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ALGEBRA MADE EASY

PRACTICAL HELP AND EXERCISES FOR MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

SHUJON RAHMAN
Algebra Made Easy
Practical Help and Exercises for Middle and High School Students

Copyright © 2019 Shujon Rahman.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means,
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by
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ISBN: 978-1-5320-6689-4 (sc)


ISBN: 978-1-5320-6690-0 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019903421

Print information available on the last page.

iUniverse rev. date: 08/30/2019


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