464

14. What are tbe different methods employed in IBCbeometric survey ?. Describe
the method most
SURVBYING

(A.M.I.E.)
[§]
commonly used •
the adVI!IIIages
IS. Explain how you would determine the contants of a tach<ometer. What are
of an anallac1ic Ieos used in a tacbeometer ?

tbe value of the ildditive constalll in tbe case of a subtense micromet er in wbich
would determine
16. Describe any one fonn of subteDSe micrometer, and show clearly how you there may be Electronic Theodolites
the focal length
an inililll reading of micrometer head when the fixed and !be ;noving lines coincide, (U.L.)
·:!
of tbe objective and the piteh of the mireometer screw being known.
anallactic telescope .
17. Show the arrangement of tbe lenses in an ordinacy
In a telescope of this typll. tbe focal lengths of the objective and anallactic
lenses are 24 em
distance between this is 19.5 em for a IDJlltiplier of 100. 23.1. INTRODUCTION
and 12 an respectively and the categories:
Tbeodolires, used for angular measurements, can be classifed under three
constanJ
reading intercepts
Determine !be error that ~d occur in horizontal distance D wben the between the subtense
2 metres, with an error of one lnindiedth of a mm in the I. 7S mm interval (i) Vernier theodoliteS
lines. (i1) Microptic theodoliteS (optical theodolites)
18. In tbe event of a broken cliaphr.lsm in an anallac1ic telescope with diaphragm a IDJlltiplier of 100,
on glass for a new . the. focal and (iii) Electronic theodoliteS
of the lines a least count
it is Rqired 10 detennine the exact spacing
being 30 em and 15 em respectively and the distsnee Vernier theodoliteS (such as Vicker's theodolite) use verniers which have
lengths of !be objective and anallacdc lenses microme ters, which may have least
between !be objective and the trunnion axis 12 em. Also determine tbe
distance between the anallac1ic of 10" to 20". However, microptic theodoliteS use optical
T-4 and other forms of Tavistock
Ieos and tbe objective. · count of as small as 0.1". Wild T-1 T-16, T-2, T-3 and
'!be focal lengths of the object eS are the most accurate instrume nts
19. An anallac1ic telescope has a IDJlltiplying constalll of 100. theodoliteS fall under this category. Thus the optical theodolit
glass and anallactic lens are 11 an and 9 em respective ly. If the stadia interval i is 1.5 mm, where in the readings are taken with the help of optical microme ters. Howeve r in electroni c
calculate the distance between the two lenses and the distances · between
the vertical axis and tbe is provided by a dynamic system with opto-ele ctronic
theodoliteS, absolute angle measurem enl
object glass. with key boards and
scanning. The electronic theodoliteS are provided with control panels
ANSWERS measured data. clearly
liquid crystal displays. The LCDs with points and symbols present the
The main operations require
and unambiguously. The key board contains multi-function keys.
with electroni c speed and efficiency.
1. 4° 3' only a single key-stroke. The electronic theodolites work
way to elctronic data aquisitio n and data processing.
2. 2 !DID They measure electronically and open the
two models of electroni c theodolit es manufac tured by
3. k=!OO; C=0.4 m We shall consider here the following
4. D = 75 s + 0.4 metres Mls Wild Heerbrugg Ltd.
S. D = 169.5 ; R.L. of B =466.95 (i) Wild T-1000 electronic theodolite
(ir) Wild T-2000 and T-2000 S electronic theodolite
6. W 33S.8 m
(il) R.L. of C =457.27 ; R.L. of D =457.62 23.2. WILD T-1000 'THEOMAT'
the photograph
(UI) 1 in 959.2 Wild electronic theodolites are known as 'Theomat'. Fig 23.1 shows
onal theodolite (i.e.,
7. 643.528, 648.567, 657.267 of Wild T-1000 electronic theodolite. Although it resembles a conventi
J c speed and efficiency.
8. 1.95 ; 2.82 ; 3.68 optical theodolite) in size and weight, the T-1000 works with electroni

