Index

Which are the major alloying elements that are added to engineering steels? Then, for each element, you have mentioned reportthe effects provided to the steel
properties.

Which are the differences between basic and quality structural steels (discuss the chemical composition and processing routes used for the two classes)? What is
ductile to brittle transition temperature and which is its importanc

Describe why the cold working of a metallic material can modify its mechanical properties. Cite at least one type of engineering steel that is commonly subjected to
such processing route.

Describe the different wet corrosion mechanisms that can occur on metallic materials.

Which are the major methods to prevent a basic steel from wet corrosion? How does the chemical composition of a steel improve its corrosion resistance?

Describe the potential root causes of the fluctuation of structural steel properties? Discuss the statistical control procedures used to define the characteristic mechanical
properties of rebars.

List the phenomena that lead a structure to fail in a fire event, indicating the ultimate temperature that structural steel can withstand before failing.

Describe the processing steps of controlled hot rolling in the fabrication route of steel and explain which are the differences with respect to normal hot rolling route.

Which are the principal families of non-ferrous materials of interest for civil engineers? Make a quick comparison between the characteristics of these alloys with ferrous
ones.

Discuss the fabrication routes to obtain the high strength steels for pre-stressed concrete (steels for PSC). Is a PSC steel weldable (explain why)? Is a PSC steel
resistant to corrosion and to stress relaxation (explain why)?

Describe the major families of stainless steels (SS). Draw the Schaeffler's diagram and assign the approximate location of each SS family to the regions of this
diagram.

List the major families of steel of interest for civil engineering. Use the EN 10027 classification to distinguish steels on the base of the chemical composition or of the
application.

What is the meaning of the term weldability? Relate the concept of weldability to the chemical composition of steel. Which is the structure of a weld? Which are the
major welding techniques used in construction sites?

List 4 different types of Aluminum alloys indicating: the 4 digit code, and the principal alloying element besides Aluminum (e.g. 1XXX, 2XXX, and so on). Finally, provide a
description of the most used Aluminum Alloy to build Civil structures

Which material has the lowest Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) among Austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic stainless steels? Give a brief

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Which are the major alloying elements that are added to engineering steels? Then, for each element, you have mentioned report the effects provided to the steel
properties.

Carbon (C)
The most important constituent of steel. It raises tensile strength, hardness, and resistance to wear and abrasion. It lowers ductility,
toughness and machinability.

Chromium (CR)
Carbide and Ferrite Stabilizer, It’s the weakest carbide former. Increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability, toughness, resistance to
wear and abrasion, resistance to corrosion, and scaling at elevated temperatures.

Nickel (NI)
Carbide and Austenite Stabilizer. Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness. It also increases resistance to
corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures when introduced in suitable quantities in high-chromium (stainless) steels.

Molybdenum (MO)
Carbide and ferrite stabilizer. Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness, as well as creep resistance and strength at
elevated temperatures. It improves machinability and resistance to corrosion and it intensifies the effects of other alloying elements. In hot-
work steels and high speed steels, it increases red-hardness properties.

Which are the differences between basic and quality structural steels (discuss the chemical composition and processing routes used for the two classes)? What is
ductile to brittle transition temperature and which is its importance for steel behavior in service?

Basic steels:
- They are produced with simple/traditional routes without alloying elements;
- Used after the hot-rolling process or in rare case after normalizing treatment.
- The only composition requirement is relates to S and P content which must be lower than 0.05%
and possibly lower.

Quality steel:

- Small amount of alloying element (generally less than 0.01%) such as AL, Nb, N , V and TI are added, promoting precipitation hardening mechanisms and
grain refinement.
- They are manufactured with newer routes ( controlled hot rolling or online heat treatments);
- Yield and ultimate tensile stress, toughness and weldability are much higher with respect to basic steel.

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How can we produce quality steel?

A quality steel can be produced by controlled hot rolling technique. The controlled hot rolling was developed specially to fully exploit the features of micro-alloyed steel.

The thermo-mechanical treatment obviously allows to reduce the steel plate section by hot rolling, but in this specifics process the temperature is strictly controlled
during the various steps of the process. In this way, the correct grain size is directly obtained in a single step.

