A MINI PROJECT

ON
EVALUATION OF STAINLESS STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE BY
USING OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE

SUBMITTED

BY
B. AKHIL KUMAR 17265A1803
M. MONIKA 16261A1818
P. SARASWATHI 16261A1821
Partial fulfilment of the
Requirements for the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In
METALLURGICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING
UNDER SUPERVISION

OF
S.V.RAMANA RAO

(SR.MANAGER)

NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX (NFC)

HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
500078.
 MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MGIT)
AFFLIATED TO JNTU-H
HYDERABAD,
500075.
DEPARTMENT OF
METALLURGICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that a bonafide record of the dissertation work entitled, “EVALUATION OF

STAINLESS STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE BY USING OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND SCANNING

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE”, done by B. AKHIL KUMAR bearing Roll No: 17265A1803 submitted

to the faculty of Mr GVR. MURTHY in Metallurgical Engineering, in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY with specialization in metallurgical

&materials engineering from Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology (MGIT), affiliated to JNTU-H,

Hyderabad, 500075.

Signature of the supervisor Signature of Head of the department

Shri. S.V. RAMANA RAO Shri.Dr.K.RAMANJANEYULU
Designation:Sr. MANAGER
 MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MGIT)
AFFLIATED TO JNTU-H
HYDERABAD,
500075.
DEPARTMENT OF
METALLURGICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
Certified that a bonafide record of the dissertation work entitled, “EVALUATION OF

STAINLESS STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE BY USING OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND SCANNING

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE”, done by M.MONIKA bearing Roll No: 16261A1818 submitted to the

faculty of Mr GVR. MURTHY in Metallurgical Engineering, in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY with specialization in metallurgical &materials

engineering from Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology (MGIT), affiliated to JNTU-H, Hyderabad,

500075.

Signature of the supervisor Signature of Head of the department

Shri.S.V. RAMANA RAO Shri.Dr.K.RAMANJANEYULU
Designation: Sr.MANAGER
 MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MGIT)
AFFLIATED TO JNTU-H
HYDERABAD,
500075.
DEPARTMENT OF
METALLURGICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that a bonafide record of the dissertation work entitled, “EVALUATION OF

STAINLESS STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE BY USING OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND SCANNING

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE”, done by P.SARASWATHI bearing Roll No: 16261A1821 submitted to

the faculty of Mr GVR. MURTHY in Metallurgical Engineering, in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY with specialization in metallurgical

&materials engineering from Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology (MGIT), affiliated to JNTU-H,

Hyderabad, 500075.

Signature of the supervisor Signature of Head of the department

Shri.S.V. RAMANA RAO Shri.Dr.K.RAMANJANEYULU
Designation: Sr.MANAGER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we are thankful to Shri Dr. Dinesh Srivastava, NFC boardand Chief executive, NFC for
giving us this opportunity to carry out Project work at Nuclear Fuel Complex.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Shri. S.V. Ramana Rao, (Sr.Manager) for accepting
to be our guide and helping us throughout our Project Work period.

We would like to thank Ms K.S. Laxmi (Deputy General Manager), for helping us throughout our
Project Work period.

We express our sincere thanks to Shri. H.R. Ravindra, GM(HR) and Jawed Rasheed, Sr.Manager
(HRD, Q.Cir., QIS) for throughout our Project Work period at NFC and also for conducting awareness
programme on DAE/NFC activities at HRD.

Our special thanks to our professor Shri. Dr.K.Ramanjaneyulu, HOD and Principal Dr. Jaya
Shankar, who has given us this opportunity and their guidance.

We are grateful to our parents who have given us constant encouragement and inspiration to pursue
our graduation.

Finally we would like to thank everyone who has directly or indirectly helped us in the successful
completion of this project.

1
 DECLERATION

We hereby declare that the work presented in this project titled “EVALUATION OF
STAINLESS STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE BY USING OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE” is submitted towards the completion of our project in the
6th semester of Bachelors of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical& materials Engineering,
MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MGIT) AFFLIATED TO JNTU-H,
Hyderabad at the Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), Hyderabad. It is an authentic record of our original
work pursued under the guidance of Shri. S.V. RAMANA RAO (Sr.Manager), characterization lab
(QA) group, Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad.

B. AKHIL KUMAR 17265A1803

M. MONIKA 16261A1818
P. SARASWATHI 16261A1821

19th JUNE, 2019

Place: Hyderabad

2
 ABSTRACT

Apart from the conventional sources of energy like thermal, hydro and wind energy, nuclear
energy is also used to generate power. Nuclear energy is generated in nuclear power plants by nuclear fission
The fuel used in the nuclear reactor ( Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor)is UO2 (pellets). These pellets are
placed in fuel rods which are put together to form fuel bundles which are in turn placed in pressure tubes.
These pressure tubes are made of Zr-2.5% Nb.
In this report, we majorly discuss about how Microstructure will change by changing the heat
treatment cycles for a different grades of Stainless Steel.
Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium. Chromium produces a thin layer
of oxide on the surface of the steel known as the 'passive layer'. This prevents any further corrosion of the
surface. Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance to corrosion.
Austenitic stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face centred cubic).
This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite stabilizing elements
nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Due to their crystalline structure, austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat
treatment and are essentially non-magnetic.
Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries in a stainless steel or alloy,
causing the steel or alloy to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress corrosion cracking

Step structure: No ditches at grain boundaries.

Dual structures: Some ditches at grain boundaries but no single grain completely surrounded by ditches.

Ditch structure: One or more grains completely surrounded by ditch.

