
drying problems and reducing dot gain caused by ink spreading or being absorbed by the
substrate. This will boost print quality and eliminate potential odour and taint for many
packaging applications. It will also provide significant environmental benefits through the
elimination of volatile organic compounds from solvent-based inks. Ultraviolet (UV) based
inks will be increasingly joined by cold electron beam (EB) curing.
As part of a conversion process flexographic printing is being joined by other
processes to provide hybrid printing and in-line finishing. This is particularly important in
the label market where gravure, offset, rotary screen and increasingly digital units are
widely available. These will be joined by integrated hot and cold foiling, mechanical and
laser diecutting and specialist tag insertion, such as RFID.
Other important technical advances involve the substrates being used. There is an
inexorable trend to reduce the basis weight of paper, board and plastic films, which can
limit the speed and capability of the printing and converting process. Press manufacturers
and printers have to adapt their equipment and processes to maintain productivity. The
use of plastic films and foils is forecast to grow significantly. Some have very tough end
uses such as shrink sealing where the material is applied to irregularly shaped bottles and
packs and is heated to shrink to fit. Shrinkage of 40–60% is commonplace and it is
important that the ink film retains good adhesion to the surface during and after
conversion. As the use of solvent-based inks declines new surface treatments of films are
necessary to promote good adhesion, with chemical treatments becoming important. The
use of active packaging materials will increase to provide specific barrier properties or
absorb UV according to the end-use application. These will cause converters problems and
will need development work with their ink and raw material suppliers to provide solutions
for packagers and retailers.
Specific advances that will boost the competitive position of flexography include the
development of digital prepress, with widespread adoption of CTP moving toward direct
plate imaging and in-the-round imaging. There are improvements in the plate material and
mountings while the main presses themselves are improving, with gearless presses, the
common impression cylinder and unit design. There will be higher resolution, deep-

engraved anilox rollers using YAG laser engraving to improve ink transfer. The closed-
chamber inking units and doctor blades will be used with radiation cured inks, with
growth in UV and EB curing inks replacing solvent-based formulations.
Much of the growth in flexo will be in conversion lines, with additional print and
specialist activity in-line.
Gravure Gravure printing is widely used in publication, packaging and decorative applications. The
process is suited to high-quality, high-volume print products. The prepress involves cylinder
preparation; even with recent advances this is an expensive, time-consuming process. In
packaging, where designs reprint with no changes, the process is very cost effective with
cylinders being stored and reused. Publication gravure has been in decline for the past 15
years, but recent high-profile investments across Europe suggest it is fighting back with
new high pagination, 4.3m-wide formats ,which will at least slow the long-term decline.
The problem is the relative lack of flexibility against web offset and flexo, which
automation will not change, as demand for high pagination, high-volume printed
magazines and catalogues is dropping.
TABLE 5.5 Technology adoption roadmap for gravure

2005 2016
Status 11.9% share <10% share
Publication and packaging applications, with High volume publication and repeat packaging
decorative specialists niches
Lower digital cylinder preparation costs competes Attacked by more flexible heatset web and
with offset and flexo in long (and repeating) runs better quality flexo, gravure squeezed and
further marginalised with decline in high
run-length, high pagination printed products
Publication presses 4.3m width, 15m/s web speed 5m wide presses, 20–25m/s web speed for a
small number of publication printers for low unit
cost high circulation high pagination titles
Disruptive factors Environmental concerns over solvent-based inks
New wider, higher pagination and faster running machines will be introduced, in
partnership with cylinder preparation systems. There will not be a major market for these
presses, because at the same time there will be smaller, lower-cost machines with high
degrees of automation. Improvement in cylinder preparation will help to lower costs
through the use of lightweight plastic printing cylinders. Most engraving is
electromechanical, and by 2016 laser-engraving systems for copper and new surfaces will
be introduced, which will make the prepress more flexible. Electromechanical systems are
becoming faster through the use of multi-head engravers. The latest Hell
HelioKlischograph K6 system offers 18 engraving channels across the 4.32m cylinder
length. The engraving is part of a totally automated line including electroplating, surface
treatment, engraving and complete cylinder logistics including delivery to the press. The

5
quality of electromechanical engraving is improving with the use of new imaging and
screening methods that improve linework and sharpen text edges.
Ink systems are becoming less reliant on the use of aromatic solvents with
formulation improvements and better extraction and recycling of solvents, and the
increasing use of water-based inks.
Digital Digital printing will be the main generator of growth for print over the next five years. The
technologies that will dominate are electrophotography (both powder and liquid toners)
and inkjet, predominantly piezo drop-on-demand (DOD) technology. There will be
improvements in the quality and productivity achievable, with better consistency and
reliability. Increases in computer power and better communication systems have boosted
the capability of digital print and made it easier to use.
Commercial printers have now adopted digital print as an additional production
resource. In 2004 some 16,000 colour machines capable of 40ppm or more were shipped
worldwide, with 9,000 going to printers in North America. In developed markets some
30% of commercial printers now have digital colour capability; by 2016 penetration of all
print industry user categories will approach 90%. As well as laser printers there will be
more wide-format inkjet, with flatbed and web machines for packaging.
Digital print market sectors will include:
䊳 Short run, print on demand: books, newspapers, general print, stationery
䊳 Versioning, personalisation: transactional, direct mail and direct marketing
䊳 Web to print: consumer or dealer/franchise self-selection of content from a
website
䊳 Packaging and labels: short runs and prototypes of cans, flexibles, labels, cartons
and corrugated board, moving into longer runs with hybrid machines
䊳 Point of sale
䊳 Industrial printing: signage, textiles, exhibition stands, building wraps, giant posters,
vehicle livery
䊳 Specialist manufacturing: electronics, nanodevices, 3D rapid prototyping, small-scale
fabrication.

TABLE 5.6 Technology adoption roadmap for digital

2005 2016
European market share 8.6% >15% (higher if work produced in office/home/shop) is
considered
Technologies Electrophotographic and inkjet dominate. Laser printing in offices and for standard products
Toner quality as good as offset. Maximum
speed for colour engines some 267 ∞ A4ppm.
Inkjet lower quality on paper at 2,000ppm,
Electrophotography Mono laser printers capable of 190ppm in Laser printing sheet-fed capable of 250ppm at 1,200dpi,
sheetfed, and 1,000ppm in web applications. web fed will be wider format, up to 1m from 60cm
Ion deposition offers faster speeds at lower capable of 2,500ppm. Faster capability is available
resolutions. through inkjet.
Inkjet Kodak VersaMark capable of 2,000ppm High-quality commercial web machines capable of
at low resolution 20,000ppm (initially in one colour as hybrid presses)
Packaging the IncaDigital Fastjet capable of In packaging flatbed and web machine provide high
6,000m2/min (1,600 ∞ A4ppm) at low quality at speeds of 12,000m2/min
resolution 300dpi
Jetting Piezo on-demand heads offer highest speed Wider arrays of fine nozzles providing increased
and quality, 8-bit greyscale at 600dpi is as productivity and quality print
good as high quality litho. Heads are some
50mm wide at 600dpi
Ink technology Solvent, water-based and UV curing. UV The cost of UV inks will drop with more competition and
predominates to give high-quality colour a larger market. They will be formulated to provide
optimal results with head and substrate
Personalised variable data print Transactional and direct mail printing by Full colour inkjet directly printed to avoid the need for
mono laser and inkjet overprinting preprinted preprint. Improvements in CRM capability and automated
base stock make up provide highly effective advertising messages
Workflow Web to print applications appearing. There is no distinction between industrial inkjet and the
Separate wide-format industrial print sector graphic arts sector. Very sophisticated web to print
producing complex direct marketing pieces that can
be emailed or remotely printed and mailed
Disruptive factors Rise in computer technology Superfast computers allow provision of high-resolution
Workflow and automated page make up data above press speeds. Introduction of quantum
Development of inkjet computing greatly boosts digital printing
Nanotechnology
Personal fabrication
Quantum computing is unlikely to be widespread by 2015, but if it is the position of

digital print will develop further, with faster, easier operation. Toner technology will
improve in terms of smaller, regular particle size with significant input from
nanotechnology developments. Digital printing systems will improve printing consistency
while the front end will have greater functionality offering the capability of adding value
through complex personalisation routines.
There will be few format developments in laser printers with B3 and web-fed machines
up to 60cm predominating. The machines will offer improved quality and reliability but
they will be designed for offices as well as commercial print operations.
The growth of high quality use within homes, offices and retail outlets will continue,

5
taking business from the commercial print industry.