The first step of the hot rolling process is performed at high temperature, above A3, so that all material is fully austenitic. At this point, the plat is still 5 times thicker than
needed. During this step Austenite can recrystallize during the holding steps. Then temperature is lowered to 900*C and a second step of rolling is performed within
temperature range of 900-750*C. Hot rolling is performed in several steps until the correct thickness is obtained. Within this temperature range also fine carbides
precipitates and impede the coarsening of austenitic grains. During the cooling stage, Austenite transforms into ferrite. Since the former austenitic grain is already very
small, also ferrite grain nucleates in a very fine manner.

What is ductile to brittle transition temperature and which is its importance for steel behavior in service?

The temperature at which there is a pronounced decrease in a material's ability to absorb force without fracturing. At this point, a material transitions from ductile to
brittle.

The transition from ductile to brittle can be expressed by the energy during the impact that increases with the temperature, considering also the fact that there's a
transition temperature. At low temperatures, the material that would be ductile becomes brittle. For some steel, this transition temperature can be around 0*C.

Understanding brittle-to-ductile transition is essential for the understanding of fracture processes in service at lower temperatures.

Describe why the cold working of a metallic material can modify its mechanical properties. Cite at least one type of engineering steel that is commonly subjected to
such processing route

Cold working refers to the process of strengthening metal by changing its shape without the use of heat. Subjecting the metal to this mechanical stress causes a
permanent change to the metal's crystalline structure, causing an increase in strength.

Metal is rolled between two rollers, or drawn through (pushed or pulled) smaller holes. As the metal is compressed, the grain size can be reduced, increasing strength.

The process gets its name because it is conducted at temperatures below the metal's recrystallization point. Mechanical stress is used instead of heat to affect change.

When these metals are cold worked, permanent defects change their crystalline makeup. These defects reduce the ability of crystals to move within the metal structure
and the metal becomes more resistant to further deformation.

The resulting metal product has improved tensile strength and hardness, but less ductility (the ability to change shape without losing strength or breaking). Cold rolling
and cold drawing of steel also improve surface finish.

Examples: Steel Wires.

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Describe the different wet corrosion mechanisms that can occur on metallic materials

Uniform Corrosion: is characterized by an overall attack on the surface exposed to aggressive environment. The corrosion take s place without distinguished anodic and
cathodic areas. It's very common and easy to be controlled.

Galvanic Corrosion: When two different metals are electrically connected and in contact with an electrolyte (=liquid), they w ill form a galvanic cell where the more noble
material is cathodic and the less noble anodic. The anodic material will corrode. The corrosion rate depends on:
• The surface area ratio between cathode and anode (a bigger anode area compared to the cathode area reduces the galvanic effects, e.g. stainless steel fasteners
on a cast iron pump).
• The magnitude of potential difference (compare aluminum bronze in contact with stainless steel and cast iron in contact with stainless steel).
• The conductivity of the electrolyte (liquid).

Pitting Corrosion: Typical examples of pitting corrosion can be seen on aluminum and stainless steels in liquids containing c hlorides, e.g. seawater. These materials are
dependent on a thin surface oxide film for their corrosion protection. Mechanical damage or an inhomogeneous spot in the oxid e film could be the starting point for
corrosion attacks. The conditions in the pit are characterized by oxygen deficiency and low pH, which intensifies the attack and may also render it self-sustaining.

Crevice corrosion: The mechanism for crevice corrosion is similar to that for pitting corrosion. Crevice corrosion takes plac e in confined liquid filled slots and crevices
where the liquid circulation is prevented. Once corrosion has appeared, conditions in the crevice are changed; e.g. the pH -value is reduced and the chloride concentration
increase. Accordingly the corrosiveness of the confined liquid will increase. Crevice corrosion mainly appears on stainless s teel and aluminum in liquids containing
chlorides.

Differential aeration corrosion: This type of corrosion takes place when a metal is locally exposed to different oxygen/air l ocal concentrations - locally the material has a
different corrosion potential and a corrosion concentration cell is generated
• The less oxygenated part assumes a lower corrosion potential and acts as the anode of the cell, whereas the more oxygenated part assumes a higher corrosion potential
and acts as a cathode of the cell.
• The part which is exposed to less oxygen undergoes corrosion
Examples: a steel tube immersed in different types of soils.

Soil Corrosion: Soil is inherently porous and rich in moist and electrolytes (e.g. mineral salts). Therefore, soil is the perfect environment to provide corrosion to metals (e.g.
pipes, underground structures and in ground basements).

