Aristotle’s Poetics

Chapter 1

Aristotle begins with a loose outline of what he will address in The Poetics:

• The various kinds of poetry.

• The essential quality of each kind of poetry.
• The structure of the plot which is prerequisite to a good poem.
• The number and nature of parts in which the poem is composed.

Aristotle first seeks to define poetry. Poetry, as Aristotle defines it, is first
and foremost a 'medium of imitation,' meaning a form of art that seeks to
duplicate or represent life. Poetry can imitate life in a number of ways, by
representing character, emotion, action, or even everyday objects.

Poetry, as Aristotle defines it, includes epic poetry, tragedy, comedy,

dithyrambic poetry, and music (specifically of flute, and lyre).

What differentiates these kinds of poetry is the nature of their 'imitation.'

He notes three ways of imitation:-

Medium of Imitation: In general, poetry imitates life through rhythm and

harmony. This is more pronounced in music or dance’

Object of Imitation: Art seeks to imitate men in action - hence the term
'drama' (dramitas, in Greek). In order to imitate men, art must either
present man as 'better' than they are in life (i.e. of higher morals), as true
to life, or as 'worse' than they are in life (i.e. of lower morals).

Each author has his own tendencies - Homer 'makes men better than
they are,' Cleophon 'as they are', Nichochares 'worse than they are.' But
more important is a general distinction that Aristotle makes between
forms of drama: comedy represents men as worse then they are, tragedy
as better than they are in actual life.

Manner of Imitation: A poet can imitate either through language:

a. narration, in which he takes another personality (an omniscient 'I'

watching the events 'like an observer')

b. speak in his own person, unchanged (the first-person 'I')

c. presents all his characters as living and moving before us (third-person
narrator)

Imitation of medium is produced by rhythm, language or harmony, either

singly or combined. For example- in flute and lyre imitation is produced by
harmony and rhythm while in prose and verse imitation is produced by
language alone. However in nomic poetry or tragedy and comedy, imitation
is produced by all three- rhythm, language and harmony.

Chapter 2
In chapter II Aristotle discusses objects of imitation (character), in context
to morality.

Aristotle says that the objects of imitation are the men in action or the
characters. He says that these men are either of higher or lower type.
Therefore while imitation characters are either represented as than in real
life or worse than in real life.

Aristotle gives example of some painters and writers. Painter Polygnotus

depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson represented them as less
noble, while Dionysius drew them true to life. While writers like homer
represented them as better, Cleophon as they are and Hegemon (the
inventor of parodies) worse than they are.

Comedy aims at representing men as worse than they are in real

while tragedy represents men as better than they are in actual.

Chapter 3
In chapter III Aristotle discusses the manner of imitation (imitation by
narration) and the summary of the three aspects of imitation- medium,
object, manner.

Aristotle says that if medium and objects are same then the poet can
imitate by narration (manner). This can be done in 3 ways-

Author can carry out the narration through another character(like homer).

Author can narrate himself

Author can present all the characters as living and moving.

So to sum up we can say that Sophocles and Homer are same kinds of
imitator as both imitate higher types of character.

Further Aristophanes is similar to both Homer and Sophocles as all three

presented characters as living and moving.

Chapter 4
Aristotle says that poetry sprung from 2 causes-

The instinct of imitation in man: One difference between man and other
animals is that man is most imitative of living creatures. Man takes delight
in imitation because man learns his earliest lessons through imitation and
learning gives the liveliest pleasure not only to philosophers but also
common man. This is the reason men enjoy seeing likeness.

The instinct for ‘harmony’ and rhythm: This natural instinct in humans
led to improvisations in writing which led to the birth of poetry.

Poetry then diverged into 2 forms depending on the individual nature of

the writers: graver spirits imitated noble actions and actions of good men.
They wrote hymns to god and praises of famous men. While the trivial sort
of writers imitated meaner kinds of person and composed satires.

Example of early satirical work is Homer’s Margites. Homer introduced a

meter which was called lampooning measure and thus older poets were
distinguished as writers of lampooning verse. Example of serious kind of
work can be homer’s Iliad and Odyssey

Later the lampooners or writers of trivial sort became writers of

comedy.

The graver spirits or the epic poets became writers of tragedy.

Several changes of improvisations took place before tragedy got their final
natural form:-

§ Aeschylus introduced a second actor. He decreased the importance

of chorus and increased the importance of dialogue.

§ Sophocles further raised the number of actors to 3.

§ Short plots were replaced by longer plots.

 § The diction of satiric form was replaced by the more stately diction
of tragedy.