3
 CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1
DECLERATION 2
ABSTRACT 3

CHAPTER 1 ABOUT NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX 7-19

1.1 An Overview of NFC 7
1.1.1 Introduction 7
1.1.2 Activities 7
1.2 Plants In NFC 8
1.2.1 Zirconium Oxide Production 8
1.2.2 Zirconium Sponge Production 11
1.2.3 Melt Shop 13
1.2.4 Billet Preparation Shop 17
1.2.5 Extrusion and Piercing Plant 19
1.2.6 Zirconium Fabrication Plant 19
CHAPTER 2 NUCLEAR REACTOR 22-24
2.1 Importance 22
2.1.1 India’s Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme 23
2.1.2 Advantages 23
2.2 Nuclear Reactor 23
2.3 Nuclear Reaction 23
2.4 Nuclear Fusion 23
2.5 Nuclear Fission 24
2.5.1 Controlled Nuclear Fission 24
2.5.2 Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission 24
CHAPTER 3 SENSITIZATION 25-28
3.1 Sensitization 25
3.2 Intergranular Corrosion 25
3.2.1Causes 26
3.2.2 Mechanism 26

4
3.3 Types of Intergranular Corrosion 27
3.3.1 Knife Line Attack 27

3.3.2 Weld Decay 27

3.3.3 Remedies 28

CHAPTER 4 STAINLESS STEELS 29-32

4.1 Types of Stainless Steel 29
4.1.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels 29

4.1.2 Applications 30

4.1.3 Grades of Austenitic Stainless Steel (304 & 304l) 30

4.1.4 Type304 and 304l Stainless Steel Composition 31

4.2 Ferritic Stainless Steel 32

4.2.1 SS430 Ferritic Stainless Steel 32

CHAPTER-5 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 33-36

5.1 Heat Treatment 33

5.2 Abrasive Cutting 34

5.3 Mounting 34

5.4 Polishing 34

5.5 Lapping 35
5.6 Etching 35

5.7 Optical Microscope 36

5.8 Scanning Electron Microscope 36

CHAPTER-6 RESULTS 38-44

CONCUSIONS 46
REFERENCES 47

5
LIST OF FIGURES Page no.
1.1 Zirconium Sponge 13
1.2 Zirconium Oxide Powder 13
1.3 Hydraulic Compaction Press 14

1.4 Electron Beam Welding 14

1.5 Vacuum Arc Remelting 15

1.6 Double Radial Forging 17
1.7 Deep Hole Drilling 17
1.8 Counter Boring 17
1.9 Copper Jacketing 18
1.10 Extrusion Process 18
1.11 Pilgering 19
1.12 Pilger Mill Dies 19
1.13 Honing 20
2.1 India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Programme 22
2.2 Nuclear Fusion 23

2.3 Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction 24

2.4 Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission 24

5.1 Muffle Furnace 33

5.2 Mounted Specimen 34
5.3 Optical Microscopes 35

5.4 Vickers Hardness Tester 36

5.5 Scanning Electron Microscope 37

6
 CHAPTER-1
ABOUT NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX
1.1-AN OVERVIEW OF NFC

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION:

NFC is the abbreviated form of Nuclear Fuel Complex. India is one of the few Countries
which have achieved the capacity to design, construct, operate and Commission nuclear power plants
and all nuclear fuel cycle facilities entirely through Indigenous efforts .The contribution of NFC to
nuclear power scenario in India has been of Greater significance.

NFC was conceived by ''Dr .HOMI JAHANGIR BHABHA" to make India self-sufficient in
The nuclear power technology using natural uranium .It is a unique organization in the World where
reactor fuel and other reactor core components are manufactured under One roof, starting from the ore
concentrate to the finished products…hence takes up the Tagline “ore to product under one roof” NFC
is the industrial unit of Department of Atomic Energy(DAE) at Hyderabad and Has been playing a key
role in fuel cycle and nuclear power program for peaceful use of Atomic energy for the past 30years .it
is the only industry which manufactures Zirconium alloy components for PHWR and BWR, from its ore
concentrate, stainless Steel cladding tubes and core assemblies for liquid water cooled FBR and
uranium Pellets from magnesium di urinate concentrate obtained from Jaduguda.

1.1.2ACTIVITIES:

•Production of nuclear fuel bundles for Indian power reactors both pressurized heavy Water reactor
(PHWR) & boiling water reactor (BWR).
•Production of Zircaloy core components like coolant tubes, calandria tubes, flow tubes, fuel tubes etc.
• Production of seamless stainless steel tubes.
•Production of fast breeder test reactor (FBTR) core sub-assemblies.

7
1.2-PLANTS IN NFC
The following are the sub plants present in NFC:

1.2.1 ZIRCONIUM OXIDE PRODUCTION (ZOP)

[PRINCIPLE: - HYDROMETALLURGY]
Sea shore (Tamil Nadu, Kerala)

After processing

Zircon sand (60% Zr)

NoaH Caustic Fusion

Washed and dried “FRIT”

Nitric acid Dissolution silica and other impurities

(Zr (NO3)4), Hf (NO3)4

TBP + kerosene Solvent extraction Raffinate (Hf rich)

Extract (organic solution)

Diluted ZrNO3 Scrubbing Raffinate

Pure Solution
Extract (organic solution)

8
DM water Stripping

Pure solution (aqueous solution)

NH4OH + H2SO4 Precipitation

Zr(OH)4 slurry(yellow)

DM WATER Filtration / Repulping tank Ammonium nitrate + Ammonium

Sulphate
(Effluent gases)

Drying (light grey)

(ROTARY VACCUM DRUM)

Calcination

Grinding (Hammer mill)

