M4 Rational Expressions PDF

Factoring
1 Factoring using special products
2 Factoring trinomials by trial-and-error
3 Factoring by grouping
4 Factoring by completing the square
Math 17 (Inst. of Mathematics) Rational Expressions Lec 4 1 / 22

Summary of Special Products
1 (x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2
2 (x ± y)2 = x2 ± 2xy + y 2
3 (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
4 (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
5 (x ± y)3 = x3 ± 3x2 y + 3xy 2 ± y 3
6 (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y 2 ) = x3 ± y 3

Exercises on Factoring:
1 16x2 − 9y 2
2 a2 b3 c4 − a3 b4 c5 + 2a2 b4 c4
3 x2 (x2 − 1) − 9(x2 − 1)
4 1 + 8x9
5 8x2 − 14x − 15
6 x4 + 64
Rational Expressions
At the end of this lecture, a student must be able to:

Definition
A rational expression is a quotient of two polynomials.
A rational expression is well-defined if its denominator is
not equal to zero.

Definition
A rational expression is a quotient of two polynomials.
A rational expression is well-defined if its denominator is
not equal to zero.
Example:
9x2 z 3 11a2 c + b2
; x2 + y 6= 0 ; c 6= −5
x2 + y 5+c

Simplifiying Rational Expressions
Lowest Terms
A rational expression is in lowest terms if the numerator
and denominator have no common factor other than 1
and -1.

Simplifiying Rational Expressions
Lowest Terms
A rational expression is in lowest terms if the numerator
and denominator have no common factor other than 1
and -1.
How to reduce a rational expression to lowest terms:

Factor both numerator and denominator.
Cancel the common factors.

Examples:
16x3 y 8
24x7 y 5

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8
= · ·
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4
(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16)

x3 + 64

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4
(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

=
x3 + 64 (x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4
(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

=
x3 + 64 (x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4
(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

=
x3 + 64 (x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

Examples:
16x3 y 8 16 x3 y 8 2y 3
= · · =
24x7 y 5 24 x7 y 5 3x4
(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

=
x3 + 64 (x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)
= x−4

Multiplication of Rational Expressions
Recall:
a c ac
· = ; b, d 6= 0
b d bd

Recall:
a c ac
· = ; b, d 6= 0
b d bd
Example:
7x4 15y 2
·
5y 4 28x3

Recall:
a c ac
· = ; b, d 6= 0
b d bd
Example:
7x4 15y 2 7 · 15 x4 y 2
· = · ·
5y 4 28x3 5 · 28 x3 y 4

Recall:
a c ac
· = ; b, d 6= 0
b d bd
Example:
7x4 15y 2 7 · 15 x4 y 2
· = · ·
5y 4 28x3 5 · 28 x3 y 4
(7)(5)(3) 1
= ·x· 2
(5)(7)(4) y

Recall:
a c ac
· = ; b, d 6= 0
b d bd
Example:
7x4 15y 2 7 · 15 x4 y 2
· = · ·
5y 4 28x3 5 · 28 x3 y 4
(7)(5)(3) 1
= ·x· 2
(5)(7)(4) y
3x
=
4y 2

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5
·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)

Example:
x2 − x − 12 5x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) 5(x − 1)
· = ·
2x2 − 10x + 8 x2 − 9 2(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 3)(x + 3)
5
=
2(x − 3)

Division of Rational Expressions
Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2
÷ 2
x−2 x −4

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2
(x − 3)(x − 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)
= ·
x−2 (3 − x)(3 + x)

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2
(x − 3)(x − 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)
= ·
x−2 (3 − x)(3 + x)

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2
(x − 3)(x − 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)
= ·
x−2 (3 − x)(3 + x)

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2
(x − 3)(x − 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)
= ·
x−2 (3 − x)(3 + x)

Recall:
a c a d
÷ = · ; b, c, d 6= 0
b d b c
Example:
x2 − 7x + 12 9 − x2 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 4
÷ 2 = ·
x−2 x −4 x−2 9 − x2
(x − 3)(x − 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)
= ·
x−2 (3 − x)(3 + x)
(x − 4)(x + 2)
= −
(x + 3)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1)
=

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)
= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)

m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
= ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)

m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
= ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)

m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
= ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)

m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
= ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

Example:
24m3 + 3
3
4m + 4m2 + m 12m2 − 6m + 3

÷ ·
m2 − 2m − 8 2m2 + 5m + 2 m3 − 4m2
3(8m3 + 1) m(4m2 + 4m + 1) 3(4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷ ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) (2m + 1)(m + 2) m2 (m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)

= ÷
(m − 4)(m + 2) m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
3(2m + 1)(4m2 − 2m + 1)

m(2m + 1)(m + 2)(m − 4)
= ·
(m − 4)(m + 2) 3(2m + 1)2 (4m2 − 2m + 1)
=m

Least Common Denominator
Definition
The least common denominator (LCD) of two or more
rational expressions is the polynomial of smallest degree
that has each of the given denominators as a factor.