§ The trochaic tetrameter of satiric works was replaced by the iambic

measure which was more suitable for drama as it was colloquial.

Chapter 5
Aristotle talks about comedy and its evolution. Comedy is imitation of
characters of lowers type, however the characters of comedy are not
completely bad. They are ludicrous and they have some defect or ugliness
which is not painful or destructive. For example the comic mask is ugly
and distorted but it does not imply pain or fear.

Aristotle says that the evolution of tragedy is known however the history
of comedy is not known because it was not taken seriously and
considered inferior to tragedy.

Aristotle then discusses the similarities and differences between epic

poetry and tragedy.

Epic poetry and tragedy are similar because both imitate characters of
higher type.

Tragedy is superior to epic poetry. All the elements of epic poetry are
found in tragedy, however all the elements of tragedy are not found in epic
poetry.

They differ in following respects:

§ Length- the length of tragedy is confined to one revolution of sun

while epic poetry has no limits of time.

§ Form- epic poetry is narrative while tragedy is dramatic.

§ Epic poetry uses only one metre- heroic couplet while tragedy uses
various metres.

§ In epic songs and spectacle can’t be included however tragedy

should compulsorily have songs and spectacle.
 § Epic has unity of action while tragedy is recommended to have all 3
unities (time, space, action). But it can have 2-3 plots.

Chapter 6
Aristotle defined tragedy in this chapter. According to Aristotle- “Tragedy
is imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of certain
magnitude; in a language embellished in each kind of artistic ornament,
the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of
action, not narrative; through pity and fear affecting the proper purgation
of these emotions.”

The six elements/parts of tragedy are:-

1. Plot (mythos)- the arrangement of incidents or imitation of action.

2. Characters (ethos)

3. Thought

4. Diction (dialogues or lexis)

5. Melody (song or melos)

6. Spectacle (opsis)

Plot is the most important among the six parts of tragedy. Aristotle calls
plot the soul of tragedy. Because tragedy is imitation of action and not the
imitation of men. Characters carry out the imitation of men , however it is
the plot that carry out the imitation of action. The characters come in as
subsidiary to action.

The most powerful elements of emotional interest- Peripeteia (reversal of

situation) and Anagnorisis (recognition of problem) are parts of the plot.

Further Aristotle says that if one string together a set of speeches

expressive of character and well finished in point of diction it won’t
produce the essential tragic effect if it lacks a substantial plot. However if
a work is deficient in all respects but has a plot and artistically constructed
incidents it will still have a deeper tragic effect.

Aristotle gives the example of Polygnotus and Zeuxis. Polygnotus on one

hand delineates the character but still achieve the required artistic effect
whereas the work of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality.
To support his argument Aristotle says that the most beautiful colours laid
confusedly, will not give as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a
portrait.

Character is the second most important part of the tragedy. After character
thought is the third most important part.

Thought is the faculty of saying what is possible or pertinent in given

circumstances.

The fourth most important- diction means the expression of the meaning
in words. Its essence is same both in verse and prose.

On the fifth comes songs and then the spectacle. Spectacle is the least
artistic and connected least with the art of poetry. The production of
spectacular effects depends more on the stage machinist than on the
poet.

Chapter 7
In chapter 7 Aristotle discusses the basic structure of plot.

The plot has a certain magnitude, a beginning, a middle and an end. A

well-constructed plot must not begin or end haphazardly but should follow
this sequence.

Beginning is something which does not follow anything by casual

necessity, but something after which something follows naturally.

Middle is something that follows the something and some other thing
follows it.

End follows something by necessity or as a rule, but it doesn’t have

anything following it.

Aristotle takes an example of any beautiful object, whether living or non-

living. For that object to be beautiful it should not only be orderly arranged
but it should also have a certain magnitude, because beauty depends of
the order and magnitude. Therefore a very small organism cannot be
beautiful, as the view of it is confused, similarly an organism of too vast a
size cannot be beautiful either as the eye cannot take it all at once.
Therefore a magnitude that can be embraced in one view is necessary.
Same is the case with plot, a plot of certain length is necessary, a length
which can be easily embraced by the memory. However it cannot be said
that a shorter tragedy is artistically superior, because if that was the case
then if 100 tragedies were to compete then the winner would have been
decided by the water-clock. It can be said that greater the length the more
beautiful will be the piece, provided that the whole is perspicuous.

Therefore a proper magnitude is one that entails the sequence of events

in such a way that it consists of change from bad fortune to good fortune
or from good fortune to bad fortune, within the law of probability or
necessity.