Intergranular corrosion: This type of attack results from local differences in composition, such as coring commonly encounte red in alloy castings. Grain boundary
precipitation, notably chromium carbides in stainless steels, is a well-recognized and accepted mechanism of intergranular corrosion.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): Combined stress applied and corrosion action. A typical features of stress corrosion crackin g is the occurrence of multiple cracking and that
the cracks have lateral tree-like cracks

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Which are the major methods to prevent a basic steel from wet corrosion? How does the chemical composition of a steel improve its corrosion resistance?

Which are the major methods to prevent a basic steel from wet corrosion?

BARRIER COATINGS
One of the easiest and cheapest ways to prevent corrosion is to use barrier coatings like paint, plastic, or powder. Powders, including epoxy, nylon, and urethane, are
heated to the metal surface to create a thin film. Plastic and waxes are often sprayed onto metal surfaces. Paint acts as a coating to protect the metal surface from the
electrochemical charge that comes from corrosive compounds.

hot-DIP GALVANIZATION
This corrosion prevention method involves dipping steel into molten zinc. The iron in the steel reacts with the zinc to create a tightly bonded alloy coating which serves
as protection.

ALLOYED STEEL (STAINLESS)

Alloyed steel is one of the most effective corrosion prevention methods around, combining the properties of various metals to provide added strength and resistance to
the resulting product. Corrosion-resistant nickel, for example, combined with oxidation-resistant chromium results in an alloy that can be used in oxidized and reduced
chemical environments.

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection protects against galvanic corrosion, which occurs when two different metals are put together and exposed to a corrosive electrolyte. To prevent
this, the active sites on the metal surface need to be converted to passive sites by providing electrons from another source, typically with galvanic anodes attached on
or near the surface. Metals used for anodes include aluminum, magnesium, or zinc.

How does the chemical composition of a steel improve its corrosion resistance?

If at least 12wt% of Cr is present in the chemical composition a thin, compact, continuous and stable layer of Cr2.O3 if formed on the surface which forms a barrier and
prevent the underneath bulk material from corrosion attacks.
From iron to stainless steel, iron can also gave an active passive behavior, but the sable corrosion rare achieved is much higher than the one for the stainless steel. By
adding Cr, you form chromium oxide, while for iron we just have oxide, that will create a barrier but it will not be enough to protect the metal, the stable part is
reached when the rust is to thick.
If we add Cr, Ni, N, Mo: generate a passive film with a corrosion rate really slow, we can decrease the rate at passive stage. Also for mild oxidizing solution you can get
passive behavior of the material. If Mo is added, you shift towards higher lever the oxidizing potential of the solution that is in contact with the material, that provides
the braking of the oxide layer. Locally the oxide layer is more resistance, retardant corrosion.

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Describe the potential root causes of the fluctuation of structural steel properties? Discuss the statistical control procedures used to define the characteristic
mechanical properties of rebars.

The potential roots can be chemical composition, in the statistic variability of the parameters influencing the processing steps, in the severity of the non-metallic
inclusions or diameter of the samples.

To account for these fluctuations, the characteristic yield or UT strength must be calculated: the characteristic value is a value below which the designer can expect to
find a defined percentage of the population of recorded data for that specific property (i.e. fractile 5 or 10% are typically used).

To assess these characteristic values a statistical treatment must be applied:

• Procedure: 75 rebars are collected from the steelwork plant producer; these rebars are picked out from 3 different castings (25 rebars per cast) from the producer
(this is necessary to characterize the typical production of a specific steelmaking shop); the selected 25 rebars from each cast must have at least 3 different diameters.
• These samples are tested with a standard tensile test to determine the stress-strain curve and calculate the characteristic yield and UT strength and the elongation
at maximum load (Agt) for each curve (that is to say for each of the 75 rebars).

EXAMPLE:
For a B450C steel the nominal yield strength is 450 Mpa, that means this steel is expected to have a minimum value of 450 MPa!
The 5% fractile is calculated with the formula above. The fk is the caracteristic yield strength, fm is the average value; k is a constant that depends on the number of
samples (1.9 in the case of 75 tests) and s is the calculated standard deviation. The standard requirement is satisfied only if the fk value is above the nominal one.

This specific steel lot (75 rebars out of the production of the producer) must be rejected!

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List the phenomena that lead a structure to fail in a fire event, indicating the ultimate temperature that structural steel can withstand before failing.

The collapse of a structure is very likely as soon as its metallic part fails. The latter R is designed to the part of steel structure ( in the R,E,I rule) in
contact with fire with a load bearing criterion.

