Geology of the Moon

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See also: Internal structure of the Moon

Geologic map of the near side of the Moon (high resolution, click to zoom)

Smithsonian Institution Senior Scientist Tom Watters talks about the Moon's recent geological activity.

False-color image of the Moon taken by the Galileo orbiter showing geological features. NASA photo
 The same image using different color filters
The geology of the Moon (sometimes called selenology, although the latter term can refer more
generally to "lunar science") is quite different from that of Earth. The Moon lacks a
significant atmosphere, which eliminates erosion due to weather; it does not have any form of plate
tectonics, it has a lower gravity, and because of its small size, it cooled more rapidly. The
complex geomorphology of the lunar surface has been formed by a combination of processes,
especially impact cratering and volcanism. The Moon is a differentiated body, with a crust, mantle,
and core.
Geological studies of the Moon are based on a combination of Earth-based telescope observations,
measurements from orbiting spacecraft, lunar samples, and geophysical data. Six locations were
sampled directly during the crewed Apollo program landings from 1969 to 1972, which returned
380.96 kilograms (839.9 lb) of lunar rock and lunar soil to Earth. In addition, three
robotic Soviet Luna spacecraft returned another 326 grams (11.5 oz) from 1970 to 1976. The Moon
is the only extraterrestrial body for which we have samples with a known geologic context. A handful
of lunar meteorites have been recognized on Earth, though their source craters on the Moon are
unknown. A substantial portion of the lunar surface has not been explored, and a number of
geological questions remain unanswered.

Contents

 1Elemental composition
 2Formation
 3Geologic history
o 3.1Strata and epochs
 4Lunar landscape
o 4.1Highlands
o 4.2Maria
 4.2.1Rilles
 4.2.2Domes
 4.2.3Wrinkle ridges
 4.2.4Grabens
o 4.3Impact craters
o 4.4Regolith
o 4.5Lunar lava tubes
 5Lunar magma ocean
 6Lunar rocks
o 6.1Surface materials
o 6.2Composition of the maria
 7Internal structure
o 7.1Magnetic field
 8Gallery
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

Elemental composition[edit]
Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among
others, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), manganes
e (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The oxygen
content is estimated at 45% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) appear to be present only in
trace quantities from deposition by solar wind.
Lunar surface chemical composition[1]

Compound Formula Composition

Maria Highlands

silica SiO2 45.4% 45.5%

alumina Al2O3 14.9% 24.0%

lime CaO 11.8% 15.9%

iron(II) oxide FeO 14.1% 5.9%

magnesia MgO 9.2% 7.5%

titanium dioxide TiO2 3.9% 0.6%

sodium oxide Na2O 0.6% 0.6%

99.9% 100.0%
Neutron spectrometry data from Lunar Prospector indicate the presence of hydrogen (H)
concentrated at the poles.[2]
Relative concentration of various elements on the lunar surface (in weight %)

Relative concentration (in weight %) of various elements on lunar highlands, lunar lowlands, and Earth

Formation[edit]

Visible face of the Moon

Main article: Origin of the Moon

For a long period of time, the fundamental question regarding the history of the Moon was of its
origin. Early hypotheses included fission from Earth, capture, and co-accretion. Today, the giant-
impact hypothesis is widely accepted by the scientific community.[3]

Geologic history[edit]

Cliffs in the lunar crust indicate the moon shrank globally in the geologically recent past and is still shrinking
today.

The geological history of the Moon has been defined into six major epochs, called the lunar geologic
timescale. Starting about 4.5 billion years ago,[4] the newly formed Moon was in a molten state and
was orbiting much closer to Earth resulting in tidal forces.[5] These tidal forces deformed the molten
body into an ellipsoid, with the major axis pointed towards Earth.
The first important event in the geologic evolution of the Moon was the crystallization of the near
global magma ocean. It is not known with certainty what its depth was, but several studies imply a
depth of about 500 km or greater. The first minerals to form in this ocean were the iron and
magnesium silicates olivine and pyroxene. Because these minerals were denser than the molten
material around them, they sank. After crystallization was about 75% complete, less
dense anorthositic plagioclase feldspar crystallized and floated, forming an anorthositic crust about
50 km in thickness. The majority of the magma ocean crystallized quickly (within about 100 million
years or less), though the final remaining KREEP-rich magmas, which are highly enriched in
incompatible and heat-producing elements, could have remained partially molten for several
hundred million (or perhaps 1 billion) years. It appears that the final KREEP-rich magmas of the
magma ocean eventually became concentrated within the region of Oceanus Procellarum and
the Imbrium basin, a unique geologic province that is now known as the Procellarum KREEP
Terrane.