ZrO2 POWDER
9
PROCESS
RAW MATERIAL:-
The feed to the plant is zircon sand. It contains 5 to 6% Silica, Hafnium and other
impurities.
CAUSTIC SODA FUSION:-
Zircon sand is treated with caustic soda at 6000C and the process is called caustic fusion.
Silica is removed as sodium silicate and sodium zirconate is dried to yield washed and dried
frit(WDF).WDF is then sent to dissolution plant.
DISSOLUTION TANK:-
This feed is dissolved in nitric acid (HNO3) solution at 600C, maintaining the free acidity (FA)
between 4.5 to 5 N. The reactions in this dissolution are exothermic and increase the overall
temperature from 600C to about 850C. The silica sand is settled at the bottom of the tank, and the
zirconium present is converted to Zirconium nitrate by the reaction with nitric acid.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION:-
The solution from the above step is siphoned out into a series of slurry extraction units. In
this step, TBP (33%) +KEROSENE (67%) is added as leachant. The feed and leachant move in
counter current direction and ZrNO3 is extracted by TBP and Hafnium goes into the raffinate.
SCRUBBING &STRIPPING :-
The solution obtained from the above step is dissolved in demineralised water to
selectively separate pure zirconium nitrate (ZrNO3) from TBP.
PRECIPITATION TANK & REPULPING TANK/FILTRARTION TANK:-
The solution obtained is then sent to the precipitation tank where zirconium is precipitated
in the form of zirconium hydroxide by the addition of ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid,
leaving out a solution of Ammonium Nitrate. H2SO4 is added to soften the formed crystals for easy
grinding.NH4OH is added to neutralize the solution. The pH of the mixture is maintained at
7(neutral) for the reaction to take place. The Zr(OH)4 precipitate obtained is sent for filtration after
which wet cake is obtained.
CALCINATION(ROTARY HEARTH FURNACE):-
Thiscake is heated at 250 0Cin ovens to remove the moisture present in it. The dried
product is then calcined (at 8000C) in order to remove H2SO4 in the form of gas, as well as
conversion of zirconium hydroxide (yellow) to zirconium oxide (white).

10
GRINDING:-
This oxide product is in granulated form and is converted to powder form by grinding. The
powder obtained is sent to prepare zirconium sponge in ZSP.

1.2.2 ZIRCONIUM SPONGE PLANT (ZSP)

[PRINCIPLE:-PYROMETALLURGY]
ZrO2 powder

Feed preparation
(ZrO2+coke+starch+water)

ZrO2 briquettes

COKING (Drying)

Chlorination ZrCl4

Condensation

Mg Kroll’s Reduction

Vacuum Distillation

Nuclear grade Zr sponge

11
PROCESS
FEED PREPARATION
The oxide powder is mixed with starch (acting as a binder), water and coke. The mixed
feed is then briquetted and dried.
OXIDE CHLORINATION
The main principle of this process is ZrO2 briquettes+ C + Cl2 ZrCl4
The ZrO2 briquettes react with Chlorine gas with Carbon as a catalyst to form ZrCl 4 vapors which
are then condensed to powder.
Why carbon is used?
To reduce the free energy of the reaction.
KROLL’S REDUCTION
REAGENT: - Mg
This equipment consists of an electrical pit furnace with two condensers at its sides. In the
pit of the furnace, a chamber containing magnesium briquettes is placed first. Over this chamber,
a perforated plate is placed. On top of this plate, a retort is hanged in the furnace containing ZrCl4.
ZrCl4 (g) + 2Mg (l) Zr(s) +2 MgCl2(l)
The exhaust pipes from the retort are connected to the condensers.ZrCl4 turns to vapours at
around 3310C, while magnesium melts at 6500 C. So, the furnace is heated to around, 5000 C in
order to obtain ZrCl4 vapours which react with magnesium by passing through the perforated
plate.
The zirconium sponge is formed (solid) at the bottom and MgCl2 (liquid) above it. Argon gas is
pumped in order to maintain inert atmosphere as well as for controlling the pressure.
VACUUM DISTILLATION
TEMPERATURE:-900 0 C
This consists of a long cylindrical chamber consisting of three compartments. The bottom
most compartment is cooled with water. The middle compartment is empty. In the top chamber,
the zirconium sponge is placed in layers. The furnace cover is placed over the top compartment of
the chamber. The middle compartment separates the bottom from the top, so that the heats
transfer does not take place. These compartments are separated with perforated plates. The
MgCl2 trickles down to the bottom, where it is almost immediately condensed to solid form. The
zirconium sponge is then taken out and sized.

12
CRUSHING, SCREENING AND SIZING
The sponge is crushed, sized and screened to obtain granules of Zr sponge.

FIG 1.1 ZIRCONIUM SPONGE FIG 1.2 ZIRCONIUM OXIDE POWDER

1.2.3 MELT SHOP

[PRINCIPLE: - ELECTROMETALLURGY]
Zirconium Sponge + Alloying elements (tin + Cr + Fe)
(Mass about 20kg)

Hydraulic Compaction Press

(135mm x 180mm)
Scrap
zircaloy
Sized flattened
Electron Beam Welding Plasma Arc Melting

Vacuum Arc Melting

Cast Ingot

13
PROCESS
COMPACTION:-
The Zr sponge granules are mixed with alloying element like tin pellets, Cr powder, Fe
powder, Niobium are added to increase the corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, malleability,
machinability, fabric ability etc. Weighing up to 20kg is put together into an hydraulic compaction
press where a force about 2000 tons is applied and compacted into a cylinder of 135mm height x
180mm diameter.

Fig 1.3– hydraulic compaction press

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING:-

An electrostatic field, generated by a negatively charged filament and a positivelycharged

anode, accelerates the electrons to about 50% to 80% of the speed of light and shapes them into a
beam. Due to the physical nature of the electrons - charged particles with an extremely low mass -
their direction of travel can easily be influenced by electromagnetic fields. Electron beam welders
use this characteristic to electromagnetically focus and very precisely deflect the beam at speeds
up to 10 kHz.

Fig 1.4 Electron beam welding

14
 When fast moving electrons hit a metal surface they are decelerated which transforms the
kinetic energy of each individual electron in the beam into thermal energy in thecomponent. As
the electron beam is moved forward, material melts at the front of thebeam. This melt moves
very dynamically to the back of the beam and rapidly solidifies inthis position. The beam is created
in a high vacuum of 10-3-10-5 mm Hg. High vacuum is needed so that the filament does not burn.
Temperature:-1852 0C
Electron Beam:- 80 KV
Obtained product:-Zircaloy electrode of 4mm long
VACUUM ARC REMELTING (VAR) :-
Purpose:-
1. Addition of alloying elements
2. To remove volatile impurities
Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is a melting process for production of metal ingots with
elevated chemical and mechanical homogeneity for highly demanding applications. Prior to start
up, the electrode to be melted is loaded into the furnace. Two major mechanical assemblies
combine to form the vacuum vessel in which melting occurs - the movable furnace head and the
fixed melt station. The movable furnace head is the upper section of the vessel. An integral ram
assembly connected to a highly sophisticated servo drive supports and controls the movement of
the electrode. The water-cooled ram extends through a vacuum seal in the head and the
electrode clamps to its lower extremity thus becoming the cathode of the arc melting operation.
The fixed melt station, which forms the lower half of the vacuum vessel, consists of a removable
copper crucible that is placed into a fixed stainless steel water jacket.