- High temperature leads to a decrease of the yielding stress and to an overall increase of ductility.
- structural steel became weaker and more prone to deformation.
- High temperature may change the microstructure of the metal during the heating and or cooling

- The alteration of mechanical properties in steel depends on:

• the initial microstructure
• the final temperature
• Cooling rate

Structure is considered severely affected by a fire event, if the temperature overcome 500 °C.
• At this temperature, all the beneficial effects of the former thermo-mechanical treatments are lost due to:
• recrystallization • loss of the work-hardening • grain coarsening

Due the fact that steel has a high thermal conductivity, the effects of the contact with heat will be presented in the entire piece, the steel will become
weaker and more prone to deformation.

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Describe the processing steps of controlled hot rolling in the fabrication route of steel and explain which are the differences with respect to normal hot rolling
route.

The first step of the hot rolling process is performed at high temperature, above A3, so that all material is fully austenitic. At this point, the plate is still 5
times thicker than needed. During this step Austenite can recrystallize during the holding steps. Then temperature is lowered to 900°C, and a second step
of rolling is performed within the temperature range of 900-750 °C. Hot rolling is performed in several steps until the correct thickness is obtained. Within
this temperature range also fine carbides precipitate and impede the coarsening of austenitic grains. During the cooling stage, Austenite transforms into
ferrite. Since the former austenitic grain is already very small, also ferrite grain nucleates in a very fine manner.
For normal hot rolling, first material has to be pre-heated at 1250, so the material is in the austenitic field but because of the high temperature the
tendency is to develop a grain growth, having a coarse grain. The zig zag line represents the rolling, the thermomechanical action that is realized multiple
times until the temperature 920C, where the recrystallization is limited. The main difference with the controlled hot rolling is that all the rolling is done
before the No-Recrystallization Temperature, once the material is transformed will suffer a grain growth, maintaining a coarse structure. The production
can stop there or realize a second step, the normalizing, a heat treatment that will heat the material until we get austenite structure below the
recrystallization temperature, allowing to generate the grain refining. It is clear that we need two steps in order to have a structure with fine grains, while
for the Controlled Hot Rolling we have two rolling times one before the recrystallization temperature and one after, having a fine grain structure and if the
steel is micro alloyed we can get precipitation of carbides that will block the grain growth. improving toughness, and the strength and reducing DTB.

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Which are the principal families of non-ferrous materials of interest for civil engineers? Make a quick comparison between the characteristics of these alloys with
ferrous ones.

• Cast Iron • Al alloys • Cu alloys

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS: Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity and heat. Copper is principally used in the
electrical industry in the form of wire and other conductors. It’s also used in sheet roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings. Copper is also used to make brass, an
alloy of copper and zinc.
Cu has many applications because of its good mix of properties:
- Good thermal and electrical conductivity (for pure grades)
- Good hot and cold workability
- Good solubility with other metals and thus it can be used in various alloys
- Good castability
- Discrete mechanical properties also at low temperature thanks to the FCC lattice - Good corrosion resistance
- Copper based alloys can be used as a brazing system/alloy, Cu-Zn alloys where the Zn content can range from 5 to 40%. In a high concentration (>35%)
the system becomes biphasi. The higher the Zn content the higher the mechanical properties
- Other copper alloys are the so called Bronze: these are Cu-Sn alloys with Sn up to 10% for wrought alloys. After work hardening, they have good
mechanical properties and a good corrosion resistance to sea water
ALLUMINUM: Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged, machined and welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature
environments. Because aluminum is lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminum is also used in castings, pistons, railways,
cars, and kitchen utensils.
Aluminum alloys have low density 2,7 g/cm3
The mechanical properties are good especially if related to the alloy density (specific resistance). This makes Aluminum alloys a good alternative for steels
in certain application field.
They have good corrosion resistance in neutral or slightly acid environments
In the construction field aluminum is used because it is light, deformable and corrosion resistant
Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals like gold and silver. Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their
malleability. They also have no iron content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making them ideal for gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor
signs. Lastly they are non-magnetic, which is important for many electronic and wiring applications.

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 Discuss the fabrication routes to obtain the high strength steels for pre-stressed concrete (steels for PSC). Is a PSC steel weldable (explain why)? Is a PSC steel
resistant to corrosion and to stress relaxation (explain why)?