~i
data aquisition and data processing.
It measures electronically and opens the way to electronic
9.16c m:iem trast, erect image. The coarse and
It has 30 x telescope which gives a bright, high-con
Pointing is fast and precise.
10. 8.844 line focusing ensures that the target is seen sharp and clear.
be illuminated for
11. 236.9 m even in poor observing conditions. The displays and reticle plate can
12. 101.1 m ; I in !23.998 m .works in mines and tunnels · and at night.
13. 658.29 m ; I in 1688
17. 1.14 m (465).
18. 23.57 em ; 2.1 mm
,.
:<:
19. 13.4 em ; 7.33 em.
,;.
'•

:ij
 467
466 SURVEYING BLECTRONIC TIIEODOLrrES
Fig. 23.4 gives typical display values obtained
with key-board and two liqui<kiystal mands obtiined by pressing corresponding keys.
The theodolite has two control panels, each T-1000 theodolite is obtained from a small
,
in both positions. Fig. 23.2 shows the CODII)ll by pr<:SSing different keys. The power for
displays. It can be used easily and quickly y plugs into the theodolite standards.
and symbols present the measured data clearl rechargeable 0.45.)'Ah Ni Cd battery which
panel of T-1000. The LCDs with points main operations compatible. It is perfectly modular, having the followiog
six multifunction keys. The Wild T-1000 theodolite is fully
and unambiguously. The key-board has just
Acce pted keyst rokes are acknowledged by a beep. Colour-roding uses
require only a single keystroke. to ent only.
ands make the instrument remarkably easy It can be used alone.. for angle measurem
and easy-to-follow key sequences and comm (I)
angle and distance measurement.
use. (il) It combines with Wild Disto ma! for
ng system with position-<:oded circles. automatic data aquisition.
The theodolite has an absolute electronic-readi (iir) It connects to ORE 3 data terminal for
switc h on and read the results. Circle reading It is compatible with Wild theod olite acces sories.
There is no initialization procedure. Simply (iv)
uously as the instrument is turned. Readings 232 interf ace.
is instantaneous. The readings up-date contin fate (vj It connects to computers with RS
of a direction measured in fate left and
are displayed to I •. The standard deviation Fig. 23.5 depicts diagrammatically. all these
functions.
right is 3". trade name used by Wild for their electro-magnetic distance
'Distomat' is a registered as
The theodolite has prac- 24). Various models of distomats, such
Distance measurement measuremenl (EDW ins!nllllents (see chapter the
tice-tested automatic index. A I DISTI ble, which can be fitted on the top of
Dl-1000, DI-5, D!-5S, DI-4/4L etc. are availa
well-damped penduliurn com- I REC I RflCOirllng
of T-100 0 theod olite. The telesc ope can transit for angle measurements in both
telescope olite
with I" settin g accuracy red. With a Distomat fitted to it, the theod
pensa tor [& ] Me~ment and recording the positions. No special interface is requi at is a minia mrize d EDM .
provides the reference for T- Wild Dl-1000 distom
losp I [}jQ Display Hz-dreis and Hz-dls!anoe takes both angle and distance measurements. theod olite to form the ideal
1000vertical circle readings. The perfectly with the
specially designed for T-1000. It integrates
compensator is built on the same ISEl' I ITRK I Tracking
all day-to-day work . Its range is 500 m on to I prism and 800 m to
combination for
ensator 5 ppm. For larger distances, DI-5S distomat
3 prisms, with a standard deviation of 5 mm+
principles as the comp
I SEl' I I SEl' I CiD Set horizontaf-clrcle reading to zero
. .For
used in Wild automatic levels km to 1 prism and 5 km to II prisms
can be fitted, which has a range of 2.5 I
and optical theodolites. Thus FIG. 23.3. lYPICAL COMMANDS IN T-100 G)
0 ELECI'RONIC-
00 distomat. having a range of 6 km to
DOUT B (WILD HEBR BRUG very long distances, latest long-range Dl-30 . Thus . with
with T-1000, one need not rely TIIEO
favourable conditions can be fitted
prism and maximum range of 14 km in
on a plate level alone. Integrated onic station.
to performance and operating comfon. Autom
atic a distomat, T-1000 becomes electr /Oilll
circuits and microprocessors ensure a high level poten tial with the ORE 3 data <erminal. This
the instrument easy to use. The T-1000 theodolite attains its full
self-checks and diagonostic routines makes Circle readings and slope distances are transf
erred
clamp for circle setting and repetition measurements. versatile unit connects directly to the T-1000. are contr olled from the ORE 3.
T-1000 theodolite bas electronic . from the theodolite. Point numbering. codes
and information
onlal circle reading to zero or to any value
Using sirople commands, one can set the horiz obser ving proce dure,
The theodolite can be operated like a conve
ntional theod olite using any 23.3. WILDT-2000THEOMAT
ion to the conventional clockwise measurements. ·high pr~!'~";!'rl "''~ITI1flic angle measuring
including the repeti tion metho d. Tn add~t Wild T-2000 Theomal (Fig. :!.'3.6 a) ls a
angle measurement system of highest accuracy.

