1.

Anomie, also spelled anomy, in societies or individuals, a condition of instability

resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals.
The term was introduced by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his study of suicide.
He believed that one type of suicide (anomic) resulted from the breakdown of the
social standards necessary for regulating behaviour. When a social system is in a state
of anomie, common values and common meanings are no longer understood or
accepted, and new values and meanings have not developed. According to
Durkheim, such a society produces, in many of its members, psychological states
characterized by a sense of futility, lack of purpose, and emotional emptiness and
despair. Striving is considered useless, because there is no accepted definition of what
is desirable.
American sociologist Robert K. Merton studied the causes of anomie, or normlessness,
finding it severest in people who lack an acceptable means of achieving their personal
goals. Goals may become so important that if the institutionalized means—i.e., those
means acceptable according to the standards of the society—fail, illegitimate means
might be used. Greater emphasis on ends rather than means creates a stress that leads
to a breakdown in the regulatory structure—i.e., anomie. If, for example, a society
impelled its members to acquire wealth yet offered inadequate means for them to do
so, the strain would cause many people to violate norms. The only regulating agencies
would be the desire for personal advantage and the fear of punishment. Social
behaviour would thus become unpredictable. Merton defined a continuum of
responses to anomie that ranged from conformity to social innovation, ritualism,
retreatism, and, finally, rebellion. Delinquency, crime, and suicide are often reactions to
anomie.

1930s: from French, from Greek anomia, from anomos ‘lawless’.

2. Psychoanalytic theory is a method of investigating and treating personality disorders

and is used in psychotherapy. Included in this theory is the idea that things that happen

to people during childhood can contribute to the way they later function as adults.

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is

the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego,

and superego.

According to Freud's model of the psyche, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of
the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-
ego operates as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates
between the desires of the id and the super-ego.

Models of the Mind

Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind.
His model divides the mind into three layers, or regions:

1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live;
2. Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything
we can recall or retrieve from our memory;
3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the
processes that drive our behavior, including primitive and instinctual desires
(McLeod, 2013)

3.Ecology theory: The social ecology of crime is the study of one particular behavioral
outcome of these processes, the violation of rules of conduct defined in law. It focuses on
the role of the environment in the development of people’s differential propensity to engage in
crime and their differential exposure to settings conducive to engagement in acts of crime.
Although the label “social ecology of crime” is often used in reference to studies of cross-
national, regional, intercity and urban-rural differences in crime, its prime concentration has
been on researching and explaining variation in crime within the urban environment. It is
 therefore not surprising to find that the most important theoretical and empirical contributions of
this perspective emanate from the study of urban areas. An ecological perspective (defined as a
pure environmental approach) is often contrasted with, and sometimes regarded as being in
opposition to, an individual (psychological, biological, genetic) approach to the study of crime
causation. However, the advancement of a fully developed ecological perspective on crime (a
full understanding of the role of the human-environment interaction in crime causation) requires
a better integration of environmental and individual approaches in the study of crime causation

4 Differential association Theory :In criminology, differential association is a theory

developed by Edwin Sutherland.Differential association theory proposes that through
interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives
for criminal behavior.This theory predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path
when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding.

5.Summatotyping theory :Somatotype theory is one of the biological theories of criminology

and is considered to be included in the biological school of criminology. Somatotyping is
the classifying of people into types according to body build. Somatotype theory relates
distinctive body types to personality characteristics and relates criminal behavior to the
body types. Somatotype theory is most commonly associated with William Sheldon.
Sheldon's somatotype theory established three basic body types: endomorph, mesomorph,
and ectomorph.
Ectomorphs are long and lean, with little body fat, and little muscle. They have a hard time
gaining weight. Fashion models and basketball players fit this category. While most of us
love to hate these genetically-blessed individuals, some male ectomorphs may not be
thrilled with their narrow-chested frames, and some female ectomorphs long for more
womanly curves.
Endomorphs, on the other hand, have lots of body fat, lots of muscle, and gain weight
easily. "Football lineman tend to be endomorphs -- they're heavier and rounder individuals,"
says Colby. "And they don't have to necessarily be overweight. Both Oprah Winfrey and
Marilyn Monroe are classic examples of endomorphs."
Mesomorphs are athletic, solid, and strong. "They're not overweight and not underweight,"
says Colby, "and they can eat what they want without worrying too much about it." They
both gain and lose weight without too much effort
6.Containment theory:Containment theory is a form of control theory proposed by Walter Reckless in
the 1940s–1960s. The theory contends that a series of external social factors and internal qualities
effectively insulate certain individuals from criminal involvement even when ecological variables
induce others to engage in crime. Although initially promising, the theory was criticized by some
criminologists for various weaknesses. However, the theory has been subjected to very few
empirical tests and therefore the relative strengths of its various propositions have never been
properly established. which argued that there are inner and outer forces of containment that restrain a
person from committing a crime: the inner forces stem from moral and religious beliefs as well as from a
personal sense of right and wrong; the outer forces come from family members, teachers, or others who
influence the individual to some degree. The effectiveness of containment forces can be influenced by
external factors such as effective supervision and internal factors such as a good self-concept. Reckless’s
work also focused on “push-pull” forces as explanations of deviant behaviour, including “internal”
pushes such as discontent and rebellion and “external” pulls such as delinquent acquaintances.