Hot formed: They have a fine pearlitic microstructure. High content of C, with Mn and Si. Hot rolling is used for producing bars with a diameter up to 36
mm. After the rolling process, they are cooled in a controlled manner and then tempered under load for quite long times. UTS is about 1300 MPa.
• Cold formed: The wire has a composition very close to that of an eutectoidic steel and a diameter of 10 mm. It is heated at 900°C and quenched in
liquid lead (patenting). At this stage the wires has fine pearlitic structure and are then cold drawn down to 3-5 mm and tempered at low temperature
(stabilization, used to reduce the stress relaxation tendency). At the end, they are spoon in strands with 7 wires. Mechanical properties increase as the
diameter decreases.
• Quenched and tempered: wires obtained after hot drawn or bars with a sufficient amount of alloying elements (Mn Si Cr). Wires have an UTS of about
1650 MPa.
Is a PSC steel weldable?
These steels cannot be welded, So there are not limits to the carbon content.
Discuss the corrosion resistance and the stress relaxation of PSC steel.
• Protection to corrosion of steels for PSC
• Rebars or strain made of this steel grade easily suffer from corrosion. • The reduction of the bearing section due to corrosion may lead to the brittle
fracture of the entire structure • These steels are carefully checked in the construction site to evidence any corroded portion. • The concrete protect the
steel from corrosion in prestressed construction since they are in direct contact. In post-stressed structures, where steel rebars and strands are
embedded in special sleeves, the tendons must be protected with grout (bonded post-tensioning). In the case where tendons are not bounded to the
sleeves, greases is used for the protection of the steel
• Stress relaxation in steels for PSC
• This is primarily due to keeping the structure in a strained condition for some finite interval of time and, hence, causing some amount of plastic strain. •
The strain applied do not change with time, but the stress state necessary to maintain the same strain level decreases. • If the stress state decreases,
also the prestress level inside the PSC structure decreases accordingly, thus the entire resistance of the structure is lowered. • This phenomenon must
be kept into account during the design stage of such high strength steels. • Stress relaxation is measured applying a fixed deformation for a defined time
(i.e. a strain which corresponds to the 70% of the YS is applied for 1000h). • The load reduction is evaluated during the test and the percentual variation
is calculated.

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 Describe the major families of stainless steels (SS). Draw the Schaeffler's diagram and assign the approximate location of each SS family to the regions of this
diagram.

Stainless steel classes:

I. Ferritic: as the name suggests, Ferritic stainless steel (SS), bottom right of the Schaeffler diagram, have a full ferritic microstructure;
II. Austenitic: Austenitic SS on the other hand are full Austenitic;
III. Martensitic: have a sufficient carbon content to form Martensite upon quenching;
IV. Duplex: have both ferritic and austenitic phase together.

• Austenitic SS are the most known stainless steels; they have fully austenitic structure; such structure can be less (AISI 304 or AISI 201, 202) or more
stable (as the Ni_eq. content increases); if austenitic structure is poorly stable applied mechanical or thermal actions can cause metallurgical
transformations; these steels are corrosion resistant both in acid and basic environment, have medium to high resistance in temperature; however
they have limited mechanical properties.
• Martensitic SS martensite is obtained through a diffusionless transformation of the former austenite structure. These steel grades must have
certain mechanical properties to be practically useful: such properties are provided by the carbon content of the martensite (matrix) and by
precipitation hardening through Cr carbide precipitation (lowering the corrosion resistance on the other hand); in such steels the Ni_eq term mainly
arise from the C content.
• Ferritic SS forms starting from a C_req of 12% if no Ni_eq are added. If some gamma stabilizer element is added, an higher content of C_req must
be added to balance the austenite stabilizing effect. Poor mechanical properties but potentially very high temperature corrosion resistance
• Dual phase SS (duplex) It is typically adopted in the offshore/oil and pump field where both mechanical properties and outstanding resistance to
corrosion are vital for the business.

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 List the major families of steel of interest for civil engineering. Use the EN 10027 classification to distinguish steels on the base of the chemical composition or of the
application.