Fig 1.5 vacuum arc remelting

15
 Once the electrode is clamped to the ram(stringer rod) assembly the ram lifts the electrode
while furnace head is lowered to create a vacuum seal on top of the crucible. Once vacuum is
established, the DC power supply is activated and the control system automatically strikes a high
current arc between the consumable electrode (cathode(–ve) and the crucible base (anode(+ve))
which quickly forms a molten pool of metal.
The gap between the melting electrode and metal pool (arc gap) is precisely maintained and
a controlled melt rate is established. The metal droplets falling through the arc gap are exposed to
the vacuum environment and the extreme temperatures of the arc zone. This causes removal of
dissolved gasses, vaporization of tramp elements, and improvement in oxide cleanliness. The metal
undergoes quadruple melting, i.e. it is heated 4 times to eliminate maximum impurities and attain a
high level of purity. Control of the current, cooling water and electrode gap is essential to effective
control of the process, and production of defect free material.
CAST INGOT
The obtained molten product gets solidified in the copper mould which is being rapidly cooled by
water .Thus the solidified product is called cast ingot(un homogenized structure). This contains a
three types of grains namely chilled grains at walls followed by columnar grains and equiaxed
grains.
Hence we go for quadruple remelting (180mm 220mm 290mm 350mm)
Hence the obtained cast ingot is of 350mm diameter.

BETA QUENCHING:
Zirconium at room temperature is in Alpha phase which has HCP crystal structure. The
solubility of Nb in Zr in this phase is very low and hence we go a process called BETA Quenching. In
this process the ingots are heated to 1040 0 centigrade in induction furnace, soaked in a resistance
furnace for 20 minutes and then rapidly quenched in water. The reason behind is that Zr at this
temperature goes into beta phase which has BCC crystal structure and can dissolve upto 91% of
Nb in its matrix. Rapid quenching arrests the crystal structure and it remains in BCC phase even
after cooling to room temperature.

16
1.2.4 BILLET PREPARATION SHOP (BPS)
The ingot is obtained after quadruple melting in VAR (Vacuum Arc Remelting) furnace.
Quadruple melting is done to remove impurities from the metal. Then, the obtained
ingot(diameter 550 mm) is subjected to Double Radial Forging where the ingot is forged first to
350 mm diameter and then to230 mm diameter.

DOUBLE RADIAL FORGING:

This leads to better
(i) Homogeneity in microstructure and texture along the entire length, i.e.from the leading to the
trailing end of the tube
(ii) Higher aspect ratio of the alpha grain which is reported to be beneficial for diametrical creep.

Fig 1.6 Double Radial Forging

DEEP HOLE DRILLING & COUNTER BORING :
As the final requirement is a tube it is necessary for it to be hollow. Hence we go for Deep
Hole Drilling. In this process hole is drilled in the forged ingot and then counter boring is done
which is for the expansion of inner diameter of the tube.

Fig 1.7 Deep Hole Drilling Fig 1.8 Counter Boring

17
1.2.5 EXTRUSION AND PIERCING PLANT (EPP)
COPPER JACKETING:
Before extruding the tube, copper jacketing isdone. Copper has melting temperature above
the extrusion temperature and thus becomes soft during extrusion and acts as a lubricant during the
process.
Copper also acts as a barrier between the metal and the atmosphere and avoids it from
reacting with atmospheric elements. After extrusion DE jacketing is done by placing the tube in
HNO3 solution so that the copper on its surface gets dissolved in the solution and the tube is taken
for pilgering.

Fig 1.9 Copper Jacketing

EXTRUSION:
The next step is Extrusion where reduction in diameter and increase in length of tube is
observed. Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross section by forcing
it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure. In general, extrusion is used to produce rods
and hollow tubes but irregular cross section shapes can also be produced from highly for mable
materials. The equipment used is an extrusion press.

Fig 1.10 extrusion process

18
1.2.6 ZIRCONIUM FABRICATION PLANT (ZFP)
PILGERING:
Pilgering is a process where simultaneous reduction in outer diameter and wall thickness is
done using Pilger mill. In this operation, the billet is solid and ID is created by means of piercing in
a solid billet. The nose in this case is flat and upsetting of billet is also done to avoid eccentricity
errors. Mandrel in this case doesn’t go through the billet but is stopped a small distance before the
piercing is over and the remaining part of the billet is cut with the shearing provided by the SXH.
The nose here doesn’t fall down through the bottom tooling but stays just beneath the container
holding the billet. Expansion and piercing operation can be carried out on the 1200TonsVPP
(vertical piercing press).

Fig 1.11 Pilgering

Fig 1.12 Pilger Mill Dies

19
HONING & GRINDING:
After pilgering the tubes are sent for surface finishing of both ID and OD which is done by
HONING and GRINDING respectively. Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a
precision surface on a metal work piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a
controlled path. Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of asurface, but may also
improve the surface texture. Honing machines are metal abrading tools and process utilizing hard
tooling and perishable abrasives stones for the correction of:
➢Diameter

➢Shape

➢Surface finish

➢Positional tolerances of bores

Fig 1.3 Honing

Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and finish
components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish obtained
through grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or milling. Grinding
employs an abrasive product, usually a rotating wheel brought into controlled contact with a work
surface. The grinding wheel is composed of abrasive grains held together in a binder. These
abrasive grains act as cutting tools, removing tiny chips of material from the work. As these
abrasive grains wear and become dull, the added resistance leads to fracture of the grains or
weakening of their bond. The dull pieces breakaway, revealing sharp new grains that continue
cutting.