7.Social conflict theory is all about inequality in society. It proposes that laws and norms reflect
the interests of powerful members of society. In other words, social order is maintained
through competition and conflict, and the 'winners' - those with the most power and the
greatest economic and social resources - benefit by taking advantage of the 'losers.' We
discuss social conflict theory several times throughout this class, as it is one of the major
sociological theories of how society operates as a whole. In this lesson, though, we'll focus
on what this theory suggests about deviance.Karl max Conflict theory views social and
economic institutions as tools of the struggle between groups or classes, used to maintain
inequality and the dominance of the ruling class.

8. Capitalism theory is an economic system. In it the government plays a secondary role. People
and companies make most of the decisions, and own most of the property. ... The means of
production are largely or entirely privately owned (by individuals or companies) and operated for
profit. Karl Marx saw capitalism as a progressive historical stage that would eventually stagnate due
to internal contradictions and be followed by socialism. Marxists define capital as “a social, economic
relation” between people (rather than between people and things). In this sense they seek to abolish
capital. The Marxian school which was founded by K. Marx (1818–1883) also arose out of the
theoretical limits and deadlocks of the classical school. Marx’s renovation of economics was,
however, quite different from the directions of other contemporary economic schools. Unlike the
historical school or the neo-classical school, Marx did not discard the essential theoretical contents
and achievements of the classical school which was based on the labour theory of value, but fully
attempted to inherit them by criticising and solving the deadlocks in the classical theories from
within. In such an attempt Marx consciously and systematically clarified the historical character of
a capitalist economy.

9.Straine theory : Social strain theory was developed by famed American sociologist Robert K.
Merton. The theory states that social structures may pressure citizens to commit crimes. Strain may
be structural, which refers to the processes at the societal level that filter down and affect how the
individual perceives his or her needs. Strain may also be individual, which refers to the frictions and
pains experienced by an individual as he or she looks for ways to satisfy individual needs. These
types of strain can insinuate social structures within society that then pressure citizens to become
criminals. Definition of strain (Entry 3 of 3) 1 : an act of straining or the condition of being strained:
such as. a : bodily injury from excessive tension, effort, or use heart strain especially : one resulting
from a wrench or twist and involving undue stretching of muscles or ligaments back strain.

10 SUB CULTURE THEORY: Cohen’s subcultural theory assumes that crime is a

consequence of the union of young people into so-called subcultures in which
deviant values and moral concepts dominate. Subcultural theory became the
dominant theory of its time. For example, a boy from the lower classes always strives
to adapt to higher social strata, but is confronted with expectations and goals that he
cannot fulfil due to his social background or cannot achieve due to rigid social
structures. In direct comparison with middle-class boys, he has to recognise his own
low status, poor prestige and little chance of success in business and society. The
resulting problems of self-respect ultimately lead to the merging of several such boys
into alternative subgroups, which are defined by their demarcation from the
unattainable middle class. According to Cohen, these delinquent subcultures are
characterized above all by their deviant values and morals, which enable their
members to gain prestige and recognition. The behaviour that is displayed within the
subculture is fundamentally different from that outside the subculture because of
these new norms. For society as a whole, they seem deviant, often criminal. As an
alternative status system, however, subculture justifies hostility and aggression
towards non-members, thereby eliminating possible feelings of guilt.

11.Neutralization Theory: According to Gresham Sykes and David Matza, acts that violate
norms or go against beliefs can carry with them guilt and shame, which dissuades most
adolescents from engaging in criminal or delinquent acts. Would-be delinquents, therefore,
must find ways to preemptively neutralize the guilt and protect their self-image if they
choose to participate in delinquent or deviant behavior. One way to do this is by using
techniques of neutralization that provide episodic relief from moral constraint and allow
individuals to drift back and forth between delinquent and conventional behavior. Drift is
possible because neutralization techniques blunt the moral force of dominant cultural
norms and neutralize the guilt of delinquent behavior in specific situations. Through the use
of these neutralizations social and internal controls that serve to check or inhibit deviant
motivational patterns are blocked, thereby allowing individuals to engage freely in
delinquency without serious damage to their self-image. Sykes and Matza outlined five
neutralization techniques: denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victims, appeal
to higher loyalties, and condemnation of condemners. Research on the theory has
generally produced mixed results, leading many to conclude that the theory is not powerful
enough to serve as a stand-alone explanation for crime. Still, neutralization theory has been
incorporated into a variety of other theories, including control theory, learning theory, and
labeling theory.