Most laser digital printing is currently used for simple products, based on A4 with
limited finishing. Many printing lines have integrated finishing and booklet making
capabilities to deliver finished products in standard formats. Larger-format capability
and speed will grow for inkjet rather than for electrophotographic devices.
Conventional printing converts material as well as the imaging, with specialist
finishing capabilities for large quantities of material. Digital print technology needs to
add the converting capacity beyond the office capabilities to gain wider acceptance. This
will happen as a digital capability is integrated into hybrid presses and the existing
finishing and binding can be applied. Integrators will become important to widen the mix
of technology and to provide specific end-use applications, such as the installation of
inkjet heads into Philips’ fluorescent tube production lines in Roosendaal (the
Netherlands). The solution was developed by the Belgian distributor Elink, using the
HSAJet printers from Danish machine manufacturer HS Automatic, which incorporate
Xaar’s XJ126 and XJ500 printheads. Philips wanted flexibility to print barcodes, customer
logos, images and marketing messages onto product packaging while reducing costs and
lowering product lead-times. The line was designed to print advertising campaign
materials and co-branding, as well as allowing changes in packaging design at short
notice and without incurring additional printing costs. Similar specialist lines are quickly
spreading in packaging and commercial print operations.
Digital print is a service for customers, offering new opportunities for them to
communicate with their customers. Higher added value is associated with the low run
lengths so automation in administration and page assembly will be critical. Printers will
need to re-create themselves if they are to be succeed in the new playing field. Skills such
as programming, database management, mailing and fulfilment will be needed, with links
to the web to set up web-to-print applications for customers. The largest commercial inkjet
printing sector is wide-format, short-run inkjet printing of signage, vehicle livery, posters,
textiles, point of sale materials, banners, building wraps, corrugated packaging, floor
graphics and others. Together, these sectors are currently growing at compound annual
rates well in excess of 12%. Initially this has been produced by industrial signage
suppliers, but it offers an opportunity for commercial printers to broaden their product
offering.
Machine to machine (M2M) communication will allow digital printers to communicate
across networks, promoting the distribution and print market model when payment
systems and new web technology grow.
Future customer Printers have to deal with customers in accordance with their preferences, whether
interface through conventional salespeople or client service/estimating personnel using visits,

telephone calls and faxing or email and interactive services through a website. The
impacts of e-commerce, M2M communication, CIM, automated page make-up and the next
generation of content management will change relationships. In 2005 the majority
of printers have a website offering varying functionality and links. The management
information systems (MIS) in use will become increasingly part of the method of
communicating with customers. Many printers are developing their MISs to help with their
customer interface providing the point of contact and interactivity. These methods will
grow as MIS vendors provide increasing functionality in their products with additional
modules.
The first MISs for print were standalone modules written by administrators and
technical staff in printers and their suppliers as spreadsheets and databases. Some
became commercialised as advanced printer users offered systems for sale, incorporating
accounts packages. Then suppliers linked together various modules and sold systems,
either as low-cost, shrink-wrapped software or as expensive, tailored products with
considerable customisation and organisational development required for successful
implementation. The scope broadened to cover production control, direct data collection,
sales modules to support internal management and control. In the early 2000s links for
customers and suppliers emerged, some with significant interactivity. Slowly a change
started, with the capability of not just better control of costs but to support the generation
of revenue in 2004. There are a few examples of significant revenue generators for
printers, although many print management companies base their market position on the
capability of their systems. The concept is there, use the MIS to sell as well as to control
and over the next ten years it will become a key feature for successful printers as all
elements of customer communication will become selling opportunities.
There will be two flavours of website for buyers:
䊳 E-auction sites operated on behalf of buyers
䊳 Workflow sites.
E-auction sites will tend to be operated by specialist consultancies on behalf of bigger
clients, most looking for cost reduction through tendering, and for fairly straightforward,
repetitive printed material with many printers competing for the work.
Workflow sites will be used to take time and cost out of the print supply chain, and to
promote the capabilities of the supplier. As well as helping the internal management and
control of the business the system will support the origination and transfer of digital files.
It is not only the swapping of files over email or FTP that is involved, but also the transfer
of job details from request for quotation (RFQ) through estimating, job and delivery
checking and stock management. New systems will provide links with design and prepress
as well as administration functions, offering facilities such as preflight checking to ensure
files are print-ready. Jobs and files can be submitted with intelligence at both ends to
check job completeness via a flatplan to check that all pages have been submitted. This
will be linked to imposition systems to generate proofs and plates, as well as JDF set-up
information. The systems will carry out colour management to optimise the file for a

5
particular press and there will be the capability to remote proof where required.
The other emerging feature is the use of template and rules-driven page make up to
prepare highly graphical rich, print-ready, personalised or versioned products maintaining
corporate guidelines for design and colour fidelity. These allow remote customers to put
the document together, proof and check and place the order in real time. Such features
add value and are now coming into the remit of most printing companies. The next
generation of e-enabled e-commerce MIS systems will offer the following functionality:
䊳 Preparing a specification
䊳 Optimising the specification to improve functionality or minimise cost
䊳 Estimating the costs
䊳 Aiding the design, prepress and manufacturing processes
䊳 Dynamic documents (PDF on-the-fly)
䊳 Asset management
䊳 Job tracking/status
䊳 Stock management
䊳 Distribution
䊳 Reporting.
Future MIS will use workflow and e-commerce developments with increasing
communication to offer forms of expert system in order to identify potential problems
as the onus is placed on the customer rather than expensive client services and
estimators, etc. There will be support tools, and expert systems to stop potential
problems.
Open data systems, such as JDF or networked graphic production (NGP) will be
mandatory. There will be more information available to printer and customer, and the
winners will be the ones who use it best. The MIS will add value and become a revenue
generator rather than a control mechanism, and an easier sell for the supplier.
Customer contact will be ever more important at every level over the next five years.
Successful printers will increase the amount of time their representatives spend with
customers. Client service and sales personnel will spend less time on mundane
administration and paperwork, and more on cross-selling and process improvement,
adding value to the client. The key for this will be improvements in administration offered
by the specialist, print-related e-commerce systems, which are becoming more widely used.
During the past 15 years the production of print has become digital. Today virtually every
printed item comes from a digital file. The use of computerised MISs within printers has
increased at the same time and is also handled digitally. However, administration still
remains largely separate from the production. Expect the integration of production and
administration within a single standard to provide significant competitive advantage for
early adopters well before 2007. Print management companies will take the lead in this
trend. This will be a way of reducing the costs to the client while increasing the number

of individual orders being carried out.

The printernet is born, turning the world wide web into one long printer cable. Round
the clock, customers can place orders with print media providers. They can create their
own layouts using a program located on the service provider’s server and can approve
products for printing using other programs.
Internet portals have become gateways and a means of customer retention.
Future for commercial In 2015 those print companies that survive will be highly efficient and specialised, using a
print businesses high degree of automation within CIM plants. Fewer shop-floor personnel will be required
particularly in finishing where there will be great opportunities to make savings.
Many companies will be part of wider supply chains, either as groups or working with
specialist marketing and service providers, such as print management companies. Printing
factories will become specialists, concentrating on becoming world-class performers in
their own fields. There will be significant pressure on standalone, medium-sized
independent companies. The groups will be in a position to offer their customers a wide
variety of services that include print from specialists, instead of trying to offer services that
the company does not have the correct production skills to handle. Printers will manage
the other operations (e.g. mailing, call centres and fulfilment) on behalf of their customers
using distributed computing.
There will be significant consolidation and polarisation of print businesses over the
next ten years. The successful companies will be those larger groups that are able to take
advantage of economies of scale and provide development resources and small, flexible
businesses. Medium-sized companies will be squeezed unless they can find niche market
opportunities.
Most commentators agree that the future success of printers depends on having
efficient production workflows to give increased quality, speed and cost savings. This move
toward CIM can be achieved by using JDF to link MISs and production processes. At the
moment these systems are quite specialised, but the promise and myth is starting to
become a reality and will soon be commonplace. Print companies of all sizes will benefit
from automation and process control across all aspects of their business, from small digital
print shops to major publication printers and dedicated plants.
The MIS will become the hub of all activities (sales and marketing, estimating,
planning, production, warehousing and delivery) and all will be considerably automated
as part of an integrated workflow management system across all production and business
operations. Management data will be more widely used to improve the efficiency of print
businesses and provide better communication with both customers and suppliers.
By 2016 many pressrooms will have integrated, automated press control systems.
A dark operation that eliminates much manual intervention will be offered in new
equipment and from specialist vendors such as QuadTech. The press is an ‘executive
organ’, one output technology among several – one of the most important from an
economic and quality point of view, but also quite a complex one. However, the user will