Exploring Shorty Crater during the Apollo 17 mission to the Moon. This was the only Apollo mission to include
a geologist (Harrison Schmitt). (NASA photo)

Quickly after the lunar crust formed, or even as it was forming, different types of magmas that would
give rise to the Mg-suite norites and troctolites[6] began to form, although the exact depths at which
this occurred are not known precisely. Recent theories suggest that Mg-suite plutonism was largely
confined to the region of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane, and that these magmas are genetically
related to KREEP in some manner, though their origin is still highly debated in the scientific
community. The oldest of the Mg-suite rocks have crystallization ages of about 3.85 Ga. However,
the last large impact that could have excavated deep into the crust (the Imbrium basin) also occurred
at 3.85 Ga before present. Thus, it seems probable that Mg-suite plutonic activity continued for a
much longer time, and that younger plutonic rocks exist deep below the surface.
Analysis of the lunar samples seems to imply that a significant percentage of the lunar impact basins
formed within a very short period of time between about 4 and 3.85 Ga ago. This hypothesis is
referred to as the lunar cataclysm or late heavy bombardment. However, it is now recognized that
ejecta from the Imbrium impact basin (one of the youngest large impact basins on the Moon) should
be found at all of the Apollo landing sites. It is thus possible that ages for some impact basins (in
particular Mare Nectaris) could have been mistakenly assigned the same age as Imbrium.
The lunar maria represent ancient flood basaltic eruptions. In comparison to terrestrial lavas, these
contain higher iron abundances, have low viscosities, and some contain highly elevated abundances
of the titanium-rich mineral ilmenite. The majority of basaltic eruptions occurred between about 3 and
3.5 Ga ago, though some mare samples have ages as old as 4.2 Ga, and the youngest (based on
the method of crater counting) are thought to have erupted 1 billion years ago. Along with mare
volcanism came pyroclastic eruptions, which launched molten basaltic materials hundreds of
kilometers away from the volcano. A large portion of the mare formed, or flowed into, the low
elevations associated with the nearside impact basins. However, Oceanus Procellarum does not
correspond to any known impact structure, and the lowest elevations of the Moon within the
farside South Pole-Aitken basin are only modestly covered by mare (see lunar mare for a more
detailed discussion).
Moon – Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")

Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients) (October 1, 2014)

Ancient rift valleys – context

Ancient rift valleys – closeup (artist's concept)

Impacts by meteorites and comets are the only abrupt geologic force acting on the Moon today,
though the variation of Earth tides on the scale of the Lunar anomalistic month causes small
variations in stresses.[7] Some of the most important craters used in lunar stratigraphy formed in this
recent epoch. For example, the crater Copernicus, which has a depth of 3.76 km and a radius of
93 km, is estimated to have formed about 900 million years ago (though this is debatable).
The Apollo 17 mission landed in an area in which the material coming from the crater Tycho might
have been sampled. The study of these rocks seem to indicate that this crater could have formed
100 million years ago, though this is debatable as well. The surface has also experienced space
weathering due to high energy particles, solar wind implantation, and micrometeorite impacts. This
process causes the ray systems associated with young craters to darken until it matches the albedo
of the surrounding surface. However, if the composition of the ray is different from the underlying
crustal materials (as might occur when a "highland" ray is emplaced on the mare), the ray could be
visible for much longer times.
After resumption of Lunar exploration in the 1990s, it was discovered there are scarps across the
globe that are caused by the contraction due to cooling of the Moon.[8]
Strata and epochs[edit]
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Main article: Lunar geologic timescale
On the top of the lunar stratigraphical sequence rayed impact craters can be found. Such youngest
craters belong to the Copernican unit. Below it can be found craters without the ray system, but with
rather well developed impact crater morphology. This is the Eratosthenian unit. The two younger
stratigraphical units can be found in crater sized spots on the Moon. Below them two extending
strata can be found: mare units (earlier defined as Procellarian unit) and the Imbrium basin related
ejecta and tectonic units (Imbrian units). Another impact basin related unit is the Nectarian unit,
defined around the Nectarian Basin. At the bottom of the lunar stratigraphical sequence the pre-
Nectarian unit of old crater plains can be found. The stratigraphy of Mercury is very similar to the
lunar case.

