THE MACHINE DESIGNERS RESPONSIBILITY.

good designer needs many attributes, for example:

(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
(f)
(g)

(h)

A good background in strength of materials, so that the

stress analysis are sound.
A good acquaintance with the properties of materials
used in machines, which is no small achievements
considering the extensive development of recent years.
A familiarity with the major characteristics and
economics of various manufacturing processes,
because the parts that make up the machine must be
manufactured at a competitive cost.
A specialize knowledge of various circumstances, such
as the properties of materials in corrosive atmospheres,
at very low (cryogenic) temperatures or at relative high
temperatures.
A preparation for deciding wisely.
Some aesthetic sense, because the product must have
customer appeal if it is to sell.
A knowledge of economics and comparative cost ,
because the best reason for the existence of engineers
is that they save money for those who employ them.
Inventiveness and the creative instinct, most important
of all for maximum effectiveness.

PHILOSOPHIES OF DESIGN.

We think of an inventor as starting from scratch and

creating a new design. However, even though he
creates a machine never before conceived, he uses
ideas that have long been known and, in more or less
degree, he benefits from the engineering experiences
of one or several industries.
These brief remarks are intended, not to define the
philosophies of design in each of the industries, but to
show that there are quite different attitudes and to
suggest that, in each field of design, the designer
involves a philosophies befitting the nature of the work
he is doing.

THEORY AND PRACTICE

If theory and practice do not agree, either

theory or practice is wrong . Methods of design
undergo an evolutionary process, just as a machine
invariably evolves into better and better forms.
New discoveries are made each day, but, because
many theories are or become inadequate, when
never know when the accepted formula will be
discarded.

MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Age hardening is aheat treatmenttechnique
used to increase the yield strength ofmalleable
materials, including most structural alloys
ofaluminum,magnesium,nickel,titanium, and
somestainless steels. Insuper alloys, it is known to
causeyield strength anomaly providing excellent
high temperature strength. Also called precipitation
hardening.
Alloy is a mixture ormetallicsolid solution
composed of two or moreelements.
Alloying elements is steel are usually considered
to be the metallic elements added for the purpose
of modifying the properties.
Anisotropy is the characteristic of exhibiting

Brittleness is a tendency to fracture without appreciable

deformation.
Charpy test is one in which a specimen, supported at both
ends as a simple beam, is broken by the impact of a falling
pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen
is a measure of impact strength of the metal.
Cold shortness is brittleness of metals at ordinary or low
temperatures.
Cold working is the process of deforming a metal
plastically at a temperature below the recrystallization
temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.
Damping capacity is the ability of a material to absorb or
damp vibrations which is a process of absorbing kinetic
energy of vibration owing to hysteresis. Hysteresisis the
dependence of a system not only on its current
environment but also on its past environment.
Decarburization is a loss of carbon from the surface of

Ductility is the property that permits permanent

deformation before fracture intention. It is a solid
material's ability to deform undertensilestress; this is
often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched
into a wire.
Embrittlement involves the loss of ductility because of a
physical or a chemical change of the material.
Free carbon it is that part of the carbon content of steel or
iron that is in the form of graphite or temper carbon.
Hard drawn is a temper produce in a wire, rod, or tube by
cold drawing.
Homogenous materials (have homogeneity) have the
same structure at all points.
Isotropic material have the same properties in all
direction. (would has a grain; rolled steel is not isotopic).
Izod test is a test in which a specimen, supported at one
end as a cantilever beam, is broken by the impact of falling

Killed steel is steel that has been deoxidized with a strong

deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in order to
eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during
solidification.
Machinability is somewhat indefinite property that refers
to the relative ease with which the material can be cut.
Mechanical properties are those that have to do with
stress and strain: ultimate strength and percentage
elongation.
Percentage elongation is the extension in the vicinity of
the fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as a
percentage and the original gage length.
Percentage reduction of area is the smallest area at the
point of rupture of the tensile specimen divided by the
original area.
Precipitation heat treatment brings about the
precipitation of a constituent from a super saturated solid
solution by holding the body at an elevated temperature,

Red shortness is the brittleness in steel when it is red

hot.
Relaxation, associated with creep, is the decreasing
stress at a constant strain; important for metals in high
temperature service.
Residual stresses are those not due to applied loads or
temperature gradients; they exist for various reasons, as
unequal cooling rates, cold working, etc.
Rimmed steel is incompletely deoxidize steel.
Solution heat treatment is the process of holding alloy
at a suitably high temperature long enough to permit one
or more constituents to pass into solid solution and then
cooling fast enough to hold the constituents as a
supersaturated solution.
Strain hardening is increasing the hardness and
strength by plastic deformation at temperatures lower
than the recrystallization range.

Transverse strength refers to the results of a

transverse bend test, the specimen being mounted as a
simple beam; also called rupture modulus.
Wrought steel is the that has been hammered, rolled,
or drawn in the process of manufacture; it may be plain
carbon or alloy steel.

HEAT-TREATMENT TERMS.