20
NDT:

The tube is then sent for NDT(non-destructive testing).In selecting an NDT method for evaluation
of a specific type of discontinuity, it should be kept in mind that NDT methods may complement
each other and therefore several NDT methods may be capable of performing the
Same task. The selection of one method over other is based on the following factors:
● Type and origin of discontinuity
● Material manufacturing process
● Accessibility of the component to perform NDT
● Type of equipment available
● Time available
● Cost

And some other main plants are in NFC is

 Special Tube Plant (STP)
 Seamless Stainless Steel Tube Plant (SSTP)
 Special Material Plant (SMP)
 Uranium Oxide Plant (UOP)
 Ceramic Fuel Fabrication Plant (CFFP)
 Characterization lab

21
 CHAPTER 2
NUCLEAR REACTOR
2.1-NUCLEARPOWER
Nuclear power is energy contained in atoms. This energy can be released as heat from a
chain reaction in a radioactive element such as uranium, thorium etc. Nuclear power Stations use
this heat to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.
2.1.1IMPORTANCE:
Nuclear power is one source, If given the momentum, can generate electricity at much
higher rate than coal fired power stations. It is found that at one of uranium-235 can yield an
amount of electricity produced by burning 25000 tons of coal. Since no harmful gases are released
by the generation of nuclear power, as compared to thermal power plants, a considerable amount of
environmental problems are diminished. This being the major advantage has increased the
importance of nuclear power to a great extent.

2.1.2 India’s three-stage nuclear power programme:

The three stages of Indian Nuclear Power programme are:-

Stage 1 This stage envisages construction of natural uranium fueled, heavy water moderated and
cooled pressurized heavy water reactors. Spent fuel from these reactors is reprocessed to obtain
Plutonium.

Stage 2 This envisages construction of Fast breeder reactors fueled by plutonium produced in
these reactors would also breed uranium-233 from thorium.

Stage 3: This stage would comprise power reactors using Uranium-233 thorium as fuel.

Fig.2.1 India’sThree-StageNuclearProgramme

22
2.1.3Advantages:
Since no harmful gases are released by the generation of nuclear power, as compared to
thermal power plants, a considerable amount of environmental problems are diminished. This
being the major advantage the importance of nuclear power has increased to a great extent.
•Remarkable operational performance.
• It is well controlled.
• Economical.
•Clean and safe.

2.2-NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions
Currently, there are 21 nuclear reactors in India.

2.3-NUCLEAR REACTION
Change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic nucleus, induced by bombarding it
with an energetic particle. The bombarding particle may be an alpha particle, a gamma-ray
photon, a neutron, a proton or a heavy ion. In any case, the bombarding particle must have
enough energy to approach the positively charged nucleus to within range of the strong nuclear
force.

2.4-NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion is the reaction in which two or more nuclei combine, forming a new
element with a higher atomic number (more protons in the nucleus). The energy released in
fusion is related to E=mc2 (Einstein’s famous energy-mass equation). On Earth, the most likely
fusion reaction is Deuterium–Tritium reaction. Deuterium and Tritium are isotopes of hydrogen.
2 +31tritium → 4He2+1n0 +17.6Mev
1Deuterium

Fig 2.2 Nuclear Fusion

23
2.5-NUCLEARFISSION
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a massive nucleus in to photons in the form of gamma
rays, free neutrons, and other sub atomic particles .In a typical nuclear reaction involving 235 U
92

and a neutron:
235 U 1n
92 + 0 → A + B + 3 n 0 + energy + radiation
(Where A and B are daughter products.)

2.5.1 Controlled Nuclear Fission:

It must be allowed to strike another uranium nucleus. If this ratio is less than one then the
reaction will die out ; if it is greater than one it will grow uncontrolled(an atomic explosion).A
neutron absorbing element must be present to control the amount of free neutrons in there
action space.

Fig2.3 controlled nuclear fission chain reaction

2.5.2UncontrolledNuclearFission:
Once the nucleus has been divided by fission, the neutrons that are emitted can strike
other nuclei. This energy released is extremely large. The neutrons produced during the fission are
called secondary neutrons .These neutrons may bring about the fission of three more 235 U 92

nuclei and produce nine neutrons at the same instant. If this reaction proceeds at this rate a huge
amount of energy is released in a short time. This is the uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction,
which if left free would be disastrous .This uncontrolled fission leads to an explosion.

Fig2.4 un controlled nuclear fission

24
 CHAPTER – 3
SENSITIZATION
3.1 SENSITIZATION:
Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries in a stainless steel or
alloy, causing the steel or alloy to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress
corrosion cracking.
Certain alloys when exposed to a temperature characterized as a sensitizing temperature
become particularly susceptible to intergranular corrosion. In a corrosive atmosphere, the grain
interfaces of these sensitized alloys become very reactive and intergranular corrosion results. This
is characterized by a localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries with relatively
little corrosion of the grains themselves. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out) and/or loses its
strength.

3.2 INTERGRANULAR CORROSION:

Intergranular corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form
of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to corrosion
than their insides. It is considered to be caused by the segregation of impurities at the grain
boundaries or by enrichment or depletion of one of the alloying elements in the grain boundary
areas.

Cr-Mn and Cr-Mn-Ni steels are also susceptible to intergranular corrosion following
sensitization in the temperature range of 420°-850 °C. In the case of the austenitic stainless steel,
when these steels are sensitized by being heated in the temperature range of about 520° to 800 °C,
depletion of chromium in the grain boundary region occurs, resulting in susceptibility to
intergranular corrosion. Such sensitization of austenitic stainless steels can readily occur because of
temperature service requirements, as in steam generators.

Intergranular corrosion of an alloy may be caused by

1. Enrichment of one of the alloying elements.

2. Depletion of one of the elements that affects its corrosion resistance in grain boundary areas.
3. Small amounts of iron in aluminium, wherein solubility of iron is low, have been shown to
segregate in the grain boundaries and cause Intergranular corrosion.

25
4. Depletion of chromium in the grain boundary region results in Intergranular corrosion of SS.
Causes of Intergranular Corrosion.
5. The potential difference between the grain boundary regions and any precipitate, intermetallic
phases, or impurities that form at the grain boundaries is responsible for higher dissolution rates
at these regions.

3.2.1 CAUSES:

The actual mechanism differs from one alloy system to another.