Lunar landscape[edit]
The lunar landscape is characterized by impact craters, their ejecta, a few volcanoes, hills, lava
flows and depressions filled by magma.

A photograph of full moon taken from Earth

Highlands[edit]
The most distinctive aspect of the Moon is the contrast between its bright and dark zones. Lighter
surfaces are the lunar highlands, which receive the name of terrae (singular terra, from
the Latin for Earth), and the darker plains are called maria (singular mare, from the Latin for sea),
after Johannes Kepler who introduced the name in the 17th century. The highlands
are anorthositic in composition, whereas the maria are basaltic. The maria often coincide with the
"lowlands," but it is important to note that the lowlands (such as within the South Pole-Aitken basin)
are not always covered by maria. The highlands are older than the visible maria, and hence are
more heavily cratered.
Maria[edit]
Main article: Lunar mare
The major products of volcanic processes on the Moon are evident to Earth-bound observers in the
form of the lunar maria. These are large flows of basaltic lava that correspond to low-
albedo surfaces covering nearly a third of the near side. Only a few percent of the farside has been
affected by mare volcanism. Even before the Apollo missions confirmed it, most scientists already
thought that the maria are lava-filled plains, because they have lava flow patterns and collapses
attributed to lava tubes.
The ages of the mare basalts have been determined both by direct radiometric dating and by the
technique of crater counting. The oldest radiometric ages are about 4.2 Ga, whereas the youngest
ages determined from crater counting are about 1 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years). Volumetrically, most of
the mare formed between about 3 and 3.5 Ga before present. The youngest lavas erupted
within Oceanus Procellarum, whereas some of the oldest appear to be located on the farside. The
maria are clearly younger than the surrounding highlands given their lower density of impact craters.

Moon – Evidence of young lunar volcanism (October 12, 2014)

Volcanic rilles near the crater Prinz

Volcanic domes within the Mons Rümker complex

Wrinkle ridges within the crater Letronne

Rima Ariadaeus is a graben. NASA photo taken during Apollo 10 mission.

A large portion of maria erupted within, or flowed into, the low-lying impact basins on the lunar
nearside. However, it is unlikely that a causal relationship exists between the impact event and mare
volcanism because the impact basins are much older (by about 500 million years) than the mare fill.
Furthermore, Oceanus Procellarum, which is the largest expanse of mare volcanism on the Moon,
does not correspond to any known impact basin. It is commonly suggested that the reason the mare
only erupted on the nearside is that the nearside crust is thinner than the farside. Although variations
in the crustal thickness might act to modulate the amount of magma that ultimately reaches the
surface, this hypothesis does not explain why the farside South Pole-Aitken basin, whose crust is
thinner than Oceanus Procellarum, was only modestly filled by volcanic products.
Another type of deposit associated with the maria, although it also covers the highland areas, are the
"dark mantle" deposits. These deposits cannot be seen with the naked eye, but they can be seen in
images taken from telescopes or orbiting spacecraft. Before the Apollo missions, scientists predicted
that they were deposits produced by pyroclastic eruptions. Some deposits appear to be associated
with dark elongated ash cones, reinforcing the idea of pyroclasts. The existence of pyroclastic
eruptions was later confirmed by the discovery of glass spherules similar to those found in
pyroclastic eruptions here on Earth.
Many of the lunar basalts contain small holes called vesicles, which were formed by gas bubbles
exsolving from the magma at the vacuum conditions encountered at the surface. It is not known with
certainty which gases escaped these rocks, but carbon monoxide is one candidate.
The samples of pyroclastic glasses are of green, yellow, and red tints. The difference in color
indicates the concentration of titanium that the rock has, with the green particles having the lowest
concentrations (about 1%), and red particles having the highest concentrations (up to 14%, much
more than the basalts with the highest concentrations).
Rilles[edit]
Rilles on the Moon sometimes resulted from the formation of localized lava channels. These
generally fall into three categories, consisting of sinuous, arcuate, or linear shapes. By following
these meandering rilles back to their source, they often lead to an old volcanic vent. One of the most
notable sinuous rilles is the Vallis Schröteri feature, located in the Aristarchus plateau along the
eastern edge of Oceanus Procellarum. An example of a sinuous rille exists at the Apollo 15 landing
site, Rima Hadley, located on the rim of the Imbrium Basin. Based on observations from the mission,
it is generally thought that this rille was formed by volcanic processes, a topic long debated before
the mission took place.
Domes[edit]
A variety of shield volcanoes can be found in selected locations on the lunar surface, such as
on Mons Rümker. These are thought to be formed by relatively viscous, possibly silica-rich lava,
erupting from localized vents. The resulting lunar domes are wide, rounded, circular features with a
gentle slope rising in elevation a few hundred meters to the midpoint. They are typically 8–12 km in
diameter, but can be up to 20 km across. Some of the domes contain a small pit at their peak.
Wrinkle ridges[edit]
Wrinkle ridges are features created by compressive tectonic forces within the maria. These features
represent buckling of the surface and form long ridges across parts of the maria. Some of these
ridges may outline buried craters or other features beneath the maria. A prime example of such an
outlined feature is the crater Letronne.
Grabens[edit]
Grabens are tectonic features that form under extensional stresses. Structurally, they are composed
of two normal faults, with a down-dropped block between them. Most grabens are found within the
lunar maria near the edges of large impact basins.
Impact craters[edit]