Using the symbolic designation (EN10027-1) the major steel used for civil engineering interest are:
S= Structural steel
B= Steel for reinforced concrete
Y= Steel for pre-stressed concrete
Use the EN 10027 classification to distinguish steels on the base of the chemical composition or of the application.
In the ISO EN 10027-1 standards the steels are divided into 2 categories:
I. Steel designed for their final application with mechanical/physical properties.
The code identifies with a letter that denotes the final application of the steel itself. The letter is then followed by numbers which indicates the strength of
the steel.
Example: “S” in the beginning for the structural steels, “355” for yielding stress capacity, and “J2” for absorbed energy during an impact test of 27J at -20
C.
Ex.: S355J2
II. Steel are designed on the basis of their chemical composition.
The designation of the steel grades changes according to the alloying element amount.
Example: 13MnNi6-3, indicating 0,13% of C, 1,5% Mn (knowing the coefficient of Mn is 4 so 4/6=1,5%) and 0,75% Ni (knowing the coefficient of Ni is 4 so
¾ = 0,75%).

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What is the meaning of the term weldability? Relate the concept of weldability to the chemical composition of steel. Which is the structure of a weld? Which are the
major welding techniques used in construction sites?

The welding process allows to permanently join two metallic parts with a continuous interface between the two elements to form an assembly. It can
be developed between the same material or similar material,
The weldability is the material attitude to be welded, and for instance some materials demonstrate different responses thru the welding process:

Carbon steel ➔Weldability decreases as the amount of carbon increases

Alloyed steel ➔Good weldability but very sensitive to process conditions
Stainless steel ➔ Difficult in welding

To reduce the risk of cracking, the joints must be linear, the materials demonstrates some chemical compatibility.

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• Which is the structure of a weld?

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 • Which are the major welding techniques used in construction sites?
I. Brazing: A heating source melts only the filler metal in between the two base metal parts (un-melted). The joint is formed upon cooling
once the brazing alloy solidifies;
II. Welding: A heating source generate enough power to melt the edges of the two joining parts and the filler metal. Filler metal may also
not be present.
III. Welding with pressure: Same as the previous one but also pressure is applied during heating.
IV. Welding with gas melting: A combustion reaction is used to generate the heat to reach the melting point.
Acetylenic torch: C2H2+5/2O2=2CO2+H2O
Oxyhydric torch: H2+1/2O2=H2O
2 materials or the same one
welded is high affected by oxidation, can be after treated
easy - cheap can be done at the construction site

V. Protected arc welding: In this kind of welding, the melt pool is protected by an active or inert gas fluxed continuously. This gas
helps in maintaining the arc stable, and protecting the melt pool from undesired chemical reactions, in particular oxidation.
The main families of protected arc welding are:
a) TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas);
b) MIG (Metal Inert Gas);
c) MAG (Metal Active Gas).

The microstructural alterations will happen in the melted zone within the joint of the base metal and the electrode.

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List 4 different types of Aluminum alloys indicating: the 4 digit code, and the principal alloying element besides Aluminum (e.g. 1XXX, 2XXX, and so on). Finally,
provide a description of the most used Aluminum Alloy to build Civil structures

An aluminum alloy is a chemical composition where other elements are added to pure aluminum in order to enhance its properties, primarily to increase its strength.
These other elements include iron, silicon, copper, magnesium, manganese and zinc at levels that combined may make up as much as 15 percent of the alloy by weight.
Alloying requires the thorough mixing of aluminum with these other elements while the aluminum is in molten – liquid – form.

Alloys are classified in different families according to their chemical composition and are indicated with a 4 digit code. the first refers to the alloy type the second refers to
the need of particular controls, the third and the fourth indicate the specific alloy. other letters and numbers refers to the thermo-mechanic story of the workpiece

for example 2024 T3 means an alloy with Al-Cu (Cu ca. 4%) which underwent a natural
ageing treatment.
Copper - 2xxx
Manganese - 3xxx Al-Cu
Silicon - 4xxx Al-Si
Magnesium - 5xxx Al-Mg

2024 - Principal element besides Aluminum is Copper (Cu):

most widely known aircraft alloy.
6061 - Principal element besides Aluminum is magnesium silicide:
most widely used alloy in this series and is often used in truck and marine frames.
3003 - Principal element besides Aluminum is Manganese, a popular alloy for general
purpose because it has moderate strength and good workability and may be used in
applications such as heat exchangers and cooking utensils.
4043 - combined with silicon: most widely used filler alloys for welding 6xxx series
alloys for structural and automotive applications.

Extrusion products from the 6xxx series are the first choice for architectural and structural applications. Extrusion fabrication process makes it possible to increase the
geometrical properties of the cross-section by designing a shape that simultaneously gives the minimum weight and the highest structural efficiency. Also provide
benefits like: transportation of full prefabricated components, reduction of load transmitted to foundation, economy of energy either during execution, better
performance in corrosive environments.
Common application: Long-span roof system with live loads smaller than dead loads. Structure locates in inaccessible places far from fabrication. Structures situates in
corrosive environment (swimming pool roof, river bridges, hydraulic structures) and structures having moving part as sewage plants and moving bridges where
lightness means economy of power under service.