1. Some precipitates form preferentially at grain boundaries as a result of production, fabrication

and welding at elevated temperature.
2. If these precipitates are rich in alloying elements which are essential for corrosion resistance the
regions adjacent to grain boundaries are depleted of these elements.
3. Thus the metal is said to be sensitized and it suffers from Intergranular attack in a corrosion
environment.

3.2.2 MECHANISM:

1. Segregation of impurities at grain boundaries may give rise to galvanic corrosion.

2. Now we consider Austenitic stainless steel of type 304.
3. The universally accepted theory is the depletion of chromium in the grain boundary areas.
4. Chromium increase the corrosion resistance of the steel. If chromium is less than 10% then
relatively low corrosion resistance is approached.
5. This steel is sensitized to corrosion when heated approximately from 950-1450 ̊F.
6. In this range chromium carbide is virtually insoluble and precipitates out if carbon content is
higher than o.o2%
7. So Cr, come out of solid solution results in metal with low chromium contents in the area
adjacent to the grain boundaries.
8. The chromium carbide in the grain boundaries is not attacked.
9. The chromium depleted zone near the grain boundary is corroded because it does not contain
sufficient corrosion resistance to resist attack in many corrosive environment.
10. The common type 304 usually contains 0.06 t0 0.08% carbon so excess carbon is available for
combining with the chromium to precipitate the carbide.

26
11. Carbon diffuse out more readily towards the grain boundaries at sensitizing temperature but
chromium is much less mobile.
12. So chromium carbide is formed on the grain boundaries.
13. If the alloy is cut into a thin sheet and cross section of grain boundary area made, the corroded
area would observe as a deep narrow trench when observe at low magnification.
14. Use low carbon content grade stainless steel, e.g.: 316L, 304L ~ 0.03 wt. %, so carbide
formation is minimal.
15. Use a stabilized grade of SS, which contain strong carbide- forming elements such as Nb or Ti
and tantalum, which form titanium carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide preferentially
to chromium carbide.

3.3 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF INTERGRANULAR CORROSION:

3.3.1 Knife line attack

A knife line attack (KLA) is a type of intergranular corrosion involving a stabilized stainless
steel or an alloy. It typically occurs along adjacent or connected weld posts, heated into a
temperature range suitable for sensitization. The corrosion is restricted to an extremely narrow line,
neighbouring the line of fusion.

This corrosion attack appears as sharp as razor, thus the term "knife line attack." It is highly
possible to recognize the attack visually if the lines have already formed next to the weld. In this
type of corrosion, the crystalline boundaries of materials are exceptionally prone to attack rather
than the interiors.

Several alloys can go through KLA, but the best example is that of stainless steel. This is
due to the depletion of chromium at the surrounding area of the boundaries due to chromium
carbides’ intergranular precipitation during a thermal cycle.

3.3.2 Weld Decay

Weld decay is a form of intergranular corrosion, usually of stainless steels or certain nickel-
base alloys that occurs as the result of sensitization in the heat-affected zone during
the welding operation. The corrosive attack is restricted to the heat affected zone (HAZ).

27
3.3.3 REMEDIES:

 Heat treatment to re dissolve the carbides (post welding heat treatment).

 Weak corrosive conditions do not cause IGC.

 Low acidity (high pH) will generally reduce the susceptibility to IGC Prevention of Weld Decay.

 Knife line attack can be avoided.

 By the proper choice of welding variable.

 By the proper choice of welding materials.

 By the use of stabilizing heat treatment. Prevention of knife line attack

28
 CHAPTER-4
STAINLESS STEELS
STAINLESS STEELS
Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium. Chromium produces
a thin layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as the 'passive layer'. This prevents any
further corrosion of the surface. Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance
to corrosion.
4.1 TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL:
Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into four main
types: austenitic, ferrite, martensitic and duplex.
4.1.1 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS:
Austenitic stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face
centred cubic). This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the
austenite stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Due to their crystalline structure,
austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment and are essentially non-magnetic.
The austenitic range of stainless steels is defined by their face-centred cubic (FCC) crystal
structure, which has one atom at each corner of the cube and one in the middle of each face. This
grain structure forms when a sufficient quantity of nickel is added to the alloy 8 to 10 percent in a
standard 18 percent chromium alloy.
There are two subgroups of austenitic stainless steel. 300 series stainless steels achieve their
austenitic structure primarily by a nickel addition while 200 series stainless steels substitute
manganese and nitrogen for nickel, though there is still a small nickel content.

300 series stainless steels are the larger subgroup. The most common austenitic stainless
steel and most common of all stainless steel is Type 304, also known as 18/8 or A2. Type 304 is
extensively used in such items as, cookware, cutlery, and kitchen equipment. Type 316 is the next
most common austenitic stainless steel. Some 300 series, such as Type 316, also contain some
molybdenum to promote resistance to acids and increase resistance to localized attack (e.g. pitting
and crevice corrosion). The higher nitrogen addition in 200 series gives them higher mechanical
strength than 300 series.

29
4.1.2 APPLICATIONS:

 Automotive trim
 Cookware
 Food and beverage equipment
 Industrial equipment

4.1.3 GRADES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL (304 & 304L):

Type 304 is the most widely used austenitic (non-magnetic) stainless steel. It is also known
as "18/8" stainless steel because of its composition, which includes 18 percent chromium and 8
percent nickel. Type 304stainless steel has good forming and welding properties as well as
strong corrosion resistance and strength.

This kind of stainless steel also has good draw ability It can be formed into a variety of
shapes and, in contrast to type 302 stainless, can be used without annealing. Common uses for type
304 stainless steel are found in the food industry. It's ideal for brewing, milk processing and wine-
making, as well as for pipelines, yeast pans, fermentation vats and storage tanks.

Type 304 grade stainless steel is also found in sinks, tabletops, coffee pots, refrigerators,
stoves, utensils and other cooking appliances. It can withstand corrosion that can be caused by
various chemicals found in fruits, meat and milk. Other areas of use include architecture, chemical
containers, heat exchangers, mining equipment, as well as marine nuts, bolts and screws. Type 304
is also used in mining and water filtration systems and in the dyeing industry.

30
4.1.4 Type 304 and 304l stainless steel composition:

Element Type 304 (%) Type 304L (%)

Carbon 0.08 max. 0.03 max.