Mare Imbrium and the crater Copernicus

The origin of the Moon's craters as impact features became widely accepted only in the 1960s. This
realization allowed the impact history of the Moon to be gradually worked out by means of the
geologic principle of superposition. That is, if a crater (or its ejecta) overlaid another, it must be the
younger. The amount of erosion experienced by a crater was another clue to its age, though this is
more subjective. Adopting this approach in the late 1950s, Gene Shoemaker took the systematic
study of the Moon away from the astronomers and placed it firmly in the hands of the lunar
geologists.[9]
Impact cratering is the most notable geological process on the Moon. The craters are formed when a
solid body, such as an asteroid or comet, collides with the surface at a high velocity (mean impact
velocities for the Moon are about 17 km per second). The kinetic energy of the impact creates a
compression shock wave that radiates away from the point of entry. This is succeeded by
a rarefaction wave, which is responsible for propelling most of the ejecta out of the crater. Finally
there is a hydrodynamic rebound of the floor that can create a central peak.
These craters appear in a continuum of diameters across the surface of the Moon, ranging in size
from tiny pits to the immense South Pole–Aitken basin with a diameter of nearly 2,500 km and a
depth of 13 km. In a very general sense, the lunar history of impact cratering follows a trend of
decreasing crater size with time. In particular, the largest impact basins were formed during the early
periods, and these were successively overlaid by smaller craters. The size frequency
distribution (SFD) of crater diameters on a given surface (that is, the number of craters as a function
of diameter) approximately follows a power law with increasing number of craters with decreasing
crater size. The vertical position of this curve can be used to estimate the age of the surface.

The lunar crater King displays the characteristic features of a large impact formation, with a raised rim, slumped
edges, terraced inner walls, a relatively flat floor with some hills, and a central ridge. The Y-shaped central
ridge is unusually complex in form.