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Which material has the lowest Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) among Austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic stainless steels? Give a brief
explanation to support the answer.

All ferrous materials exhibit a transition from ductile to brittle when tested above and below a certain temperature, called as Transition Temperature. The
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature is a phenomenon which is mainly observed in metals. Below the particular temperature the material suddenly losses
its ductility and it changes from ductile to brittle material.

Martensitic has the lowest DBTT. Because:

• Austenitic do not have any DTB transition

• Martensitic steels have DTB transition temperature below 0 °C
• Ferritic cannot be used in cold environment since they have a DTB transition temperature above 0°C

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Index

How to limit problems due to porosity in cement products?

How can we improve Tension Resistance in concrete?

Hot increase thermal isolation effects in polymers?

how improve resistance of cementitious to weathering?

Differences between mortal and concrete.

Production of ceramic bodies.

Describe and discuss the various stages involved in the production of clinker.

Select a stone material for building external cladding a house located near to the sea (Genova).

Describe the gelivity in bulding materials.

Describe shortly each 5 type of portland cement.

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How to limit problems due to porosity in cement products?

A good way to reduce porosity is maintaining low Water/cement ratio (0.3-0.4) where all water is used to hydration of cement. However, with a so low W/C
ratio the product has a consistency that cannot be cast and compacted. Adding plasticizing additive the concrete mixing goes on, the concrete mix suddenly
starts to flow and splash in the mixer making possible to cast. Using plasticizer additives make able to reduce the W/C without losing workability of the
cement product.

-Vibration, dynamic compaction: Air pores are closed by vibration. Cement glue gets local pressure increase from the vibrating device. The pressure parts the
aggregate particles so the friction is reduced and they can slide along each other.
-Waterproofing products in the mixture, or applying waterproofing products in the concrete surface prevent fluids from entering the concrete, getting lower
capillary porosity.

When cement particles come into water particle corners with opposite charges orientate against each other and the particles flocculate, which
results in stiff voluminous structure obstructing flow. Increased amount of water can break up flocks, but the Water/Cement ratio is increased. The alternative
is to use plasticizing additive – super plasticizer. When the super plasticizer is added to concrete having a consistency as moist sand and the mixing goes on,
the concrete mix suddenly starts to flow and splash in the mixer.

Water is added in such amount that the concrete becomes possible to cast using vibrations. It usually means that more water is added than the chemical
reactions require. The excessive water evaporates from cement glue and leaves pores behind, which weaken the concrete. More excess water, it means
higher water/cement ratio, results in weaker concrete. Porous concrete is also more exposed to the environmental influence, because the surface exposed for
environmental attack increases.

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How can we improve Tension Resistance in concrete?

The tensile performance (strength and deformation) of concrete can be greatly enhanced using
steel bar.

How increase thermal isolation effects on polymers?

Increase volumetric filler content

Increase hydrostatic pressure.
Compression of polymers
Density of the material.

How to improve resistance of cementitious to weathering.

Concrete durability mainly depends on its PERMEABILITY to WATER if porosity is almost absent,
aggressive agents solubilized in water cannot penetrate into the material HIGH DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE.

A good way to reduce porosity is maintaining low Water/cement ratio (0.3-0.4) where all water is
used to hydration of cement. However, with a so low W/C ratio the product has a consistency
that cannot be cast and compacted. Adding plasticizing additive the concrete mixing goes on, the
concrete mix suddenly starts to flow and splash in the mixer making possible to cast. Using
plasticizer additives make able to reduce the W/C without losing workability of the cement
product.

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Differences between mortal and concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of water, cement, sand just like mortar. However concrete also
has gravel and other coarse aggregates that makes it stronger and more durable.
Concrete is a very strong structural building material composed of cement, sand, and
larger aggregate (gravel).
Mortar, which is a mixture of water, cement, and sand, it is used as a binding material
when building with brick, block, and stone.

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Production of ceramic bodies.