5
notice less and less of this, thanks to the use of intelligent automation. Presses are
becoming capable of learning and correcting themselves based on a list of job
specifications.
The day of ‘high-quality, high-volume printing at the press of a button’ is growing ever
nearer. The skilled printer moves toward being a data manager and technician rather than
an artisan, as increasing computerisation and communications change the role. It will not
be enough to be an offset printer, or a flexo operator, with the rise of hybrid presses. The
operators must become multi-skilled, until the press becomes capable of controlling itself.
Offset presses will have flexo coating lines and units for spot colours and metallics
integrated. Many will have digital units, inkjet and electrophotographic that need to be in
phase with the conventional print.
The integrated operation begins in the sales stage with initial enquiry and includes
the offer, order, process planning, production, production planning, production checking,
deadline monitoring, quality checking and assurance, post-costing, delivery, invoicing, and
the use of supplier services (e.g. remote service).
The production stage begins when the prepress data is received and checked. It will
be checked, colour managed, imposed, RIPed, plates made and checked, data sent to the
press (with on-press imaging, the latter two stages will be combined). The press is adjusted
at infeed for sheet size and caliper setting; the pressures, ink key adjustment and damping
will be set so the press operator just only has to load the correct materials. The first sheets
will be printed and checked with on-press monitoring to control register and print
characteristics based on spectrophotometry for the colours in use. When obtained the
press will print the job with closed-loop control warning the operator (or print room
controller) if the print condition moves from the specification. There will be similar controls
for cutting, folding, stitching, binding, packing and delivery.
The digital presetting, checking and adjusting of machines will take place while
production is underway. This will result in print jobs being completed faster with less
waste, at better quality and consistency. These controlled systems will allow companies
adopting the technology to improve their production significantly, the open
communication providing real-time access for customers to monitor their jobs. Productivity
and speed improvements will be made with existing CIM-enabled equipment; with new
presses the improvements will be even more significant.
A new feature will arise from the development of the semantic web and M2M
communication. The capability and capacity availability of print machines will be visible to
potential customers across the web. Print machines will be able to act like sales staff,
proactively searching for work, initially with pre-qualified customers. This will be
particularly useful for relationships where there is a contract to minimise the sales and
administration overhead.

Market issues to 2016 The next ten years will see a significant increase in the market share of digital printing.
In terms of volume, all forecasts show an inexorable rise. This growth emanates from end-
user demands and the developing technology, both in terms of printing and of profiling
target individuals. Digital print is forecast to grow and take an increasing market share, in
particular from litho and gravure printing. This will happen because print companies will
use digital technology commercially and corporations and retailers will retain office
applications internally. Products include POD stationery and invoices, etc. printed on
colour devices in the office. These will incorporate logos and colour backgrounds directly
on plain cut sheets rather than using preprinted stationery and forms. Now many business
documents, such as proposals, are printed internally by companies using high-volume
copier/printers in mono and full colour. Many of these applications would have previously
been outsourced to printers. New technology allows professional-looking results to be
produced without the need for print companies and their specialist skills.
Commercial digital share includes transactional or mainframe production printing
(bills and statements), direct mail, books, packaging and personalisation as well as short-
run mono and colour. The higher value of digital print reflects the premiums chargeable
for very short runs or personalisation applications.
The decline in market share for litho and gravure is exaggerated when the value
figures are considered beside relative print volumes. This reflects the continuing
competition between established providers seeking to maintain volumes and reducing
prices. The bulk of this print will be considered almost as a commodity, and printers must
try to develop specialist niches outside the normal, such as specialist finishing, coating or
multiple unit print effects.
Leakage of commercial A major factor for the future of the print industry will be the migration of commercial
print work to previous customers and end users of the print. Improvements in computer
technology and communications will allow this to happen, and the development of the
semantic web will further boost end-user printing.
In 2005 the market for colour printers, laser and inkjet, will be worth some
$58 billion, including consumables. This huge figure is for home and office machines
and represents a huge potential volume of printing. Some of this used to be produced
commercially. Maybe you printed the details of a holiday offer from the web, specifications
of cars, the confirmation of an order placed over the web, or research on
a particular topic. Office workers needing information on a product will print out the
brochure locally and instantly rather than waiting for a potential supplier to send a
printed version. Some items that used to be printed commercial printing companies have
disappeared off the market. The provision of huge quantities of information on-demand
and the ability to print a perfectly acceptable looking document containing the formatting
and images in colour on low-cost laser and inkjet machines quickly is impacting on the
printing industry. Demand for commercial print is declining in some sectors as users

5
substitute their home or office capability for professionally produced products.

In retail outlets many suppliers print invoices and receipts in colour onto plain cut
sheets, instead of just printing the mono information onto preprinted stationery. Suppliers
are continually introducing new printer models offering improved performance in terms of
quality and speed, at lower cost of ownership and per print.
As usage of fast access to the internet in the home and office has risen, so printing
industry revenues have fallen. This correlates well with the widespread growth in low-cost
A4 inkjet and laser colour printers, which provide a huge outlet for printed pages. There
are two factors involved:
䊳 Displacement of print to electronic media
䊳 Migration of print to non-production environments.
Generally the production of documents is moving closer to the end user. Many business
documents, such as proposals, presentations, brochures, training materials, corporate
newsletters, on-demand stationery and some invoices are now printed internally by companies.
These products are printed on colour devices in the office, incorporating logos and colour
backgrounds, directly onto plain cut sheets rather than using preprinted stationery and forms.
Many of these applications would have previously been outsourced to printers. New
technology, particularly the use of pre-formatted templates and high-quality colour printers,
allows professional looking results to be produced without the need for print companies and
their specialist skills. However, work that has sophisticated finishing or specialist substrate
requirements will continue to be outsourced, reinforcing the view that these processes, and
the ability to handle the unusual, will be key USPs for commercial printers.
Virtually all documents today are created and available electronically to somebody. As
a result, printing has become an output option rather than an assumed end result.
This has an impact on most printing, whether in a print shop, copy centre or in-house
facility. This is a fundamental change and has knock-on implications for the printing and
communications sector.
Pira’s market research suggests that the value of home/office printing is worth some
€4 billion in 2005 across Europe and growing strongly. The devices being used to print
this volume vary from industrial strength machines from Xerox (there are many thousands
of mono Docutechs and colour 2000/8000 devices in offices and corporates), HP-Indigo,
Nexpress and Xeikon; through powerful workgroup printers from Canon, Océ, Ricoh,
Minolta-Konica and others; and multi-functional devices down to desktop machines and
low-cost home machines, often provided as free peripherals with a home PC. There are
black and white and colour devices, in a growing market with sales of more than 2 million
units each week.
One significant application on many home PCs is the printing of very high-quality,
photo-realistic prints from digital cameras. Using photograde paper and the calibration
routines built into the printer drivers, home users are virtually able to reproduce the

quality achieved by professional photolabs and silver-based film. When consumers see this
capability they are encouraged to print other materials, for in-house use and for clients
and potential customers.
The trend towards home and office printing is being further fuelled by suppliers of
software and printers providing help for amateur users to prepare professional-looking
documents. The growth of Linux and open software word processing, design and page
make-up software is making it easier to produce professional looking documents. The next
release of Windows from Microsoft, Longhorn, is scheduled to include technology known
as Metro, which is designed to improve the printing capabilities of standard office
software. Developed with Global Graphics, Metro will be both a page description
language to speed up and improve the fidelity of print jobs and an XML-based, fixed
layout document format offering an electronic paper format. A Metro fixed layout
document can be viewed or printed without the application in which it was created, while
maintaining the application’s colour and graphics in a similar way to a PDF. Microsoft is
offering Metro as a royalty free open standard and said it is being evaluated by major
printer companies, including HP, Canon, Ricoh and Xerox. Adoption by major printer
manufacturers is crucial if the promise of Metro is to be realised.
Hewlett-Packard uses its website to promote the use of its machines as well as
to generate volume and demand printing through joint efforts with Adobe, Apple and
Microsoft to offer small- and medium-sized businesses tools for creating marketing
materials. HP provides step-by-step ‘how-to’ guides for many products brochures,
newsletters and fliers, presentation handouts, postcards, business cards, calendars, fax
cover sheets, letterheads, memos sheets, various internal forms, as well as simple direct
marketing projects. They provide templates for use in Word and Microsoft Publisher
together with libraries of clip art and logos with instructions on how to incorporate
samples created by the user.
There are more than 1,000 inkjet and laser printers available on the market. Prices range
from less than £100 to almost £18,000, demonstrating the range of capabilities of devices,
from simple single-sided printers to devices capable of duplexing, scanning, copying and
faxing. The maximum monthly volumes vary from a few hundred to 100,000. Using the
right materials and settings these machines can produce extremely high-quality output, for
almost any budget. Various productivity and functional add-ons are available with the
base models allowing hole punching, stapling and simple booklet making to be
incorporated, using the printer as part of a document system.
Vendors will develop low-cost, multi-functional devices capable of printing, copying,
scanning, although a fax capability will start to decline as an extra function.
Manufacturers are looking at the commercial impact of their equipment, developing
imaging systems and integration technologies with an emphasis on integrating multi-
functional devices into business processes and automating complex publishing workflows.
The printer market is well segmented with manufacturers continually updating and
launching new models. Inkjet currently offers the highest imaging quality and will