12.Differential opportunity theory: The differential opportunity theory simply put holds that a poor
kid growing up in the slums might take to crime because of the lack of opportunity in his environment
but if the environment is reversed and he is put in an opportunity rich environment he will move away
from a life of crime Conversely, if a rich kid from a privileged background is forced to live in a
deprived environment, he will gravitate towards a life of crime.

13. Labeling theory states that people come to identify and behave in ways that reflect
how others label them. It is most commonly associated with the sociology of crime
and deviance: labeling and treating someone as criminally deviant can foster deviant
behavior. Labeling someone as a criminal, for example, can cause others to treat
them more negatively—and the response to being treated more negatively can be in
turn for that person to act more negatively. One critique of labeling theory is that it
emphasizes the interactive process of labeling and ignores the processes and
structures that lead to deviant acts. Such processes might include differences in
socialization, attitudes, and opportunities, and how social and economic structures
impact these.

14.INSTRUMENTALIST THEORY: Instrumental Theory• Criminal law and the criminal justice system are
capitalist instruments for controlling the lower classThe instrumentalist position crudely implies that the state
serves to enforce and guarantee the stability of the societal class structure in the capitalist system as an
instrument in the hands of the ruling class. The functions ascribed to the state are therefore understood with
regard to the exercise of power by personnel in strategic positions through this instrument (the state) either
directly through manipulation of policies or indirectly through exerting pressure on it. On the contrary, the
instrumentalist view fronts the argument that the state can be viewed as being a direct servant of the ruling
or capitalist class coming under the direct control of the members of this class in key positions of power in
the state, the administrative bureaucracy.

15.Carthographic Theory: The cartographic school focused primarily on the mapping of crime and
the relationship between society and the physical environment. Fundamental cartographic theory has
been addressed by the conceptual analysis in Cartography is very important. Various structural models of
cartography (or its parts) have attempted to describe the process of mapping as a science, an academic
discipline, a technology, or an inherent human impulse. Furthermore, the tasks of cartographic
design can be deconstructed, and the map artefact itself (e.g. is it a model, a language, a communication
channel, a decoration or an archive?) can be examined.

16.The theory of evolution: Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English
naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and
develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's
ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

PERSON;

Sir Cyril Lodowic Burt, FBA (3 March 1883 – 10 October 1971) was an English educational
psychologist and geneticist who made contributions also to statistics. He is known for his studies on
the heritability of IQ. Shortly after he died, his studies of inheritance and intelligence were discredited
after evidence emerged indicating he had falsified research data, inventing correlations in separated
twins which did not exist.

Sigmund Freud (/frɔɪd/ FROYD;[3] German: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6
May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a
clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst.[4]

Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian
Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna.[5][6] Upon
completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an
affiliated professor in 1902.[7] Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice
there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis. He died in exile in the United Kingdom
in 1939.

August Aichhorn is considered to be one of the founders of psychoanalytic

education. He is remembered for his work with juvenile delinquent and
disadvantaged youth.

AICHHORN, AUGUST (1878-1949)

An Austrian educator with an interest in psychoanalysis, the pioneer

of a new approach to reeducating problem children, August
Aichhorn was born July 27, 1878, in Vienna, Austria, where he
spent his entire life, and died October 13, 1949. He was raised,
along with a twin brother who died when Aichhorn was 19, in a
Catholic family of modest means. He became a teacher and
continued his studies at the Technische Hochschule of Vienna.
Though August Aichhorn, in name, remains a significant figure in the history of psychoanalysis, his
ideas have been all but abandoned in the modern clinical conception of the treatment of children and
adolescents who act out. The current treatment of children and adolescents, so disturbed that their
behavior demands treatment outside of their home environment, is currently rudderless and highly
dependent on broad societal counter-transferential reactions to disturbed youth. We argue that not
only does Aichhorn hold a distinguished position in the history of the treatment of youngsters, but
that his ideas about the meaning of severely disruptive behavior as well as the techniques which
align with those theories remain relevant and, if utilized, would improve the treatment of severely
disturbed youth.