Manganese 2.00 max. 2.00 max.

Phosphorus 0.045 max. 0.045 max.

Sulphur 0.03 max. 0.03 max.

Silicon 0.75 max. 0.75 max.

Chromium 18.00-20.00 18.00-20.00

Nickel 8.00-10.50 8.00-12.00

Nitrogen 0.10 max. 0.10 max.

Iron Balance Balance

Applications by Steel Grade 304 and 304L (standard grade):

 Tanks
 Storage vessels and pipes for corrosive liquids
 Mining, chemical, cryogenic, food and beverage, and pharmaceutical
equipment
 Cutlery
 Architecture

31
4.2 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL:

Ferrite stainless steels have the body-centered cubic structure of ferrite, but contain between 11
and 30 wt. % chromium in solid solution. This grain structure is typical of alpha iron and is what
gives ferritic steels their magnetic properties.

Ferritic stainless steels are classified in the 400 series, usually with 10% to 30% chromium
content, and are often chosen for their excellent corrosion resistance and elevated temperature
oxidation resistance. With greater strength than carbon steels, ferritics provide an advantage in
many applications where thinner materials and reduced weight are necessary, such as automotive
emission control systems. They are nonhardenable by heat treating and are always magnetic.

Ferritic stainless steel alloys can generally be classified into five groups, three families of
standard grades (Groups 1 to 3 below) and two families of specialty grade steels (Groups 4 and 5
below). While standard ferritic steels are, by far, the largest consumer group in terms of tonnage,
demand for specialty grade stainless steels is increasing steadily.

The most commonly used ferritic steel, type 430 has a higher chromium content and is,
consequently, more resistant to corrosion by nitric acids, sulphur gasses, and many organic and
food acids. In some applications, this grade can be used as a replacement for austenitic grade 304.
Type 430 is often found in interior appliances, including washing machine drums, kitchen sinks,
cutlery, indoor panels, dishwashers, and other cooking utensils.

4.2.1 SS430 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL:

SS430 is a low-carbon plain chromium ferritic stainless steel. The steel has good corrosion
resistance in mildly corrosive environments and good resistance to oxidation at elevated
temperatures. In the annealed condition the steel is ductile, does not harden excessively during cold
work and can be formed using a large variety of roll forming or mild stretch-bending operations, as
well as the more common drawing and bending processes. The steel has limited weld ability and
should not be used in the as welded condition for dynamic or impact loaded structures. Being a
ferritic material, 430 is liable to brittle fracture at sub-zero temperatures, and cannot be used in
cryogenic applications. As the steel does not contain nickel or molybdenum, it is cheaper than any
of the 300 series steels.

32
 CHAPTER-5

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

The samples Stainless steel is taken those sample are used for studying of the sensitization
effect by heat treatment technique.

5.1 HEAT TREATMENT

INTRODUCTION:
Heat Treatment process is a series of operations involving the Heating and Cooling of
metals in the solid state. Its purpose is to change a mechanical property or combination of
mechanical properties so that the metal will be more useful, serviceable, and safe for definite
purpose. By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact; Heat
treatment can also make a metal softer and more ductile.
The types of Heat Treatment:
1. Annealing
2. Normalising
3. Hardening
4. Tempering.

Fig: 5.1 muffle furnace

Muffle furnace is commonly used for the heating of the materials for heat treatments.

33
5.2 ABRASIVE CUTTING:
Cutting with abrasives may cause a high amount of damage, while the use of a low-speed
diamond saw can lessen the problems. There are many different cutting methods, although some
are used only for specific specimen types. Low speed diamond saw for cutting OM (optical
microscope) samples when cutting a specimen from a larger piece of material, care must be taken
to ensure that it is representative of the features found in the larger sample, or that it contains all
the information required investigating a feature of interest.

5.3 MOUNTING:
Mounting of specimens is usually necessary to allow them to be handled easily. It also
minimizes the amount of damage likely to be caused to the specimen itself. The mounting material
used should not influence the specimen as a result of chemical reaction or mechanical stresses. It
should adhere well to the specimen, and if the specimen is to be electro polished later in the
preparation then the mounting material should also be electrically conducting.
Specimens can be hot mounted (about 150 °C) using a mounting press either in a
thermosetting plastic, e.g. phenol resin, or a thermo softening plastic e.g. acrylic resin. If hot
mounting will alter the structure of the specimen a cold-setting resin can be used, e.g. epoxy,
acrylic or polyester resin. Porous materials must be impregnated by resin before mounting or
polishing, to prevent grit, polishing media or etchant being trapped in the pores, and to preserve
the open structure of the material.
A mounted specimen usually has a thickness of about half its diameter, to prevent rocking
during grinding and polishing. The edges of the mounted specimen should also be rounded to
minimize the damage to grinding and polishing discs.

Fig.5.2 Mounted Specimen

5.4 POLISHING:
Surface layers damaged by cutting must be removed by grinding. Mounted specimens are
ground with rotating discs of abrasive paper, for example wet silicon carbide paper. The
coarseness of the paper is indicated by a number: the number of grains of silicon carbide per
square inch. So, for example, 180 grit papers is coarser than 1200 grit. The grinding procedure
involves several stages, using a finer paper (higher number) each time. Each grinding stage

34
removes the scratches from the previous coarser paper. This can be easily achieved by orienting
the specimen perpendicular to the previous scratches. Between each grade the specimen is
washed thoroughly with soapy water to prevent contamination from coarser grit present on the
specimen surface. Typically, the finest grade of paper used is the 1200, and once the only
scratches left on the specimen are from this grade.

5.5 LAPPING:
Polishing discs are covered with soft cloth impregnated with abrasive diamond particles
and an oily lubricant or water lubricant. Particles of two different grades are used : a coarser polish
– typically with diamond particles 6 microns in diameter which should remove the scratches
produced from the finest grinding stage, and a finer polish – typically with diamond particles
1 micron in diameter, to produce a smooth surface. The drying can be made quicker using a hot air
drier.