;: 1 ~
instrument. It has micro-processor controlled
horizontal circle readings can
be taken counter-clock-wise. I
Hz
452
I v
9137 56
I Horizontal cln:la
and Absolute angle measurement is provided by
a dynamic system with opto-electronic scanning
full circle are scanned for every reading,
circle
Horizontal-collimation and 1373 vertical circle (Fig. 23. 7). As the graduations around the
• • • • positi ons elimi nates the
at diametrically opposite
. al .index errors can be graduation error cannot occur. Scanning
~cflcla
vertic horizo ntal ' I
137 345 4. ~
cted automatical ly for index error and
pe~- effect of eccentricity. Circle readings are corre ' I' .
.·.·. '·."11'
'Hz 118 542 , r
determined and. stored • • • hortzontsJ distance . Thus angle meas urem ents can be taken in one position to a far highe
nently. The displayed crrcle collimation error will set the ; c)~ •
. For many applications. operator
readings are corrected auto-
matically. Displayed heights I V
91.3~55 .;1 .
3375
1 !Jica lcflcl a
height differences
.
accuracy than with conventional theodolites
displays for circle reading to 1•, but for the highest precision the display can be
readings can be displayed to 10". Dista
set to
nces I
are corrected for earth cur- read to 0.01". For less precise work, circle
good targets, the standard devia tion of the mean ·I
.vature and mean refraction. Vertlcalcflcla are displayed to 1 mm and O.Ql ft. With ontal and
is better than 0.5" for both the horiz \:I
;··l.i'
As stated earlier, the
whole instrument is controlled
1• 91,37.541 Ll 111!5971 and
slapedlstance
of a face-left and a face-r
vertical circles.
ight obser vatio ns ;;I
!'!

from the key-board. Fig. 23.3

gives details of typical com-
FIG. 23.4. ~PICAL·DISPLAYS ON THil
PANELS OF T-1000
,,'!'
;rl
~
1
 SURVEYING I!LECI'RONIC THEODO!.tTFS
468
power saving feature is made possible by the non-volatile m
The theodolite bas self-indexing maintenance free liquid compensator. The compensator
provides the reference for vertical angle measurements. It combines excellent damping with
memory. There is no loss of stored information when Precise angle
measurement with
!!It
.::;;
the instrument Sl)<itches off. ' . !~ .
higb precision and allows accurate measurements unaffected by strong winds, vibrations etc.

'
1'2000 ' •~ l
Clamps and drives are coaxial. The drive screws iil:;
have two speeds : fast for quick aiming, slow for fine ;.,.,

llfiJ l__J pointing. Telescope focusing is also two-speed. Ao optical

ild
:lH
plummet is built into the alidade. The carrying handle . 1\11
folds back to allow the telescope to rransit with Distoma! :. '\''1'
, ..;
fitted. Horizontal and vertical setting circles facilitate turning Angle and dislllll<" . ',.:.J

----uuu into a target and simplify setting-out work.

measurement with 'T':

' .i<
1'2000 and DistoJl)Bl
Modular Approach ~.