Chapter 8
Unity of plot does not mean unity of hero because there are infinitely
various incidents in the life of one man and all these incidents cannot be
reduced to a single unity.

Aristotle takes the example of Homer. He says that while composing

Odyssey Homer did not include all the adventures of Odysseus, for
example his wound on Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the
mustering of the host or all the incidents had no probable connection.
Homer composed Odyssey as well as Iliad, to centre round a single action
or turn of events. The structural union of the parts of plot should be such
that if any of it is displaced or removed then the whole plot is disturbed.

Anything whose presence or absence does not make any difference is not
an organic part of the whole.

Chapter 9
The function of the poet is not to relate what has happened but to relate
what may happen and what is possible according to the law of probability
or necessity. Poetry is more philosophical and a higher thing than history
because poetry tends to express the universal while history express the
particular.

In comedy the poet constructs the plot on the lines of probability and then
insert the fictitious characters, while in tragedy the poet uses real names
because what has happened before is credible whereas what has not
happened before cannot be considered fully possible.
However there are tragedies in which only one or two names are well-
known while the rest are fictitious. In some tragedies there are no well
known names at all, for example- Agathon’s Antheus, where all the names
and incidents are fictitious. Using fictious incidents or characters does not
make a tragedy less pleasureable, therefore writers need not stick to
received legends, which are the usual subjects of tragedy.

According to Aristotle among all plots the epeisodic plots are the worst.
‘Epeisodic’ plot is the one in which episodes or acts succeed one another
without probable or necessary sequence. Bad poets compose such plot
by their own fault while good poets end up doing so by stretching the plot
beyond its capacity and thus breaking the natural continuity.

Tragedy is not only imitation of action but also of events inspiring fear or
pity. Such an effect is best produced when events come on us by surprise
and when they follow as cause or effect. The tragic wonder is greater is
such events happen by themselves or accidents or even coincidences.
For example when the statue of Mitys at Argos fell upon Mitys’ murderer
and killed him while he was a spectator at a festival. Plots constructed on
these principles are the best.

Chapter 10
Plots are of two types- simple plot and complex plot. Complex plot is
considered better.

In simple plot change of fortune occurs without reversal of situation and

without recognition.

In complex plot the change is accompanied by reversal or by recognition

or by both. Oedipus is an example of a complex plot.

Chapter 11
Reversal of situation is change due to which the action veers round to its
opposite. For example in Oedipus, the messenger comes to Oedipus to
cheer him and free him from his alarms about his mother, but by revealing
who his mother is, the messenger produces the opposite effect. Again in
Lynceus, Lynceus is being led to his death and Danaus goes with to slay
him; however the outcome is opposite because Danaus is killed and
Lynceus is saved.
Recognition is the change from ignorance to knowledge, producing love
or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune.
The best form of recognition is in a coincidence with a reversal of situation,
like in the case of Oedipus.

Even inanimate and trivial things can be objects of recognition, however

recognition which is most intimately connected with plot and action is the
one with recognition of persons. This kind of recognition along with
reversal will produce pity and fear. In case of recognition of persons it is
possible that recognition from only one side is necessary or recognition
may be necessary from both the sides, for example- Iphigenia is revealed
to Orestes by sending of the letter, however another act of recognition is
required to make Orestes known to Iphigenia.

The two parts of plot- peripeteia and anagnorisis- turn upon surprises. The
third part is the scene of suffering. The scene of suffering is a destructive
or painful action like death on stage, bodily agony or wound.

Chapter 12
The quantitative parts of the tragedy or the separate parts into which
tragedy is divided are- Prologue, Episode, Exode, Choric song. Choric
song is further divided into Parode and Stasimon. Some plays may even
include songs of actors from the stage or the Commos.

The prologue- the choric song- episode- choric song- episode- choric
song……..exode.

The parode is the first undivided utterance of the chorus. The statismon
is a choric ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters.

Commos is the joint lamentation of the chorus and actors.

Chapter 13
In chapter 13 Aristotle discusses what poet should aim at and what should
be avoided while constructing a plot in order to produce specific effect of
tragedy. A perfect tragedy should have the following:-

§ The plot should be complex rather than simple.

§ Tragedy should imitate action that excite pity and fear.

 § The reversal of fortune should be of a man who is not eminently
good and just, but rather someone who is between the two extremes
of a virtuous man and an utter villain. Because in first case it merely
shocks while in the latter pity is not evoked. However when reversal
of fortunes takes place in life of a moderate person in respect to
morals then both pity and fear is evoked.

§ The person imitated should be highly renowned and prosperous- a

personage like Oedipus or Odysseus.