5.6 ETCHING:
Electroetching is a metal etching process that involves the use of a solution of an electrolyte,
an anode, and a cathode. The metal piece to be etched is connected to the positive pole of a source
of direct electric current. A piece of the same metal is connected to the negative pole of the direct
current source and is called the cathode. In order to reduce unwanted electrochemical effects, the
anode and the cathode should be of the same metal. Similarly the cation of the electrolyte should be
of the same metal as well. When the current source is turned on, the metal of the anode is dissolved
and converted into the same cation as in the electrolyte and at the same time an equal amount of the
cation in the solution is converted into metal and deposited on the cathode. Depending on the
voltage used and the concentration of the electrolyte, other, more complex electrochemical effects
can take place at the anode and the cathode but the solution at the anode and deposition at the
cathode are the main effects.

5.6 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

The microstructures are taken in Optical microscope at 100X, 200X, 500X, 1000x,
2000x magnifications. Now all these microstructure are taken from base material to welded zone
through thermally affected zone.

Fig: 5.3 optical microscope

35
5.7 VICKERS HARDNESS TESTER

The Vickers hardness test is a test performed to measure the hardness of materials, specifically thin
sections and small parts. It is comprised of a diamond indenter and a light load to produce an indentation on
the subject under testing. The depth of indentation is converted into the hardness value of the object. Vickers
Hardness Test. The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgs. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds

Fig:5.4 Vickers hardness tester

5.8 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces

images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact
with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the
surface topography and composition of the sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster
scan pattern, and the position of the beam is combined with the intensity of the detected signal to
produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited
by the electron beam are detected using an Everhart-Thornley detector. The number of secondary
electrons that can be detected, and thus the signal intensity, depends, among other things, on
specimen topography. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer.

36
 Specimens are observed in high vacuum in conventional SEM, or in low vacuum or wet
conditions in variable pressure or environmental SEM and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated
temperatures with specialized instruments.

Fig: 5.5 Scanning Electron Microscope

37
 CHAPTER-6

RESULTS

OBSERVATION
Microstructure characterization For electrochemical etching with oxalic acid, ASTM A
practice A was carried out to determine classification structure of austenitic stainless steels. Then,
the etched surface has been examined using optical metallographic microscope. The etched
structures have been classified as:

(a) Step structure: No ditches at grain boundaries.

(b) Dual structures: Some ditches at grain boundaries but no single grain completely surrounded by
ditches

(c) Ditch structure: One or more grains completely surrounded by ditch.

Apart from that, austenitic and Cr23C6 phases behaviour were qualitatively analyzed by
XRD. According to the method of sensitization explained in Experimental, the effect of heat input
through the microstructure had been investigated by electrochemical etching with oxalic acid. The
precipitation in the sensitized specimens of up to 60 s by neutral flame of oxy acetylene was formed
and classified into three zones. Zones of the formation of metallic carbide after sensitized in neutral
flame of oxyacetylene are illustrated in

 At the first zone, the step structure which is no precipitation occurs had been observed.
 The second zone, dual structure which the precipitation had been observed but the grains are not
completely surrounded by the precipitation
 The third zone, where directly exposed to the flame of oxyacetylene, ditch structure where the
precipitations occur with completely surrounding the grains.

38
 Additionally, at the third zone, with increasing of time of the sensitization, the precipitation
at transgranular or in the granular of the material had been observed. Further,

Type 304L stainless steel is an extra-low carbon version of the 304 steel alloy. The lower
carbon content in 304L minimizes deleterious or harmful carbide precipitation as a result of
welding. 304L can, therefore, be used "as welded" in severe corrosion environments, and it
eliminates the need for annealing.

This grade has slightly lower mechanical properties than the standard 304 grade, but is still
widely used thanks to its versatility. Like Type 304 stainless steel, it's commonly used in beer-
brewing and wine-making, but also for purposes beyond the food industry such as in chemical
containers, mining and construction. It is ideal for use in metal parts such as nuts and bolts that are
exposed to salt water.

RESULTS

304L AUSTERNITIC STAINLESS STEEL SAMPLE

As Received Sample Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 144

02 151

03 142

AVERAGE 145HV

39
SOLUTION ANNEALED SAMPLE AT (1050C/30MIN) WQ
HEAT TREATMENT CYCLE:

30min

1050c

Temp WQ

Time

Sample at 200x Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 135

02 138

03 143

AVERAGE 138HV

40
SENSITIZATION AT (1050C/30MIN) WQ + (675/1HR) WQ
HEAT TREATMENT CYCLE:

30min

1050c

WQ 1hr

temp 675c WQ

time

Sample at 400x Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 143

02 135

03 134

AVERAGE 136HV

41
 A SEM IMAGE OF AN SS304L AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL

Sample at 1000X

SS430 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL

AS RECEIVED
Sample at 400x Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 156

02 163

03 154

AVERAGE 157HV

42
SS430 STEEL AT 1100-1HR & WQ

HEAT TREATMENT CYCLE:

1hr

Temp 1100C WQ

Time

Sample at 400x Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 306

02 314

03 317

AVERAGE 312HV

43
SS430 STEEL AT 700-2HR & FC
HEAT TREATMENT CYCLE:
2hr

Temp 700C FQ

Time
Sample at 400x Hardness

NO OF HARDNESS
INDENTATION IN VICKERS
01 147

02 148

03 151

AVERAGE 148HV

A SEM IMAGE OF AN SS430 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL

Sample at 1000X

44
A SEM IMAGE OF A MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL
Sample at 1000X

45
 CONCLUSIONS

 This report presents the information about types of stainless steel used in nuclear fields.
 The structure of the stainless steels is changed according to the heating and the cooling
range.
 In sensitization we observed that the chromium carbide is formed along the grain
boundaries at the temperature range of 400-900c.
 In ss304 & 304L metal we observed the dual and the ditch structure by the sensitization.
 In ferritic stainless steel we observed the carbides in the matrix.

46
 REFERENCES
 D.Peckner and I.M. Bernstein Handbook of Stainless Steels. McGraw Hill
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitization
 https://explorable.com/sensitization
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/ferritic-stainless-steel
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/austernitic-stainless-steel
 https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/mechanical-metallurgy-dieter

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