5
continue to develop, in particular for photographic imaging. For home and office lower-
cost inkjet devices will continue to dominate in terms of numbers. They are being attacked
by laser printers, offering high speed and quality with lower overall cost of ownership.
Laser toners will improve in quality with smaller, more uniform spherical particle size
distribution and improved electrostatic characteristics allowing easier mixing to provide
spot colours for particular applications. Within five years there will be some liquid
electrophotographic (liquid toner systems using technology similar to HP-Indigo imaging)
penetration into the workgroup market from HP.
Expect machines to continue to improve in quality and speed with price reductions
over the next few years, particularly for laser printing. It is likely that these devices will
incorporate colour management in the next few years. They will be calibrated
automatically with colour look-up tables downloaded from manufacturers’ websites, in an
attempt to persuade users to use their paper and inks/toners.
New opportunities New opportunities will arise from the production of printed electronics, smart materials
for printers and OLEDs, etc. Currently there are specialist manufacturers. Some divisions of large
printers, such as Toppan, are working with Philips and E Ink to develop smart material
displays, such as the Sony e-Book reader, Librié. The manufacture will require clean-room
conditions. Clients will not be print buyers but they will require new relationships with
developers and suppliers of the material under contract manufacture, or in partnership
with electronics companies.
Large quantities of organic semiconductor materials will be required for new lighting
appliances, solar panels and batteries that use smart materials. The materials will require
fabrication onto electronic controllers, which might also be printed for active displays in
specialist manufacturing conditions. Larger print groups may develop specialist units as
new opportunities to diversify their portfolios, often developing the solution in partnership
with existing customers. For example Toppan and Dai-Nippon Printing has developed a
business coating CRTs in partnership with leading Japanese electronic companies.
Less specialist opportunities include the mass production of simple electronic devices,
beginning with RFID tags. Over time most printers will have to incorporate RFID tags as
part of the printed product, either as a tag applied during finishing or printed using an
integral printing unit, in flexo, screen or offset print. When first adopted the tags will have
significant value; as they become more widely used the cost will fall. Other specialist
opportunities will include the production of printed circuit boards, colour filters,
photomasks and optronics.
Fujifilm Dimatix is a leading supplier of inkjet printheads. One of its key markets is for
high performance, micro-precision micropumps and systems for depositing picolitre-sized
droplets of fluids – such as liquid silver and organic inks – on all types of surfaces,
including flexible substrates, flat panel and flexible displays, printable electronics,
bioscience, and a wide variety of other applications. The use of 3D inkjet printing for
nanoscale devices will be an opportunity for high value-added manufacture using

emerging techniques. On the macro-scale 3D printing will develop from rapid prototyping
applications to the small scale manufacture of simple electronic devices. The technology to
print transistors, capacitors, inductive coils and other semiconductor components is based
on printing layer upon layer of conducting and semiconducting polymers in such a way
that the circuitry the device requires is built up as part of the bodywork. Products such as
light bulbs, radios, remote controls, mobile phones and toys may be produced as
individual, fully functional systems without expensive and labour-intensive production on
an assembly line. This merging of flexible materials with electronics has been dubbed
‘flexonics’ and could replace many conventional printed circuit boards, which are normally
multilayered flat plastic plates on which electronic components are soldered. Copper strips
running between the layers connect the components. Flexonics offer much simpler
low-cost manufacture for what will initially be simple devices with performance
improvements following. Production houses will be distributed, particularly in developing
markets where there is no established semiconductor manufacture.
Print technology In 2015 much print technology will be very similar to today. It will be faster, cheaper and
suppliers easier to use, offering improved quality from new equipment. There will be far more
automation; the push-button digital press will be established for offset quality in the
office, and the push-button offset and flexo press will be available for some sheet-fed
formats. The future is bright for flexography and inkjet press suppliers and there will be
more cooperation between press and technology suppliers in future as hybrid print lines
become more common.
The major big-league vendors for printing machines will still be Heidelberg, MAN-Roland,
KBA, Mitsubishi, Goss, Cerutti, Flexografica, Mark Andy, and many specialist flexo and
gravure converting lines. The largest is Heidelberg, which had sales of some €3.5 billion,
and is just returning to profit after several years of loss. The largest supplier to the print
sector is Xerox with a significant part of its €14 billion turnover aimed at commercial
printing. Xerox has the largest R&D budget of any supplier to the print industry, around
€1 billion annually on digital printing. This is joined by the development budgets of
Hewlett-Packard (HP-Indigo), IBM and Océ in laser printing, as well as Kodak, which also
has interests in industrial inkjet, Agfa, Toshiba, FujiFilm, Dai-Nippon Screen and HP, with
its purchase of Scitex Vision. This level of competition and research spending will greatly
boost the position of digital print in comparison to conventional printing technology.
Over the next ten years there will be changes in the key suppliers of print technology:
䊳 Digital printing technology through Xerox, Kodak and HP-Indigo
䊳 Conventional printing technology from Heidelberg, Man-Roland, Komori, Mitsubishi,
Goss and KBA
䊳 Inkjet head development from FujifilmDimatix , Xaar and Toshiba

5
䊳 Prepress and workflow solutions from Agfa, Kodak, Screen FujiFilm, Esko Graphics and
Founder Electronics
䊳 Page makeup and assembly systems Adobe, Quark and Pageflex.
One interesting change will be the growth of China as a force in the manufacture and
supply of print equipment. Much of it is for the local market, with designs of flexo and
lithographic machines copied from western models. China is leading the way in
assembling wide-format and sheet-fed inkjet printers for western suppliers. The number
of Chinese inkjet printer manufacturers is growing and includes:
䊳 Anhui LiYu Computer Equipment Co.
䊳 Beijing Century Skynet Digital
䊳 Gongzheng of Zhejiang
䊳 Gzfeiyeung of Shanghai (Infiniti/Aeromatrix, Inc.)
䊳 Jinhengfeng (JHF) of Jinan
䊳 Kebao of Liaoning
䊳 Keling of Guangdong
䊳 Saidi of Shanghai
䊳 Shang Cai of Shanghai
䊳 Shanghai LY
䊳 Shanghai Teckwin Development Co., Ltd.
䊳 Shenzhen Runtianzhi Image Technology
䊳 Shenzhen Yaselan Advertising Material Co.
䊳 Skyjet of Shenyang
䊳 Wit-color of Shanghai.
There are others. Korean printer manufacturer DGI has established relations with
distributors in developed countries. Azero and Keundo Technologies Ltd also manufacture
wide-format inkjet printers in Korea. Eastech produces its inkjet printers in Taiwan.
Heidelberg announced plans to begin manufacturing A3 presses and folders in its
Shanghai factory by 2006. The current operation is quite small, 1,200m2, and employs
200 people but may well be the start of low-cost labour manufacturing and will likely
be followed by others.
In the prepress sector Kodak is reinventing itself with the purchase of Creo to
complement its investment in plate technology and digital printing with Nexpress and
Scitex Digital Printing. The other giant is Agfa, with other plate manufacturers including
Dupont and Xsys (now part of Flint Group) in the flexo arena. Ten years ago Crosfield,
Scitex and Linotype-Hell were key players with Agfa and Screen. Scitex was taken over by
Creo and then sold to Kodak (along with its high-speed inkjet); Crosfield was subsumed
into FujiFilm; Linotype-Hell was taken over by Heidelberg with just the gravure cylinder
preparation left as Hell engraving.