The most recent impacts are distinguished by well-defined features, including a sharp-edged rim.
Small craters tend to form a bowl shape, whereas larger impacts can have a central peak with flat
floors. Larger craters generally display slumping features along the inner walls that can
form terraces and ledges. The largest impact basins, the multiring basins, can even have secondary
concentric rings of raised material.
The impact process excavates high albedo materials that initially gives the crater, ejecta, and ray
system a bright appearance. The process of space weathering gradually decreases the albedo of
this material such that the rays fade with time. Gradually the crater and its ejecta undergo impact
erosion from micrometeorites and smaller impacts. This erosional process softens and rounds the
features of the crater. The crater can also be covered in ejecta from other impacts, which can
submerge features and even bury the central peak.
The ejecta from large impacts can include large blocks of material that reimpact the surface to form
secondary impact craters. These craters are sometimes formed in clearly discernible radial patterns,
and generally have shallower depths than primary craters of the same size. In some cases an entire
line of these blocks can impact to form a valley. These are distinguished from catena, or crater
chains, which are linear strings of craters that are formed when the impact body breaks up prior to
impact.
Generally speaking, a lunar crater is roughly circular in form. Laboratory experiments at
NASA's Ames Research Center have demonstrated that even very low-angle impacts tend to
produce circular craters, and that elliptical craters start forming at impact angles below five degrees.
However, a low angle impact can produce a central peak that is offset from the midpoint of the
crater. Additionally, the ejecta from oblique impacts show distinctive patterns at different impact
angles: asymmetry starting around 60˚ and a wedge-shaped "zone of avoidance" free of ejecta in the
direction the projectile came from starting around 45˚.[10]
Dark-halo craters are formed when an impact excavates lower albedo material from beneath the
surface, then deposits this darker ejecta around the main crater. This can occur when an area of
darker basaltic material, such as that found on the maria, is later covered by lighter ejecta derived
from more distant impacts in the highlands. This covering conceals the darker material below, which
is later excavated by subsequent craters.
The largest impacts produced melt sheets of molten rock that covered portions of the surface that
could be as thick as a kilometer. Examples of such impact melt can be seen in the northeastern part
of the Mare Orientale impact basin.
Regolith[edit]
Main article: Lunar soil
The surface of the Moon has been subject to billions of years of collisions with both small and
large asteroidal and cometary materials. Over time, these impact processes have pulverized and
"gardened" the surface materials, forming a fine-grained layer termed regolith. The thickness of
the lunar regolith varies between 2 meters (6.6 ft) beneath the younger maria, to up to 20 meters
(66 ft) beneath the oldest surfaces of the lunar highlands. The regolith is predominantly composed of
materials found in the region, but also contains traces of materials ejected by distant impact craters.
The term mega-regolith is often used to describe the heavily fractured bedrock directly beneath the
near-surface regolith layer.
The regolith contains rocks, fragments of minerals from the original bedrock, and glassy particles
formed during the impacts. In most of the lunar regolith, half of the particles are made of mineral
fragments fused by the glassy particles; these objects are called agglutinates. The chemical
composition of the regolith varies according to its location; the regolith in the highlands is rich
in aluminium and silica, just as the rocks in those regions.[citation needed] The regolith in the maria is rich
in iron and magnesium and is silica-poor, as are the basaltic rocks from which it is formed.
The lunar regolith is very important because it also stores information about the history of the Sun.
The atoms that compose the solar wind – mostly helium, neon, carbon and nitrogen – hit the lunar
surface and insert themselves into the mineral grains. Upon analyzing the composition of the
regolith, particularly its isotopic composition, it is possible to determine if the activity of the Sun has
changed with time. The gases of the solar wind could be useful for future lunar bases, because
oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen are not only essential to sustain life, but are also
potentially very useful in the production of fuel. The composition of the lunar regolith can also be
used to infer its source origin.
Lunar lava tubes[edit]
Main article: Lunar lava tube
Lunar pit in Mare Tranquillitatis

Lunar lava tubes form a potentially important location for constructing a future lunar base, which may
be used for local exploration and development, or as a human outpost to serve exploration beyond
the Moon. A lunar lava cave potential has long been suggested and discussed in literature and
thesis.[11] Any intact lava tube on the Moon could serve as a shelter from the severe environment of
the lunar surface, with its frequent meteorite impacts, high-energy ultraviolet radiation and energetic
particles, and extreme diurnal temperature variations.[12][13][14] Following the launch of the Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter, many lunar lava tubes have been imaged.[15] These lunar pits are found in
several locations across the Moon, including Marius Hills, Mare Ingenii and Mare Tranquillitatis.

Lunar magma ocean[edit]

Main article: Lunar magma ocean
The first rocks brought back by Apollo 11 were basalts. Although the mission landed on Mare
Tranquillitatis, a few millimetric fragments of rocks coming from the highlands were picked up. These
are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar; some fragments were composed exclusively of
anorthositic plagioclase. The identification of these mineral fragments led to the bold hypothesis that
a large portion of the Moon was once molten, and that the crust formed by fractional crystallization of
this magma ocean.
A natural outcome of the hypothetical giant-impact event is that the materials that re-accreted to
form the Moon must have been hot. Current models predict that a large portion of the Moon would
have been molten shortly after the Moon formed, with estimates for the depth of this magma ocean
ranging from about 500 km to complete melting. Crystallization of this magma ocean would have
given rise to a differentiated body with a compositionally distinct crust and mantle and accounts for
the major suites of lunar rocks.
As crystallization of the lunar magma ocean proceeded, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene
would have precipitated and sank to form the lunar mantle. After crystallization was about three-
quarters complete, anorthositic plagioclase would have begun to crystallize, and because of its low
density, float, forming an anorthositic crust. Importantly, elements that are incompatible (i.e., those
that partition preferentially into the liquid phase) would have been progressively concentrated into
the magma as crystallization progressed, forming a KREEP-rich magma that initially should have
been sandwiched between the crust and mantle. Evidence for this scenario comes from the highly
anorthositic composition of the lunar highland crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich
materials.
Lunar rocks[edit]
Main article: Moon rock
Surface materials[edit]