The T-2000 offel5 all the benefits of the modular i I'

approach. It can be used as a theodolite combined with : 'li.\:·

j
any distomat and connects to GRE 3 data temtinal and Angle measurement ··;·j.i-
computerS. Fig. 23.10 illustrates diagrammetrically this withT2000
FIG. 23.7. MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED ANGLE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM modular approach which provides for easy upgrading Automatic recording : ,'1;
.:;.:;
The instrument bas two angle measuring modes : single and tracking. Single mooe at any time at minimum cost. withGRE3
is used for angle measurements of highest accuracy. Hz and/or circle readings are displayed Wild theodolite accessories fit the T-2000 : optional
eye-pieces, filters, eye-piece prism, diagonal eye-piece, f'\i\l
at the touch of a key. Tracking provides continuous single measurement with displays
updated as the theodolite is turned. Tracking is used for rapid measurements, turning the auto-collimation, eye-piece, parallel-plate micrometers, pen- Angle and dislllll<" [!'.\11.
dolite to set a hearing or following a moving target. The horizontal circle reading taprism, solar prism, awtiliary lenses etc. Wild tribachs, measurement with ~;iii
targets, distomat reflectors, target lamps. subtenee bar, 1'2000 and DistoJl)Bl ~~E.
c•n be set to zero or any value by means of the key-board.
The whole instrument is operated from a optical plummets and equipmenl for deformation meas-
Automatic recording tl\
To measure angles, touch I HZV I urements are fully compatible with the T-2000 .. withGRE3
:::l:,
>,i\
central panel comprising a water-proof key-board
and three liquid-crystal displays, shown in Fig. 23.8. To measure
touch
and record angles,
------ ---
1AEC I Two way data communication ··~: il
The key need only the slightest touch. One display Often, in industry and constrUction, one or more
To measure angles, distances FIG. 23.10. T-2000 : MODULAR :i
guides the operator, the other two contain data. I DIST 1
instnJ,DlentS have to be connected on line to a computer. ' APPROACH. o'\l
heights and coordinates,
The displays and telescope reticle can be illuminated touch-------- Computation is in real time. Results are available im- ~ !I
for work in the dark. Fig. 23.9 illustrates typical mediately. To facilitate connection, interface parameters
To measure and record
rnmm::.nt)c: ::~lnTIJJ u_rith rnM"P<:nt'"rl;no lrPv tn hP ll!:;Prl
anqles, distances, helqhts and r;;:;7l
of we T-2000 instrurnclllS can be se'
IQ
coordinates, toucn ~
Various parameters such as a circle orientation to match those of the computer. Com~
Thafs all there Is to its a single
station co-ordinates and height scale correction and keystroke for the maln operations. munication is two~way. The instrument
additive constant can be entered and stored. All can be controlled from the computer.
are retained until over-written by new values. They FIG 23.9. TYPICAL COMMANDS Prompt messages and information can
cannot be lost even when the instrument is switched be transferred to the T-2000 displays.
off. As circle readings are corrected for index error and horizontal collimation error, one Of particular interest is the possibility
control panel is in position. It is perfectly sufficient for many operations. However, for of measuring objects by intersection
maximum convenience, particularly when measurements in both positions are required, the from two theodolites (Fig. 23.11).
instrument is available with a control panel on each side. Two T 2000 type instruments
The instrument uses rechargeable plug-in internal battery (NiCd, 2 Ah, 12 V DC) can be connected to the Wild GRE
which is sufficient for about 1500 angle measurements or about 550 angle and distanee 3 Data Temtinal. Using the Mini-
measurements. The instrument switches off automatically after commmands and key sequences. RMS program, co-crdinares of inter- FIG. 23.11. RMS (REMOTE MEASURING SYSIEM)
The user can select a switch off time of 20 seconds or three minutes. This important sected points are computed and re- tNTERSECflON METIIOD.