Inks, coatings and Ink manufacturers are developing inks and coatings for all conventional printing methods.
colorants Less environmentally harmful formulations and chemicals continue to be introduced with
‘Ecosolvent’ and water-based versions of liquid inks replacing more active solvent systems.
There will be a significant rise in the use of radiation-cured ink systems with electron beam
(EB) joining UV. Aqueous coatings for offset will provide very fast sealing for sheet-fed
prints that require fast subsequent processing and have a range of finishes from matt to
very high gloss.
The industry is undergoing significant restructuring and looking for profitable
opportunities for growth, with many companies exploring the high value-added
opportunities of digital printing. There will be good opportunities in inkjet where there is
more competition and open markets for many print lines. For laser printing many of the
high-volume devices are supplied with a consumable contract, where the manufacturer of
the machine supplies specific toner, often in proprietary packaging, and there is no open
market. This is unlikely to change as laser printers have good patent protection and are
investing heavily. HP-Indigo has the Electro-Ink liquid toner under in-house manufacture;
other system suppliers are developing next-generation toners that will offer better image
quality and consistency at lower cost. Xerox has invested €80 million in a new toner
production plant near Rochester, UK, to manufacture its next-generation emulsion
aggregation (EA) toner. Traditional methods of manufacture involve mixing and heating
the ingredients and extruding them into strands that are then pulverised into small
particles. The particles are then mechanically sieved with a particle size of around 7µ in
diameter. A new method involves growing the toner from the molecular level, making it
possible to reduce the average particle size to about 5µ microns with a far more consistent
size distribution. Over the next ten years nanotechnology will be used to produce new
toner.
Inkmakers will explore nanotechnology manufacturing methods to produce inks and
varnishes more efficiently. The use of novel nanoparticles will widen the range of available
ink colours, with better metallics and fluorescents. These will be very useful in the
development of specialty inks in security and the emerging printing technologies for
organic semiconductor and electronic devices. Conductive inks fall into two main
categories:
䊳 Highly pigmented systems, where a metallic component (commonly silver, but various
other metals can be used) is dispersed in a polymer vehicle that can be cured, usually
by heating. The heating may also result in the decomposition of some of the carrier
components, leading to a final deposit with a higher proportion of metallic
component.
䊳 Formulations where a metallic precursor is embedded in a carrier system. After
printing, the film is heated and the precursor decomposes into nearly pure metal.
A typical ink consists of particles, a molecular precursor to the functional phase,

5
vehicle, binder and additives.

Parelec Inc. in the US has developed and manufactures a range of conductive inks and
pastes for printing functional electrical circuits onto paper and plastic substrates. These
conductive inks, known as Parmod inks, are claimed to enable the printing of RFID antenna
designs and flexible circuits at high speed and low cost. They are a patented family of
materials, which includes one or more metal powders and a reactive metallo-organic
medium that volatilises during the heating process. They can be applied by conventional
printing processes such as screen or gravure printing to produce fully additive printed
circuits and interconnects. The Parmod family of products includes silver and copper, as well
as a variety of other metal and oxide compositions. They are formulated as an ink, paste or
toner for printing components such as conductors, resistors, capacitors and inductors. They
are cured in minutes at temperatures as low as 135°C in a box oven or a roll-to-roll
continuous print-and-cure production line.
Parelec has also demonstrated the ability to print Parmod compositions
electrostatically. Electrostatic printing can provide increased resolution for finer circuit
features, which parallels major industry trends. An example of how the use of a conductive
ink has transformed a paper substrate into an interactive medium has been demonstrated
by T-Ink in the US. The company printed circuits onto tray mats for use by McDonald’s
restaurants in Australia. A light on a toy that comes with a children’s meal lights up when
the child follows a maze-like circuit on the mat.
Other trends that showed initial promise included the use of single-fluid lithographic
systems that contain the ink and dampening solution together at the optimal mix and do
not require a separate damping system on press. The technology showed a lot of early
interest but has dropped from the headlines. Other specialty inks will increase with
security applications and properties such as thermochromic change offering opportunities
for suppliers and printers.
The rise of computer power and communication and the start of the quantum
information age will further smooth the printing supply chain. Publishers and print buyers
will find it much easier to find and choose suitable suppliers (and combinations of
suppliers) based on their key criteria, suitability, services offered, price, capacity availability
and location.

Regulations and legislations
6
Several state and federal regulations and social pressures are making the printing industry
take necessary measures to reduce the emission of hazardous chemicals used in printing
processes. This chapter focuses on different regulations imposed on printing industry to
prevent environmental hazards. Waste from the printing industry has been classified as
hazardous and non-hazardous.
The most important directive formulated by European parliament, RoHS, is discussed
in detail. Many of the government bodies and printing industry experts commonly agree
that prevention of printing waste is always better from an economic and environmental
perspective than curing the hazardous effects of the same. This forms the basis for global
environmental concern and the formulation of necessary regulations.
Environmental issues The major environmental issue in the printing industry is the release of volatile organic
related to printing compounds (VOCs). VOCs are compounds which have a high vapour pressure and low
Volatile organic water solubility. Many are produced in the manufacture of inks and paints. The type and
chemicals (VOC) the amount of VOC emissions depend upon the production volume and type of raw
material such as ink and other plate making solutions used.
Most of the VOCs in the printing process specifically emerge from petroleum-based
inks, isopropyl alcohol for damping systems and cleaning solvents such as methanol and
trichloroethane. These chemicals evaporate as they are used in printing operations.
Dampening solvents constitute a major part of VOC emissions. Switching to waterless
printing eliminates the use of dampening solvents hence reducing VOC emissions. Another
possible alternative is the use of low vapour pressure solvents for press washes. This will
also reduce the emissions to a considerable extent.
Printing waste The waste generated in printing industry can be broadly classified as hazardous waste and
non-hazardous waste. Various other types of wastes are described as follows:
TABLE 6.1 Classification of printing wastes

Hazardous waste VOC Contaminated waste water Non-hazardous solid waste
Photographic waste including Petroleum based inks, inks Any liquid hazardous waste Waste substrates such as paper, foil,
intensifiers, fixer, scrap film and containing xylene, ketone dumped in the drains. film resulting from rejects and
photo developer. and alcohols. excess quantities.
Waste ink with solvents and Fountain and damping solutions Rinse from photo processing. Water based inks without heavy
different heavy metals. such as isopropyl alcohol. metal constituents.
Strong alkaline wastes such as Cleaning solvents including - -
sodium hydroxide. acetone, methanol and toluene.
Strong acid waste such as Various types of adhesives - -
sulphuric acid, nitric acid. containing ammonia.
Cleaning rags, which are - - -
contaminated with solvents.
Source: Rochester Institute of Technology

Regulatory In order to control the hazardous waste generation from printing industry different state
framework and federal regulations have been formulated. These regulations are described in this
section.
Clean Air Act Clean Air Act (US) focuses on preserving and improving the air quality in the environment.
This act came in to effect in 1970. It has six titles out of which titles I, III and IV are
related to the printing industry.
Title I This title has provisions for implementing and maintaining of National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS). These have been established primarily to monitor six types of
hazardous pollutants. These are: lead, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, ozone, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
NAAQS regulations on existing sources of emissions classify different regions of each
country as either attainment or non-attainment areas for each type of air pollutant. A
specific region or area in each country is termed as a non-attainment area where the
specific level of all the air pollutants has exceeded the prescribed limit for a particular
period of time. Depending upon the level of air pollution, each non-attainment area is
rated as marginal, moderate, serious, severe and extreme. For each rating scale category,
the deadline to achieve NAAQS standards is formulated.
The regions declared as non-attainment areas for ozone have to implement State
Implementation Plan (SIP) so as to reduce the harmful ozone concentration. This plan
influences the printing industry on a wide scale. Any printing unit that is classified as a
major source of VOC emissions must install the relevant control technology in its
operations. A printing unit has potential to emit more than 1,000 tonnes per annum.
Title III This title provides Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards formulated
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for a list of 189 Hazardous Air Pollutants
(HAP). EPA has the authority to formulate MACT standards for the source categories,
which emit at least one of the pollutants included in the hazardous air pollutant list. If
the printing unit achieves 90% reduction in emission of hazardous pollutants before the
date proposed by MACT standards, the printing company gets an extension of six years
for the compliance date of MACT standards.
EPA has published MACT standards for the printing industry particularly for two
printing categories. One is publication rotogravure printing, which is used to print
catalogues, magazines, newspaper inserts and directories. The second category is wide
web flexographic printing, which prints on paper, plastics, metal foil and vinyl used in
flexible packaging. These standards primarily target hazardous chemicals such as toluene,
xylene, methanol and hexane. The printing unit may use the pollution prevention method,
substitute non-toxic chemicals instead of toxic ones or use traditional emission control
equipments to comply with the MACT standards laid by EPA.