1 Extraction of raw materials (rocks minerals): To begin the process, raw materials are transported and stored at the manufacturing facility. The raw materials used in
the manufacture of ceramics range from relatively impure clay materials mined from natural deposits to ultrahigh purity powders prepared by chemical synthesis.
Naturally occurring raw materials used to manufacture ceramics include silica, sand, quartz, flint, silicates, and aluminosilicates (e. g., clays and feldspar).

2 treatment of this raw materials, purification process, biochemical routes

3 crushing, milling and sieving of the purified rock
4 molding - pressing, extrusion and slip casting: Plastic molding is accomplished by extrusion, jiggering, or powder injection molding. Extrusion is used in
manufacturing structural clay products and some refractory products. Jiggering is widely used in the manufacture of small, simple, axially symmetrical whiteware
ceramic such as cookware, fine china, and electrical porcelain. Powder injection molding is used for making small complex shapes.
5) drying, remove the water
As a clay-based ceramic body dries, it also experiences some shrinkage. In the early stages of drying, the clay particles are virtually surrounded by and separated from
one another by a thin film of water. As drying progresses and water is removed, the interparticle separation decreases, which is manifested as shrinkage. During
drying it is critical to control the rate of water removal. Drying at interior regions of a body is accomplished by the diffusion of water molecules to the surface, where
evaporation occurs. If the rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of diffusion, the surface will dry (and as a consequence shrink) more rapidly than the interior,
with a high probability of the formation of the aforementioned defects. The rate of surface evaporation should be reduced to, at most, the rate of water diffusion;
evaporation rate may be controlled by temperature, humidity, and rate of airflow. Other factors also influence shrinkage. One of these is body thickness; nonuniform
shrinkage and defect formation are more pronounced in thick pieces than in thin ones. Water content of the formed body is also critical: the greater the water
content, the more extensive is the shrinkage. Consequently, the water content is typically kept as low as possible. Clay particle size also has an influence; shrinkage is
enhanced as the particle size is decreased. To minimize shrinkage, the size of the particles may be increased, or nonplastic materials having relatively large particles
may be added to the clay. Microwave energy may also be used to dry ceramic wares. One advantage of this technique is that the high temperatures used in
conventional methods are avoided; drying temperatures may be kept to below 50C (120F). This is important because the drying temperature of some temperature-
sensitive materials should be kept as low as possible.

6) sintering, consolidation in high temperature typical around half of melting temperature 33-60% of melting temperature.
7) Surface treatment, glass coting: For traditional ceramics, glaze coatings often are applied to dried or bisque-fired ceramic ware prior to sintering. Glazes consist
primarily of oxides and can be classified as raw glazes or frit glazes. In raw glazes, the oxides are in the form of minerals or compounds that melt readily and act as
solvents for the other ingredients. Some of the more commonly used raw materials for glazes are quartz, feldspars, carbonates, borates, and zircon. A frit is a
prereacted glass. Frit manufacturing is addressed in AP-42 Section 11.14. To prepare glazes, the raw materials are ground in a ball mill or attrition mill. Glazes
generally are applied by spraying or dipping. Depending on their constituents, glazes mature at temperatures of 600° to 1500°C (1110° to 2730°F).

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Describe and discuss the various stages involved in the production of clinker.

1 Quarrying: The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through a dry method. The first step is to quarry the principal raw materials,
mainly limestone, clay, and other materials.

2 Crushing: After quarrying the rock is crushed. This involves several stages. The first crushing reduces the rock to a maximum size of about 15cm. The
rock then goes to secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 8cm or smaller.

3 Mixing: The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.

4 Sintering: The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 1500 degrees Celsius in huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick.

5 Clinker comes out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles, must be then grided and stored.

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Select a stone material for building external cladding a house located near to the sea (Genova).
Options: granite, travertine or marble. What is the best option and why?

- Granite bcz is not affected by salt attack, composed of quartz so there is no pores and the minerals do not degraded with the salt
- Granite is the best option in an environmental point,
- Efflorescence can form in all 3 materials; (near to the sea)
- granite less sensitive true, but more expensive and cutting process require high energy
- Best choice granite but is more expensive.

Describe the gelivity in building materials.

- Cracks due Volume expansion (9%) of freeze water may occurs, when temperature goes below 0C.

Describe shortly each 5 type of Portland cement.

CEM I Portland cement: Sulphate resisting Portland cement

CEM II Portland-composite cement:
CEM III Blast furnace cement: Sulphate resisting blast furnace cement (no requirement on C3A content of the clinker),
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement: Sulphate resisting pozzolanic cement
CEM V Composite cement:

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