Heat treatment is an operation or combination of

operations involving the heating and cooling of metal
or an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of
altering properties of material.
Aging (and age hardening) is a change in metal by
which its structure recovers from an unstable or
metastable condition that has been produced by
quenching or cold working.
Drawing is often used to mean tempering, but this
usage conflicts with the meaning of the drawing of a
material through a die.
Normalizing is the heating of iron-base alloy to
some 100F above the transformation range with
subsequent cooling to below range in still, air at room

Spheriodizing is any heating and cooling of steel

that produces a rounded or globular form of carbide.
Stress relieving (thermal) is the heating of a metal
body to a suitable temperature (generally just below
the transformation range for steel, say 1100-1200F)
and holding it at that temperature time (1 to 3 hours
for steel) for the purpose of reducing internal
residual stress.
Transformation range for ferrous metals is the
temperature interval during which austenite is
formed during heating.

HARDNESS.
The hardness of a material is a measure of
its resistance to indentation, and is one of the
most significant properties because properly
interpreted, it says much about the condition
of the metal. The most common instruments
used to determine hardness are the Brinell,
Rockwell, Vickers, and Shore scleroscope.
Brinell hardness number (BHN) is the load in
kilograms divided by the area of the surface of
the indentation in square millimeters. This
hardness number is closely related to the
tensile stress of the steel as follows:
Su (500)(BHN) psi

or

[FOR STEEL WHEN 200<BHN<400]

(0.5)(BHN) ksi

The rockwell tester, faster then the Brinell and widely

used commercially, utilizes several different indenters
and, in effect, measures the depth of the penetration by
the indenter.
The vickers tester has a square-base, diamond pyramid
indenter, and the Vickers number is the load in kilograms
divided by the impressed area in square millimeters.
The Shore scleroscope number is obtained by letting the
freely falling hammer with a diamond point strike the
object to be tested and measuring the height rebound.

AISI AND SAE SPECIFICATON NUMBERS.

The SAE and AISI specification numbers are

alike for steel except that the AISI uses prefixes
B,C.D, and E to indicate the method of
manufacturing the carbon grades.
In a general way of steel, the first digit (or
the first two digits) of the number represent a
type of steel, for example: 1XXX is a plain carbon
steel. 11XX is a plain carbon steel with greater
sulfur content for free cutting, 2XXX is a nickel
steel. The last two digits in four-digit numbers
invariably give the approximate or average
carbon content in points or hundredths of
percent. For example, an SAE 1030 or an C1030
has about 0.30% carbon, spoken of carbon
(nominal range is 0.28-0.34).

CASE HARDENING.

It is the process of surface hardening

whereby the surface or case is substantially harder than the core
or outside metal
Carburizing. It is a process of adding carbon to the
surface of steel by exposing it to hot carbonaceous
solids, liquids, or gases above transformation
temperature.
Cyaniding. As in liquid carburizing, cyaniding is
accomplished by immersing the part in a hot (about
1550F) liquid salt bath, sodium cyanide (NaCN) being
a common medium in both processes.
Nitriding. In surface hardening by nitriding, the
machined and heat treated part is placed in a
nitrogenous environment, commonly ammonia gas, at
temperatures much lower than those used in the
previous described processes, say 1000F or somewhat
less.
Carbonitriding is the process of case hardening steel

Induction hardening consist of heating a thin surface layer,

preferably of annealed or normalized steel, above the transformation
range by electrical induction and then cooling, as required, in water,
oil, air, or gas.
Flame hardening is a process of heating the surface of an iron base
alloy, w/c is preferably annealed or normalized, and then quenching it.

WORK HARDENING. It is the result of a metal

being stressed at some point into its plastic range,
usually ordinary temperatures (certainly below
recrystallization temperature): metal cold worked in
this manner becomes stronger and more brittle.

WROUGHT IRON.

It is made by burning the

carbon from molten iron and then putting the product
through hammering and rolling operations.

CAST IRON.

Cast iron in a general sense include

white cast iron, malleable iron and nodular cast iron,
but when cast iron is used w/o a qualifying adjective,
gray cast iron, spoken as gray iron is meant.

MALLEABLE IRON.

Malleable iron is a heat-treated

white cast iron. The white cast iron is obtained not by
chilling, as mentioned above, but by using the proper
composition in the melt.

NODULAR CAST IRON.

Nodular cast iron, also called

ductile iron, has the castability (for complex forms),
machinability, and wearability of gray iron, but higher
strength and ductility.

CAST STEEL.

The combination of highest

strength and highest ductility in a cast ferrous metal
is obtained in cast steel.

STAINLESS STEEL.

Stainless steel, also known

asinox steelorinox from French "inoxydable", is
defined as asteelalloy with a minimum of 10.5%to
11%chromium content by mass.

COPPER ALLOYS.

Copper alloysare metalalloysthat

havecopperas their principal component. They have high
resistance againstcorrosion. The best known traditional types
arebronze, wheretinis a significant addition, andbrass,
usingzincinstead.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS. Aluminum alloysarealloys in
whichaluminum(Al) is the predominant metal. The
typical alloying elements arecopper,magnesium,
manganese,siliconandzinc. There are two principal
classifications, namelycastingalloys and wrought alloys,
both of which are further subdivided into the
categoriesheat-treatableand non-heat-treatable.
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS. Magnesium alloysare
mixtures ofmagnesiumwith other metals (called
analloy), often
aluminum,zinc,manganese,silicon,copper,rare
earthsandzirconium. Magnesium is the lightest
structural metal. Magnesium alloys have ahexagonal
latticestructure, which affects the fundamental
PLASTIC.
is any of a wide range of
properties ofAplasticmaterial
these alloys
synthetic or semi-syntheticorganic solids that aremoldable.
Plastics are typicallyorganicpolymersof high molecular
mass, but they often contain other substances.