6
Title V This title laid down the procedure for major sources or printing units to obtain permits
which are regulated under the Clean Air Act. The minimum standards and procedures
required for these federally and locally issued operating permits come under this title. This
permit applies to volatile organic chemicals and hazardous air pollutants. These standards
and procedures include the emission limits, compliance schedule and emission control
activities.
Clean Water Act Growing public awareness the global concern for controlling water pollution has laid the
foundation for the Clean Water Act (US). This act establishes the basic guidelines for
discharge of pollutants into water. The act gave EPA the authority to set up wastewater
standards for the industry.
This act has two primary objectives. One is to eliminate the discharge of pollutants in
water including lakes, rivers and coastal areas. The other is to maintain the water quality
level suitable for drinking. Different printing operations produce waste water containing
acids, alkalis and other organic solvents. Rinse water contaminated with photochemicals
like silver and plate-making chemicals containing cyanide and chromium. These hazardous
chemicals pollute the water, which in turn generates harmful effects on the environment
and human health.
The following are requirements formulated by the Clean Water Act for the printing
industry.
Direct discharge Regulated printing units or facilities should notify the federal government at the time of
discharging hazardous substances which exceeds or meets the reportable quantity.
Disposal or discharge of used oil into a septic tank, sewer, on the ground or into a
body of water is strictly prohibited. Each regulated printing facility is expected to adhere
to this provision.
Discharge to Publicly The printing facility should ensure Publicly Owned Treatment Works know about the
Owned Treatment discharge of hazardous substances which may cause problems. The discharge should be
Works (POTW) monitored and recorded by the POTW and monitoring and record keeping as formulated
by POTW. Only a one time warning is given for a discharge of hazardous waste if the
amount of waste exceeds 33 pounds per month.
Resource Conservation RCRA awards authority to EPA to control the generation, transportation, treatment,
and Recovery Act storage and disposal of hazardous waste. The classification of hazardous waste is listed in
(RCRA) 40 CFR 261 of RCRA (attached as Annexure 1 at the end of chapter) or in the instance
that a material shows characteristics like ignitibility, corrosiveness, reactivity and toxicity, it
shall be classified as hazardous waste.
Possible hazardous wastes generated by the printing industry is classified as:

Ignitable waste Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is a VOC. Blanket and roller washes used in flexographic printing,
cleanup solvents and inks and fountain solutions are the most inflammable wastes
generated in the printing industry.
Corrosive waste Film and plate processing chemicals, alkaline cleaners, acids and etching solvents are
classified as corrosive waste.
RCRA listed waste The RCRA have listed hazardous waste generated by the printing industry. These include
benzene, acetone, methyl chloroform, methanol, methylene chloride, toluene and xylene.
Reactive waste Bleaches and oxidizers used in different printing processes are classified as reactive waste,
meaning that they react with the other elements in the environment after discharge.
Toxic waste Plate processing chemicals and clean up solvents are used in printing operations. These
contain toxic constituents which generate toxic waste after discharge.
RoHS directive for The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive is a set of European regulations,
printing processes which restrict the use of specific hazardous substances in electrical and electronic
equipments, which includes printing units. These hazardous substances include lead,
cadmium, hexavalent bromium, polybrominated biphenyl and polybrominated diphenyl
ethers.
From 1st July 2006, RoHS regulations ban electrical and electronic equipment from
the European market which contain the above mentioned hazardous substances in a
concentration that is beyond the permitted levels.
VOC solvents directive The European Parliament directive 2004/42/EC amends the directive 1999/13/EC. The
2004/42/CE amending principle objective of the directive 2004/42/EC is to limit the emission of volatile organic
directive 1999/13/EC compounds in certain installations and processes like printing, surface cleaning, vehicle
coating and dry cleaning.
The product categories, which fall under the scope of this directive only apply in
European countries.

6
TABLE 6.2 Maximum emission limit values for printing processes

Activity (solvent Threshold (solvent Emission limit value Fugitive emission value (% of
consumption tonnes/year) consumption in tonnes/year) in waste gases solvent input)
New Existing
Heatset web offset printing 15-25 100 30#
(> 15) >25 20 30#
Publication rotogravure (> 25) 75 10 15
Other rotogravure, flexography, 15-25 100 25
rotary screen printing, laminating
or varnishing units (> 15) rotary >25 100 20
screen printing on
textile/cardboard (> 30) >30* 100 20
Source: Official Journal of European Union.
# Solvent residue in finished product is not to be considered as part of fugitive emissions.
* Threshold for rotary screen-printing on textile and on cardboard.
Obligations applying to EU member countries should adopt the various measures to ensure that:
existing printing 1) Existing printing units should comply with the articles 5, 8, and 9 of directive
installations 1999/13/EC no later than 31 October 2007.
2) All existing printing installations or units should be registered or authorised by 31
October 2007 at the latest.
3) Those printing installations to be registered or authorised by reduction procedure as
provided by this directive should intimate this to competent authorities by 31 October
2007 at the latest.
4) When a printing unit or installation undergoes substantial change or comes under the
purview of this directive for the first time followed by a substantial change then that
part of the unit which has undergone a modification will be treated as either a new
installation or an existing installation, provided that the total emission of the whole
printing installation should not exceed those that would have resulted had the
substantially changed part been treated as new installation.
Obligations applying to European States should announce the measure to ensure that:
new printing 1) All printing units or installations should comply with the articles 5, 8 and 9 of
installations directive 2004/42/EC.
2) All new installations not covered under directive 2004/42/EC should be registered
before they go into operation.
Article 5 requirements European States shall take appropriate measure to ensure that
1] All installations shall comply with:
a] Either the emission limit values in waste gases or total emission limit values of
fugitive emission limit values as stated in Table 5.1.
b] The requirements of the reduction scheme.
2] a] Fugitive emission values to the installation shall be applied as emission limit

values. When it is brought to the notice of the competent authority that for
individual installation this value is not technically and economically feasible, the
authority may consider it as an exception provided that it should not cause any
significant risk to human health or the environment.
b] Activities which cannot be carried out in contained conditions may be exempted
from Table 5.1, under such scenario reduction schemes providing that the
operator should inform the competent authority that this method is not
technically viable for use. The operator must be able to demonstrate that the best
possible method is being used.
European States shall report to the commission on derogation as per the above
paragraphs a and b.
3] For installations not using the reduction scheme, any abatement equipment installed
after the date on which this Directive is brought into effect shall meet all the
requirements listed in Table 5.1.
4] Installations where two or more activities are carried out, each of which exceeds the
threshold limit in Table 5.1:
a] In relation to substances specified in paragraphs 5, 6, and 7 shall meet the
requirement for each activity individually.
b] All other substances either
i. meet the requirement of paragraph 1 for each activity
ii. have total emissions not exceeding those that would have resulted had
point (i) been applied.
5] Substances which are classified as carcinogens due to their VOC contents should have
to carry risk phrases R45, R46, R49, R60, R61, and shall be replaced as far as possible
with less harmful substances in the shortest period of time.
6] For discharges of the VOCs, where the mass flow of the sum of the compounds is
greater than, or equal to, 10 g/h, an emission limit value of 2 mg/Nm3 shall be
complied with. The emission limit value refers to the mass sum of the individual
compounds.
7] For discharge of halogenated VOCs, which are assigned risk label R40, where the
mass flow sum of the compounds causing labelling of R40 is greater than or equal to
100g/h, an emission limit value of 20 mg/nm3 shall be complied with.
8] After the entry of this directive, those VOCs to be discharged need to carry the risk
labels mentioned in paragraphs 5 and 7 and will have to comply with the emission
limit values as mentioned in paragraphs 6 and 7 within the shortest possible time.
9] All necessary precautions are needed to be taken during start up and shut down in
order to minimise the emissions.
10] Existing installations, which operate existing abatement equipment and comply with
the following emission limit values are:
䊳 50mg C/Nm3 in the case of incineration,
䊳 150mg C/Nm3 in the case of any other abatement equipment, shall be exempt