-

470 SURVEYING
corded. The dislanee bet- ween any pair of object points can be calculated and displayed..
For complex applications and special computations, rwo or more T 2000 or T 2000 S
can be used with the Wild-Lei~ RMS 2000 Remote Mea..uring System.
23.4. WILD T 2000 S 'THEOMAT'
Wild T 2000 S [Fig. 23.6 (b)] combines the pointing accuracy of a special telescope
with the precision ofT 2000 dynamic circle measuring system. This results in angle measuremenl
of the highest accuracy. The telescope is panfocal with a 52 mm obejctive for an exceptionally
bright, high contrast image. It focuses to object 0.5 m from the telscope. The focusing
drive bas coarse and fine movements.
Magnification and field of view vary with focusing distance. For observations to distant
targets, the field is reduced and magnification increased. At close range, the field of view
widens and magnification is reduced. This unique system provides ideal conditions for observation
at every dislanee. With the standard eye-piece, magulfication is 43 x with telescope focused
to infinity- Optional eye-pieces for higher and lower magnification can also be fitted.
siability of the line of sight with change in focusing is a special feature of the
T 2000 S telescope. It is a true alignment telescope for metrology, industry and opiical
tooling industry. T 2000 S can also be fitted with a special target designed for pointing
to small targets.
A special target can also be built into the telescope at the intersection of the horizontal
and vertical axes. The target is invaluable for bringing the lines of sight of rwo T 2000
S exactly into coincidence. This is the usnal preliminary procedure prior to measuring objects
by the RMS intersection method.
For fatigue·free, maximum..precision auto-rollimation measurements, the telescope is
available with an auto-collimation eye-piece with negative reticle (green cross).
Like T 2000, the T 2000 S takes all Wild Distomats. It can also be connected
the GRE 3 Data Terminal.
:\
[§]]
Electro-Magnetic Distance
Measurement (EDM)
24.1. INTRODUCTION
There are three methods of measuring distance berween any rwo given points :
I. Direct distanCe measurement (DDM), such as the one by chaining or taping.
2. Optical distance measurement (ODM), such as the one by tacheometty, horizon!al
subtense method or telemetric method using optical wedge attacbmen!S.
3. Electro-magnetic distance measurement (EDM) such as the one by geodimeter,
tellurometer or distomat etc.
The method of direct distanCe measurement is unsuitable in difficult terrain, and some
times impossible when obstruCtions occur. The problem was overcome after the development
of optical distance measuring methods. But in ODM method also, the range is limited
to !50 to ISO m and the accuracy obtained is I in 1000 to I5 in 10000. Electromagnetic
distance measuremenl (EDM) enables the accuracies opto I in 10 , over ranges upto 100 km.
EDM is a general term embracing the measurement of distanCe using electronic methods.
In electro-magnetic (or electronic) method, distanCes are measured with instrumen!S that rely
on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio, visible light or infra-red
waves. There are in excess of fifty differenl EDM systemS available. However, we will
discuss here the following instruments (iii) Distomats.
Vi uoodimeter (10 Tellurometer
24.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The EDM method is based on generation, propagation, reflection and subsequent reception
of electromagnetic waves. The type of electromagnetic waves generated depends on many
factors but principally, on the nature of the electrical signal used to generate the waves.
The evolution and use of radar in the 193945 war resulted in the application of radio
waves to surveying. However, this was suitable only for defence purposes, since it could
not give the requisite accuracy for geodetic surveying. E. Bergestrand of the Swedish Geographical
Survey, in collaboration with'the manufacturers, Messrs AGA of Sweden, developed a method
based on the propagation of 11Jl)(bdated light waves using instrument called geodimeter. Another
instrument, called teUurometer was developed, using radio waves. Modem short and medium
(471)
~-