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8-Special Theory of Relativity-II PDF
8-Special Theory of Relativity-II PDF
Special theory of
Relativity-II
Michelson-Morley Experiment
Michelson and Morley (1887)
Idea behind the experiment:
If ether really exists reasonable to determine how fast
earth is moving through ether
Theoretical Basis:
Suppose, velocity of earth through stationary ether v
velocity of light c
Light emitted from a source fixed on earth direction of
propagation same as direction of earth’s motion
Then velocity of light relative to earth c − v
If light travels in exactly opposite direction of the earth’s motion,
then
velocity of light relative to earth c + v
If the distance travelled by light L
L
Then time of travel in direction of the motion of earth
c−v
L
and time of travel in opposite direction
c+v
Total time travel of light signal:
L L 2cL
t|| = + = 2 2 (1)
c+v c−v c −v
Consider next, B B'
L = AB
In the same time t, point A on A A' A''
vt v
earth has moved to A', and
point B moved to B' (for an observer in ether frame)
Then AB′ = ct B B'
AA′ = vt
In right-angled ∆: c 2t 2 = L2 + v 2t 2
( )
L ct L
or t 2 c 2 − v 2 = L2
L
t=
(c 2 − v 2 )
A vt A' A'' v
Since light signal takes the same time to travel from B' to A'',
then total time of travel in perpendicular direction:
2L
t⊥ = (2)
(c 2 − v 2 )
Then ratio of equations (1) and (2):
t|| 2cL c2 − v2
= 2 2⋅
t⊥ c − v 2L
t|| 1
= (3)
t⊥ 1 − (v c )
2 2
2cL 2L
t|| − t ⊥ = −
c2 − v2 (c 2 − v 2 )
2cL 2L
t|| − t ⊥ = 2 −
c (1 − v c ) c (1 − v 2 c 2 )
2 2
2L 1 1
= −
c (1 − v c )
2 2
(1 − v c )
2 2
Using Binomial theorem, the terms in bracket can be written as:
1 v2
= 1+ 2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅
1 − (v c )
2 2
c
1 1 v2
and = 1+ 2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅
1 − (v c )
2 2 2c
2L v2 1 v2
therefore t|| − t ⊥ = 1 + 2 − 1 − 2
c c 2c
L v2
t|| − t ⊥ = ∆t = ⋅ 2 (4)
c c
Experiment
2
The difference and the ratio both depend on (v c )
Orbital velocity of earth, v = 3 × 10 4 m/s
and c = 3 ×108 m/s
−8
⇒ v / c = 10 −4 and (v / c) = 10
2
PM1 = PM2= L P M1
S
P half-silvered mirror *
arm PM1 ⊥ arm PM2
Screen
and if one arm || direction of earth’s motion
M2
During experiment apparatus also
moves with the earth with velocity v
2
⇒Total travel time for beam “1” is
P 1 M1
given by eq. (1) S
*
also travel time for beam “2” is
given by eq. (2) Screen
2L v 2
∆t = ⋅ 2
c c
Path difference corresponding to time difference:
2 Lv 2
∆xrot = c∆t = 2 (5)
c
Condition for constructive interference: ∆x = ∆nλ
where ∆n is number of fringes.
∆nλ
so ∆t = (6)
c
From equations (5) and (6), displacement in pattern in terms of
number of fringes:
∆nλ 2 L v 2
= ⋅ 2
c c c
or 2L v2
∆n = ⋅ 2 (7)
λ c
Experimental values: L = 11 m
λ = 5.9 ×10 −7 m
v 2 c 2 = 10 −8
2 ×11× 10 −8
Using (7): ∆n = −7
= 0.37
5.9 × 10
So when interferometer was rotated by 90°, the fringes should
have been shifted by more than 1/3rd of a wavelength.
The experiment could detect displacement 100th of this amount!
Michelson and Morley experiment expected fringe shift did
not appear
z
Clock at P adjusted to read
t = d /c
since d 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = c 2t 2
all the clocks throughout the frame of reference, then may be
synchronised
Lorentz Transformation
To investigate how the coordinates of an event as measured
in one frame of reference are related to the coordinates of the
event in another frame of reference
⇒ The relation ship Lorentz Transformation
In general x′ = f ( x, t )
therefore dx′ = f x dx + f t dt
(where fx is the partial derivative of f with respect to x, and
similarly for ft)
assuming space and time homogenous partial derivatives
are constants
Assume that ( x, t ) and ( x′, t ′) are related by the linear
transformations:
x′ = Ax + Bt (9)
t ′ = Cx + Dt (10)
or A=D (16)
So using Eqs. (11) and (16), we can write (14) and (13) as
transformation laws for S' to S:
A( x′ + vt ′)
x= 2
A + vAC
(17)
A(t ′ − (C / A)x′)
t=
A2 + vAC
Also we can write Eqs. (12) and (10) as transformation laws for
S'to S':
x′ = A( x − vt )
(18)
t ′ = A(t + (C / A)x )
t′ =
(
t − vx / V 2 )
1 − (v / V )2
Postulate 2. The velocity of light in free space is the same for all
observers, and is independent of relative velocity of the
source of light and the observer.
Suppose when the two origins coincide
clocks at O and O' both read zero
x′ 2 + y ′ 2 + z ′ 2 − c 2 t ′ 2 = 0 (23)
( x − vt )
2
c (t − (vx / V ))
2 2 2
+y +z −
2 2
=0
1 − (v / V )2
1 − (v / V )2
(
)
2 2
( x − vt )2 + y 2 + z 2 1 − 2 − c 2 t − 2 = 0
v vx
V V
(
v2 2 2 2 2 v2
)
2
c
x + v t − 2 xvt + y + z 1 − 2 − c t − c x 4 + 2vxt 2 = 0
2 2 2 2 2
V V V
( )
2 v2 2 2 2 2 2
v c
x 2 1 − c 2 4 + y 2 + z 2 1 −
V 2 − c t + v t − 2 xvt + 2vxt V 2 = 0
V
To reduce this to (22), putting V = c, We get:
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) (1 − (v / c )2 )− c 2t 2 (1 − (v / c )2 ) = 0
or x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − c 2t 2 = 0
Therefore, using V = c in Eqs. (21), we can define:
1
γ= (24)
1 − (v / c )
2
x′ = γ ( x − vt )
Equations of
Lorentz
y′ = y (25)
transformation: z′ = z
( (
t′ = γ t − v / c2 x ))
We can find the inverse transformation for x, y, z, and t in terms
of x', y', z', and t':
x = γ ( x′ + vt ′)
y = y′
(26)
z = z′
( ( ) )
t = γ t ′ + v / c 2 x′
Lorentz did not assign a physical significance to transformation
equations.