6
from the waste gases emission limit values listed in Table 5.1 for a period of 12
years after the date 1st April 2001, provided the total emissions of the whole
installation do not exceed those that would have resulted had all the
requirements of the table been met.
11] Reduction scheme and the application of paragraph 10 does not exempt installations
discharging substances specified in paragraphs 5, 6 and 7 from fulfilling the
requirements of those paragraphs.
12] For the risk assessment of any of the substances labelled as R40, R60 or R61, the
commission shall consider the conclusion of risk assessment and take necessary
measures.
Article 8 monitoring 1] Member States shall introduce an obligation for an operator of an installation coming
under the purview of this directive to supply the data once in a year to the competent
authority which will allow that authority to verify compliance with this directive.
2] Member States shall ensure that the channels connected to abatement equipment
emitting more than an average of 10 kg/h of total organic carbon at the final point
of discharge are monitored continuously for compliance.
3] European States shall ensure that either continuous or periodic measurements of
emissions should be carried out. In the case of periodic emission measurements, at
least three reading are to be taken during each measurement exercise to verify the
compliance.
4] In the case of end of pipe abatement equipment, measurements are not required and
also there is no need of compliance with this directive as well.
5] The Commission shall organise an exchange of information on the use of solvent
management plans in Member States based on the data for the implementation of
this Directive in the three years following from 1st April 2001.
Article 9 compliance 1] Compliance in the following areas should be achieved in order to satisfy the
with emission limit competent authority:
values 䊳 Emission limit values in waste gases, fugitive emission values and total emission
limit values,
䊳 The provisions of Article 5(2).
Gas volume may be added to waste gas for the purpose of cooling or dilution. This
activity is justified technically but shall not be considered while determining the mass
concentration of the pollutant in waste gas.
2] If any significant change is carried out in the installation, the compliance should be
re-verified.
3] In the case of continuous measurement of emission, the emission limit value shall be
considered to be complied with if:
䊳 None of the averages over 24 hours of normal operation exceeds the emission
limit value, and

䊳 None of the hourly averages exceeds the emission limit values by more than a
factor of 1.5.
4] In the case of periodic measurements, the emission limit values shall be considered to
be complied with if, in one monitoring exercise:
(a) The average of all the readings does not exceed the emission limit values, and
(b) None of the hourly averages exceeds the emission limit value by more than a
factor of 1.5.
5] Compliance with the provisions of Article 5(6) and (7) shall be verified on the basis of
the sum of the mass concentrations of the individual volatile organic compounds
concerned. For all other cases, compliance shall be verified on the basis of the total
mass of organic carbon emitted unless otherwise specified in Table 5.1.
Article 10 If it is found that the requirements of this Directive have been breached, Member States
non-compliance shall take appropriate measures to ensure that:
(a) The operator informs the competent authority and takes measures to ensure that
compliance is restored within the shortest possible time;
(b) In cases of non-compliance causing immediate danger to human health and as long
as compliance is not restored under the conditions of paragraph (a), operation of the
activity is suspended.
Reduction scheme The main objective of the reduction scheme is to allow the operator to achieve emission
reduction by other means, equivalent to those achieved if the emission limit values were
to be applied. The operator is free to use any reduction scheme that is specifically
designed for his installation through which an equivalent emission reduction is achieved
at the end.
The Member States shall report to the commission about the progress of the reduction
scheme to achieve the same emission reduction.
For the purpose of applying inks, coatings and varnishes, the following schemes can
be used. In cases, where the method is found to be inappropriate, the competent authority
may allow the operator to apply any other alternative exemption scheme which best
satisfies the objective of reduction scheme as described above. The design of the scheme
considers the following:
1] In cases where substitutes containing little or no solvent are still under development,
a time extension must be given to the operator to implement the emission reduction
plan.
2] The reference point for emission reduction should correspond as closely as possible to
the emissions which would have resulted had no reduction action been taken.
The following scheme is applicable to printing installations in which a constant solid
content of product is assumed and also used to determine the reference point for the
emission reduction.
I. The operator shall forward the emission reduction plan which includes the decrease in

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solvent content of the input or increased efficiency in the use of solids to achieve
reduction in total emission of the installations to a given percentage of annual
reference emissions known as target emissions. This must be done on the time frame
outlined in Table 5.3.
TABLE 6.3 Time period for submission of emission reduction plan

Time period Maximum allowed total annual
emissions
New installations Existing installations
By 31/10/2001 By 31/10/2005 Target emission 1.5
By 31/10/2004 By 31/10/2007 Target emission
II. The annual reference emission is calculated as:

a) The absolute mass of solids in the quantity of coating/ink, varnish/adhesive
which is consumed in a year is calculated. The materials used in printing inks,
varnishes and coating that become solid when the water or volatile organic
chemical is evaporated in drying process.
b) The annual reference emission is calculated by multiplying the mass of solid
calculated above with the factor stated in Table 5.4 below. Competent authorities
are allowed to alter these factors for individual installations of printing units so
as to reflect the increased efficiency in the use of solids.
TABLE 6.4 Multiplication factors for different printing processes

Activity Multiplication factor
Rotogravure printing; flexography printing; laminating as part of a printing
activity; varnishing as part of a printing activity; wood coating; coating of
textiles, fabric film or paper; adhesive coating. 4
Rotary screen printing 1.5
c) The target emission is equal to the annual reference emission multiplied by the
percentage equal to the fugitive emission value plus five.
d) Compliance of this reduction scheme is achieved if total actual solvent emission
is less than or equal to the target emission.
Offences and penalties The RoHS regulations covers the following offences:
1] Failing to comply with RoHS regulations concerning prevention of hazardous
substances in the printing industry could result in a fine up to the statutory maximum
(currently £5,000) on summary conviction or unlimited fine on conviction on
indictment.
2] Those failing to produce the compliance document requested by the competent

enforcement authority are liable to pay a fine up to level five on the standard scale
(currently £5,000).
The defence of ‘due diligence’ is available where a person can show that all the
necessary steps were taken and all due diligence was exercised to avoid committing the
offence. This may include a reference to an act or information given by a third party that
must be accompanied by the information identifying the third party or that information in
possession of the person making the claim.
The regulation also has the provision for the ‘liability for the person other than the
principle offender’, which allows the third party to be prosecuted as though they had
committed the offence.
When an offence is shown to have been committed by a corporate body with consent
or due to the negligence of director, manager or any other similar officer of the corporate
body, they could be regarded as having committed the offence as well as the corporate
body.
Emerging standards in There are some regulatory authorities, which regulate the standards in printing industry.
the printing industry These are discussed in this section. The printing industry has two types of standards,
which are safety and technical standards.
American National The foundation stone of American National Standards Institute was laid in 1918 by five
Standards Institute engineering societies and three governmental agencies. It is a privately funded federation,
(ANSI) which governs the standards development process of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
Committee for Graphic The Committee for Graphic Arts Technologies in the US was established in 1987. About a
Arts Technologies year later, it was assessed by ANSI to satisfy its need for umbrella standard and got
(CGATS) accreditation from ANSI in1989. The main objective of CGATS is to cover the entire scope
of printing and publishing technologies under one national standard and coordinate
efforts along with respecting the existing standards procedures and standards developers.
The primary aim of CGATS is to cover the entire spectrum of printing, publishing and
converting technologies which are represented under a single national standardisation
and coordination effort. This is done in tandem with the established activities of the
already appointed accredited standards committees and industry standards developers.
Standards are written by CGATS only in the event that no other committee is undertaking
the writing. It works to improve the efficiency of national standards development,
encourages information exchange and serves as backbone for international standards
development.

