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Earth
Seventh Edition
Prothero • Dott
Chapter 6
Origin and Early Evolution of the Earth
Origin and Early Evolution of Earth
• Early universe had only protons & helium nuclei as condensed particles we are
familiar with, rest was elementary particles & radiation
• First stars formed from hydrogen and helium, the rest of the elements formed in
protostars by nucleosynthesis
• Inherited angular momentum caused debris to orbit main condensation center, and
eventually gave rise to orbiting planets
“Hadean” is name given to Eon in
which Earth formed by accretion and
meteorite bombardment.
methane (CH4),
ammonia (NH3),
helium (He)
http://www.carleton.ca/%7Etpatters/teaching/intro/intro.html
Fig. 6.3
Stages in Planetary Evolution
1. Planetesimals
… small bodies formed
from dust and gas
eddies
2. Protoplanets
9 or 10 formed from
planetesimals
3. Planets
formed by combining
protoplanets swept up
by gravitational
attraction.
Broadly, four stages can be identified in the process of planetary formation.
1. The gravitational collapse of a star leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and the formation of a
huge rotating disc of gas and dust, which develops around the gas core. A star such as Beta Pictoris shows a
central core of this type, with a disc of matter rotating around the core. Beta Pictoris is thought to be a
young star showing the early stages of planetary formation.
2. The condensation of the gas cloud and the formation of chondrules. Chondrules are small rounded
objects found in some meteorites.. The presence of chondrules gives rise to a special class of meteorites
known as chondrites. For example, the Allende meteorite is chondrule-rich and contains minerals rich in the
elements Ca and Al, and Ti and Al, minerals which are unlike terrestrial minerals. It also include metallic
blobs of Os, Re, Zr. The chemistry of these unusual minerals suggest that they are early solar system
condensates.
3. The accretion of gas and dust to form small bodies between 1-10 km in diameter. These bodies are known
as planetesimals. They form initially from small fragments of solar dust and chondrules by the processes of
cohesion (sticking together by weak electrostatic forces) and by gravitational instability. Cohesion forms
fragments up to about 1 cm in diameter. Larger bodies form by collisions at low speed which cause the
material to stick together by gravitational attraction. Support for this view of the process of accretion comes
from a region on the edge of the solar system known as the Kuiper Belt, where it is thought that the
accretionary 'mopping up' has failed to take place.
4. More violent and rapid impact accretion. The final stage of accretion has been described as 'runaway
accretion'. Planetesimals are swept up into well defined zones around the sun which approximate to the
present orbits of the terrestrial planets. The process leads eventually to a small number of large planetary
bodies. Evidence for this impacting process can be seen in the early impact craters found on planetary
surfaces An explanation of the type given above for the origin of the planets in the solar system is supported
by mathematical simulations which show how accretion works by the progressive gathering together of
smaller particles into large. It also provides an explanation of the differences between planetary bodies in
the solar system and explains the differences between the heavier terrestrial planets close to the sun, and the
lighter, more gaseous planets situated at a greater distance.
http://www2.glos.ac.uk/gdn/origins/earth/ch3_2.htm
Beta Pictoris – a solar system in the making?
This new and very detailed image of the
famous circumstellar disk around the southern
star Beta Pictoris. It shows (in false colours)
the scattered light at wavelength 1.25 micron
(J band) and is one of the best images of this
interesting feature obtained so far.
It has a direct bearing on the current search
for extra-solar planetary systems, one of the
most challenging astronomical activities.
While spectroscopic, astrometric and
photometric studies may only provide indirect
evidence for planets around other stars,
coronographic images like this one in
principle enable astronomers to detect dusty
disks directly. This is very important for our
understanding of the physics of planetary
formation and evolution.
The disk around Beta Pictoris is probably
connected with a planetary system. In
particular, various independent observations
have led to the conclusion that comets are
present around this star, and variability of its
intensity has been tentatively attributed to the
occultation (partial eclipse) by an orbiting
planet.
Fig. 6.4
Stages in Formation of Early Earth
1. Crust
2. Mantle
3. Outer core (liquid)
4. Inner core (solid)
Note density
discontinuity at core-
mantle boundary
Divisions of the Earth's interior
Cross section of
Earth showing in a
rudimentary way
the relation of the
upper mantle to
subduction zones
and midocean
ridges.
ETOPO 30
DEM Model
Fig. 6.8
Schematic diagram
illustrating Elsassar’s
model for the Earth’s
magnetic field. The solid
mantle rotates at a different
rate from the liquid outer
core, which is molten Fe
and Ni sulfides.
Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere from early Hadean (5 Bya) to present. Note the
changes from Stage I to Stage II, particularly the evolution of nitrogen, (N) the
virtual disappearance of hydrogen (H) and methane (CH4).
The important change from Stage II to Stage III was the rise in oxygen (due to
evolution of photosynthetic algae). Note the presence of the noble gases, Ar, Ne,
He and Kr. Most likely from the degassing upper mantle which continues to
today.
Fig. 6.15
This diagram shows the important flows for two elements, O and C (though not
reduced C). Other important elements, such as N, P, S, Na, Ca, and K follow
similar cycles. (Chemostat = hold chemistry constant or change slowly).
Start analyzing the cycle with the algae (as prime movers) and follow the chain.
Algae actually started the chemostat over 4 Bya. This chemostat is one of the
hallmarks of a planet with advanced life forms and it probably very rare in the
universe.
Fig. 6.16
The global thermostat. Shallow water is heated by the sun to form the Earth’s
most important heat reservoir. The photic zone above the thermocline is the
habitat of algae and phytoplankton which from the base of the aquatic food
chain.
Below the thermocline the water is cooler and less agitated, hence less
oxygenated. These waters may even become stagnant and reducing. When they
do they constitute the first step in the preservation of organic matter, which
eventually leads to gas and oil deposits.
KEY CONCEPT
The geologic time scale divides Earth’s history based
on major past events.
Index fossils are another tool to determine the relative age of rock layers.
years
• Epochs: The smallest units of time,
lasting several millions of years 2000
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
This time span makes up the
vast majority of Earth’s history.
It includes the oldest known
rocks and fossils, the origin of
eukaryotes, and the oldest
animal fossils.
Cyanobacteria
Eras:
3. Era:
Paleozoic
(Oldest era,
“Ancient life”)
Description: All
existing animal
phyla
developed,
earliest land
plants arose
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