Olivine basalt collected by Apollo 15

The Apollo program brought back 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar surface material,[16] most of
which is stored at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston, Texas, and the uncrewed Soviet Luna
programme returned 326 grams (11.5 oz) of lunar material. These rocks have proved to be
invaluable in deciphering the geologic evolution of the Moon. Lunar rocks are in large part made of
the same common rock forming minerals as found on Earth, such as olivine, pyroxene,
and plagioclase feldspar (anorthosite). Plagioclase feldspar is mostly found in the lunar crust,
whereas pyroxene and olivine are typically seen in the lunar mantle.[17] The mineral ilmenite is highly
abundant in some mare basalts, and a new mineral named armalcolite (named for Armstrong, Aldrin,
and Collins, the three members of the Apollo 11 crew) was first discovered in the lunar samples.
The maria are composed predominantly of basalt, whereas the highland regions are iron-poor and
composed primarily of anorthosite, a rock composed primarily of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Another significant component of the crust are the igneous Mg-suite rocks, such as
the troctolites, norites, and KREEP-basalts. These rocks are thought to be related to
the petrogenesis of KREEP.
Composite rocks on the lunar surface often appear in the form of breccias. Of these, the
subcategories are called fragmental, granulitic, and impact-melt breccias, depending on how they
were formed. The mafic impact melt breccias, which are typified by the low-K Fra
Mauro composition, have a higher proportion of iron and magnesium than typical upper crust
anorthositic rocks, as well as higher abundances of KREEP.
Composition of the maria[edit]
The main characteristics of the basaltic rocks with respect to the rocks of the lunar highlands is that
the basalts contain higher abundances of olivine and pyroxene, and less plagioclase. They are more
rich in iron than terrestrial basalts, and also have lower viscosities. Some of them have high
abundances of a ferro-titanic oxide called ilmenite. Because the first sampling of rocks contained a
high content of ilmenite and other related minerals, they received the name of "high titanium"
basalts. The Apollo 12 mission returned to Earth with basalts of lower titanium concentrations, and
these were dubbed "low titanium" basalts. Subsequent missions, including the Soviet robotic probes,
returned with basalts with even lower concentrations, now called "very low titanium" basalts.
The Clementine space probe returned data showing that the mare basalts have a continuum in
titanium concentrations, with the highest concentration rocks being the least abundant.

Internal structure[edit]
Main article: Internal structure of the Moon
The current model of the interior of the Moon was derived using seismometers left behind during the
crewed Apollo program missions, as well as investigations of the Moon's gravity field and rotation.
The mass of the Moon is sufficient to eliminate any voids within the interior, so it is estimated to be
composed of solid rock throughout. Its low bulk density (~3346 kg m−3) indicates a low metal
abundance. Mass and moment of inertia constraints indicate that the Moon likely has an iron core
that is less than about 450 km in radius. Studies of the Moon's physical librations (small
perturbations to its rotation) furthermore indicate that the core is still molten. Most planetary bodies
and moons have iron cores that are about half the size of the body. The Moon is thus anomalous in
having a core whose size is only about one quarter of its radius.
The crust of the Moon is on average about 50 km thick (though this is uncertain by about ±15 km). It
is estimated that the far-side crust is on average thicker than the near side by about
15 km.[18] Seismology has constrained the thickness of the crust only near the Apollo
12 and 14 landing sites. Although the initial Apollo-era analyses suggested a crustal thickness of
about 60 km at this site, recent reanalyses of this data suggest that it is thinner, somewhere between
about 30 and 45 km.
Magnetic field[edit]
Main article: Magnetic field of the Moon
Compared with that of Earth, the Moon has only a very weak external magnetic field. Other major
differences are that the Moon does not currently have a dipolar magnetic field (as would be
generated by a geodynamo in its core), and the magnetizations that are present are almost entirely
crustal in origin. One hypothesis holds that the crustal magnetizations were acquired early in lunar
history when a geodynamo was still operating. The small size of the lunar core, however, is a
potential obstacle to this hypothesis. Alternatively, it is possible that on airless bodies such as the
Moon, transient magnetic fields could be generated during impact processes. In support of this, it
has been noted that the largest crustal magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of
the largest impact basins. Although the Moon does not have a dipolar magnetic field like Earth's,
some of the returned rocks do have strong magnetizations. Furthermore, measurements from orbit
show that some portions of the lunar surface are associated with strong magnetic fields.