§ There should be a single issue and not double.

§ The change of fortune should be from good to bad and not from bad
to good.

§ The cause of the reversal of fate should be due to great error or

frailty and not some personal vice.

The second kind of tragedy is which has two thread of plot, and also an
opposite catastrophe for the good and the bad. This kind of tragedy is
sometimes called the best because of the weakness of the spectators.
The poet is guided by what the audience wishes and thus adds a good
ending for the good characters. However this kind of tragedy does not
produce the true tragic pleasure and such ending is more suitable for
comedies. For example- Orestes and Aegisthus- quit the stage as friends
and no one slays anyone.

Chapter 14
Fear and pity can be aroused by spectacular means, however a superior
poet can do so by the result of inner structure of the piece. Such a work
can thrill a person with horror and melt with pity even when the person is
listening to it without the aid of eye. To produce pity and fear by mere
spectacle is a less artistic method and depends on extraneous aid. The
spectacle means can only create a sense of monstrous and not of terrible,
thus the sole pleasure of tragedy that comes from pity and fear is lost.

Aristotle then discusses certain circumstances that can evoke pity and
fear.

According to aristotle an enemy killing an enemy cannot excite pity,

however if a tragic incident occurs between near or dear ones – a brother
kills brother or father kills son etc- tragic effect is profound.
However if the tragedy is inspired by a legend then the poet may not
destroy the framework of the received legend – like Clytemnestra was
slain by Orestes or Eriphyle by Alcmaeon. In such case the poet should
skilfully handle the traditional material. The action can be done
consciously or it can be done out of ignorance.

There is a third case in which someone is about to commit an irreparable

deed through ignorance but makes the discovery before it is done.
However this is only shocking and without any tragic effect as so disaster
follows. For example- Antigone where Haemon threatens to kill Creon.

The better way is when deed is committed in ignorance and discovery is

made afterwards.

Chapter 15
Aristotle says that in respect to the characters there are 4 things to be
aimed at:-

1. The character must be good. Any speech or action that manifests

the moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of the character.
The character will be good if the purpose is good. This rule applies
to all classes. Even women, though considered inferior to men can
be good. Even slaves which are considered worthless can be good.

2. Propriety is the second aim. The characters must have qualities

which are suitable to them. Manly valour or unscrupulous
cleverness is considered inappropriate in women.

3. The character must be true to life.

4. There should be a consistency in the character. If a character is

inconsistent then it should be consistently inconsistent. Some
examples of motiveless degradation of characters are lament of
Odysseus in Scylla or Menelaus in Orestes.

Like in the plot, the writer should aim at the necessary and probable
while shaping the characters too. Thus a person of a given character
should speak and act in a given way and whatever changes that occur
should occur out of the plot itself. The changes should not be brought
about by ‘Deus ex Machina’ – as in Medea or in the return of the greeks
in the Iliad. ‘The Deus ex Machina’ should be employed only for events
external to the drama.
There should be nothing irrational within the action. If the irrational
cannot be excluded then it should be outside the scope of tragedy.
Such as in Oedipus by Sophocles.

Since tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common

level, the example of good portrait painters should be followed. Good
painters while imitating, make a likeness which is true to life and yet
more beautiful. Therefore the poet while representing men who are
irascible or indolent or have certain defects of characters should
preserve the type and yet ennoble it. Like Agathon and Homer
portrayed Achilles.

Chapter 16
In chapter 16 Aristotle enumerates different kinds of recognition
(anagnorisis).

Recognition by signs: This is the least artistic form of recognition and

the most commonly employed. Such recognition can occur due to
bodily scars, symbols or tokens. For example the recognition of
Odysseus by the nurse and the swineherds through the scar he borne.

Recognition by the will of poet: The recognition does not occur naturally
but the poet leads to it through the actions of the characters. For
example- Orestes in The Iphigenia reveals the fact that he is Orestes
by speaking himself and saying what the poet and not the plot requires.

Recognition by memory: The sight of some object can evoke feelings

and thus lead to some distant memory in the minds of the characters
which ultimately result in anagnorisis. For example in Cyprians by
Dicaeogenes breaks into tears on seeing a picture or in ‘Lay of
Alcinous” where Odysseus , hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls
the past and weeps and hence the recognition.

Recognition by false reasoning: This is composite kind of recognition

involving false inference on the part of one of the characters. For
example in Choephori – someone resembling me has come and no
one resembles me but Orestes and hence Orestes has come.

The best of all recognition is one that occurs naturally. The next best is
recognition by reasoning.