6
TABLE 6.5 Technical CGATS standards

Standard Description
CGATS.5 - 2003 This standard establishes a methodology for reflection and transmission spectral measurement, and
Graphic technology - spectral computation of colourimetric parameters for graphic arts images.
measurement and Graphic arts include, but are not limited to, the preparation of material for, and volume production, which
colourimetric computation for includes offset lithography, letterpress, flexography, gravure and screen printing.
graphic arts images. This standard also applies to images to be manufactured in limited quantities such as those produced with
photographic, inkjet, thermal transfer, diffusion, electrophotography, mechanical transfer or toner technologies
(e.g., off-press proofs) when used for graphic arts applications. This standard does not address any requirements
on the measurement of emission spectral data from video monitors nor does it supersede the specification of
other measurement geometries appropriate to specific application needs, such as the evaluation of materials
(e.g., ink and paper) used in the graphic arts.
CGATS.7 – 2003 This standard specifies the stacking, unitizing, protection and labeling of palletised printed materials. It also
Graphic technology - Pallet specifies the functional design of pallets used to transport printed materials, and gives specifications for their
loading for printed materials loading onto delivery vehicles
CGATS/ISO 15930-4:2003 This part of ISO 15930 specifies the use of the Portable Document Format (PDF) Version 1.4 for the
Graphic technology – dissemination of complete digital data, in a single exchange, that contains all elements ready for final print
Prepress digital data reproduction. CMYK and spot colour data are supported in any combination.
exchange using PDF –
Part 4: Complete exchange
of CMYK and spot colour
printing data using
PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-1a)
CGATS/ISO 15930-5:2003, This part of ISO 15930 specifies the use of the Portable Document Format (PDF) Version 1.4 for the
Graphic technology – dissemination of digital data, where all elements necessary for final print reproduction are either included or
Prepress digital data provision is made for unique identification. Colour-managed, CMYK, and spot colour data are supported in
exchange using PDF – any combination.
Part 5: Partial exchange of
printing data using
PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-2)
CGATS/ISO 15930-6:2003, This part of ISO 15930 specifies the use of the Portable Document Format (PDF) Version 1.4 for the
Graphic technology – dissemination of complete digital data, in a single exchange, that contains all elements necessary for final print
Prepress digital data reproduction. Colour managed, CMYK, Gray, RGB or spot colour data are supported.
exchange using PDF –
Part 6: Complete exchange
of printing data suitable for
colour managed workflows
using PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-3)
CGATS TR 012 - 2003 This Technical Report outlines the steps necessary to understand and objectively define the colour and tone
Graphic technology - colour reproduction capabilities (and limitations) of a printing process. These steps include optimisation,
reproduction and process fingerprinting, process control, and characterisation, which provide the information required in the package
control for packaging printing development workflow defined in ANSI CGATS TR 011. This report also suggests steps that may be taken to
control the printing processes to achieve consistent and predictable colour.
CGATS/ISO 12639:2004 This International Standard specifies a media-independent means for prepress electronic data exchange. It
Graphic technology - Prepress defines image file formats for encoding colour continuous tone picture images, colour line art images, high
digital data exchange - Tag resolution continuous tone images, monochrome continuous tone images, binary picture images, binary line art
image file format for image images, screened data, and images of composite final pages.
technology (TIFF/IT)
Source: The Association for Suppliers of Printing and Publishing Technology (NPES) standards book.

International International Organization for Standardization was established in 1947. It is a non-

Organization for government organization with the main objective of promoting the development of
Standardization (ISO) standardisation and its related activities to facilitate the cooperation under the purview of
economic, technological and intellectual activity, as well as the international exchange of
goods and services.
The scope of ISO covers standardisation in all fields except electrical and electronic
engineering standards, which comes under the purview of the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
TABLE 6.6 ISO safety standards

ISO 7010:2003, Ed This International Standard prescribes safety signs for the purposes of accident prevention, fire protection,
Graphical symbols — Safety health hazard information and emergency evacuation.
colours and safety signs —
Safety signs used in
workplaces and public areas.
ISO 12100-1:2003 Part 1: Basic terminology, methodology This International Standard defines basic terminology and methodology
Safety of machinery - Basic used in achieving safety of machinery. The provisions stated herein are intended for the designer. It does not
concepts, general principles deal with damage to domestic animals, property or the environment.
for design Part 2: Technical principles This standard defines technical principles to help designers in achieving safety in
the design of machinery.
ISO 12648:2003 This International Standard applies to printing press systems, including auxiliary equipment and finishing
Graphic technology - Safety machines, in which all the machine actuators (e.g. drives) of the equipment in the system are controlled by the
requirements for printing same control system. It applies only to systems in which a printing press is part of the system.
press systems
ISO 13849-2:2003 This International Standard specifies the procedures and conditions to be followed for the validation by
Safety of machinery – analysis and testing of the safety functions provided and the category achieved for the safety related parts of
Safety-related parts of the control system in compliance with EN 954-1 (ISO 13849-1), using the design rationale provided by the
control systems – designer. This International Standard does not give complete validation requirements for programmable
Part 2: Validation electronic systems and therefore can require the use of other standards.
ISO 12649:2004 This International Standard provides safety specifications for the design and construction of binding and
Graphic technology – finishing equipment operated in a system configuration or in stand-alone mode.
Safety requirements for
binding and finishing
systems and equipment
ISO 14122-4:2004 This standard applies to all machinery (stationary and mobile) where fixed means of access are necessary.
Safety of machinery —
Permanent means of access
to machinery –
Part 4: Fixed ladders
Source: NPES standards book
ISO technical standards International Organization for Standards has formulated technical standards for printing
technology. Theses standards relate to:
䊳 The printing processes
䊳 Types of ink used
䊳 Graphic technology used in printing.

6
Theses standards are summarized in Table 5.7.
TABLE 6.7 ISO technical standards

ISO 2836:2004 This International Standard specifies methods of assessing the resistance of printed materials to liquid
Graphic technology - Prints and and solid agents, solvents, varnishes, and acids.
printing inks - Assessment of
resistance to various agents
ISO 12640-2:2004 This part of ISO 12640 specifies a set of 15 standard colour images (encoded as both 16-bit XYZ and 8-bit
Graphic technology – Prepress RGB digital data provided in electronic data files) that can be used for the evaluation of changes in image
digital data exchange – quality during coding, image processing (including transformation compression and decompression),
Part 2: XYZ/sRGB encoded displaying on a colour monitor or printing. They can be used for many graphic technology applications
standard colour image data such as research, development, product evaluation, and process control.
(XYZ/SCID)
ISO 12646:2004 This International Standard specifies requirements for uniformity, size, resolution, convergence, refresh
Graphic technology - Displays for rate, luminance levels and viewing conditions for a colour display used to simulate a hard copy proofing
colour proofing - Characteristics system.
and viewing conditions
ISO 12647-1:2004 This and other parts of ISO 12647 specify parameters that define printing conditions for the various
Graphic technology - Process processes used in the graphic arts industry.
control for the manufacture of
half-tone colour separations, proof
and production prints -
Part 1: Parameters and
measurement methods
ISO 12647-2:2004 This International Standard specifies a number of process parameters and their values to be applied when
Graphic technology - Process preparing colour separations for four-colour offset printing, or when producing four-colour prints by one of
control for the manufacture of the following methods: heat-set web, sheet-fed or continuous forms process printing, or proofing for these
half-tone colour separations, proof processes; offset proofing for half-tone gravure.
and production prints - Part 2:
Offset lithographic processes
ISO 15790:2004 This International Standard specifies the documentation requirements for certified reference materials
Graphic technology and (CRMs), procedures for the use of CRMs, and procedures for the computation and reporting of the
photography - Certified reference combined standard uncertainty of reflectance and transmittance measurement systems used in graphic
materials for reflection and arts, photographic and other imaging industries.
transmission metrology -
Documentation and procedures
for use, including determination
of combined standard uncertainty
ISO 2846-5:2005 This part of ISO 2846 specifies the colour and transparency to be produced by each ink in a process
Graphic technology - Colour and colour ink set (including extender) intended for four colour flexographic printing, when printed under
transparency of printing ink sets specified flexographic printing conditions. It also describes the conformance test method.
for four-colour printing -
Part 5: Flexographic printing
ISO 15994:2005, This International Standard defines a measure of the apparent lustre of printed materials, termed “visual
Graphic technology — Testing of lustre”, which is intended for communication amongst designer, client and the printer of products for
prints — Visual luster which the visual perception of the surface lustre is important.
Source: National Printing Equipment Association (NPES) standards book

B65 committee B65 committee is US standards body accredited by ANSI, which governs the development
of safety standards for graphic arts equipment. The main objective of B65 committee is to
develop ANSI standards for printing presses, bindery machines and other printing
equipments in relation with their design, arrangement, designation and colour scheme of
signalling devices. It also involves the work related to other mechanical safety devices and
safe practices that is applicable to printing equipment.
As the printing industry is becoming more globally oriented, it is essential to
formulate uniform global printing safety standards for printing equipment and machinery
irrespective of the country of import or export. In order to achieve this objective, B65
committee formed five different subcommittees, which are involved in the standards
development procedure for printing machines and equipments.

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Executive summary vii Gravure 55

Page iii © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Page iv © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Page v © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

3.1 Illustration of the characteristics 3.26 Automatic plate loading on a

Page vi © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

3.45 Schematic of a gravure publication 3.64 Schematic showing development of

Page vii © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Page ix © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

TABLE E.1 Global split of print processes

Page x © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

single printing operation.

Page xi © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Page 1 © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

Page 2 © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

TABLE 2.1 Comparison between major print processes

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TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

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Applications for various printing processes are summarised in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.2 Different printing processes and their applications

Page 5 © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

TABLE 2.3 Challenges influencing the printing industry

Page 6 © Copyright Pira International Ltd 2006

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