Definition
Examples:
3x − 8 2x + 1
1 and :
4x2 x3

Definition
Examples:
3x − 8 2x + 1
1 and : LCD = 4x3
4x2 x3

Definition
Examples:
3x − 8 2x + 1
1 and : LCD = 4x3
4x2 x3
x−2 x+2
2 and :
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2

Definition
Examples:
3x − 8 2x + 1
1 and : LCD = 4x3
4x2 x3
x−2 x+2
2 and : LCD = (x − 1)2 (x + 1)
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2

Addition/Subtraction of Rational Expressions
Recall:
Using the LCD,
a c
+ =
b d

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD
Example 1:
3x − 8 2x + 1
+
4x2 x3

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD
Example 1:
3x − 8 2x + 1 (3x2 − 8x) +
+ =
4x2 x3 4x3

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD
Example 1:
3x − 8 2x + 1 (3x2 − 8x) + (8x + 4)
+ =
4x2 x3 4x3

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD
Example 1:
3x − 8 2x + 1 (3x2 − 8x) + (8x + 4)
+ =
4x2 x3 4x3

Recall:
Using the LCD,
LCD LCD

a c a· b + c· d
+ = ; b, d 6= 0
b d LCD
Example 1:
3x − 8 2x + 1 (3x2 − 8x) + (8x + 4)
+ =
4x2 x3 4x3
3x2 + 4
=
4x3
Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
[(x − 1)(x − 2)]

=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
[(x − 1)(x − 2)] −

=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
[(x − 1)(x − 2)] − [(x + 1)(x + 2)]

=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
[(x − 1)(x − 2)] − [(x + 1)(x + 2)]

=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
[x2 − 3x + 2] − [x2 + 3x + 2]
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 2:
x−2 x+2
−
x2 − 1 (x − 1)2
[(x − 1)(x − 2)] − [(x + 1)(x + 2)]

=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
[x2 − 3x + 2] − [x2 + 3x + 2]
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
−6x
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s
=
(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s
= +
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 ) − (m2 − 6ms + 8s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 ) − (m2 − 6ms + 8s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
m2
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 ) − (m2 − 6ms + 8s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
m2 + 2ms
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 ) − (m2 − 6ms + 8s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
m2 + 2ms − 12s2
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Example 3:
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
+ 2 − 2
m2 − 5ms + 6s 2 m − 3ms + 2s 2 m − 4ms + 3s2
m − 2s m + 2s m − 4s
= + −
(m − 2s)(m − 3s) (m − s)(m − 2s) (m − 3s)(m − s)
(m − 2s)(m − s) + (m + 2s)(m − 3s) − (m − 4s)(m − 2s)
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
(m2 − 3ms + 2s2 ) + (m2 − ms − 6s2 ) − (m2 − 6ms + 8s2 )
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)
m2 + 2ms − 12s2
=
(m − s)(m − 2s)(m − 3s)

Complex Fractions
Complex fractions are fractions which contain one or

more fractions in the numerator or in the denominator or
in both.

Complex Fractions
Complex fractions are fractions which contain one or

more fractions in the numerator or in the denominator or
in both.
Examples:
a x y
a− −
b y 2x
c x 2y
c− +
b 4y x

Simplifying Complex Fractions
Example 1:
a
a−
b
c
c−
b

Example 1:
a ab − a
a−
b b
c =
c−
b

Example 1:
a ab − a
a−
b b
c = cb − c
c−
b b

Example 1:
a ab − a
a− ab − a b
b b ·
c = cb − c =
b cb − c
c−
b b

Example 1:
a ab − a
a− ab − a b
b b ·
c = cb − c =
b cb − c
c−
b b
ab − a
=
cb − c

Example 1:
a ab − a
a− ab − a b
b b ·
c = cb − c =
b cb − c
c−
b b
ab − a a(b − 1)
= =
cb − c c(b − 1)

Example 1:
a ab − a
a− ab − a b
b b ·
c = cb − c =
b cb − c
c−
b b
ab − a a(b − 1) a
= = =
cb − c c(b − 1) c

Example 2: Multiplying and dividing by the LCD

x y
−
y x

x y
+2+
y x


x y
− xy
y x

x y
+2+ xy
y x


x y
− xy
y x x2 − y 2
= 2
x y x + 2xy + y 2
+2+ xy
y x


x y
− xy
y x x2 − y 2 (x − y)(x + y)
= 2 =
x y x + 2xy + y 2 (x + y)2
+2+ xy
y x


x y
− xy
y x x2 − y 2 (x − y)(x + y) x−y
= 2 = =
x y x + 2xy + y 2 (x + y)2 x+y
+2+ xy
y x

Recap:

Exercise 1
Reduce the following rational expressions to lowest terms.

a2 − b 2
1
a3 − b 3
x+1
2
(2x + 3)x + 1
x3 − x2 y + xy 2 − y 3
3
x6 + y 6

Exercise 2
Perform the following operations and simplify.

x2 + x − 3

1 2 3
1 − + ÷
x−2 x+1 x x2 + x
2x2 − x − 3

x 3
2 − ÷
x2 − 1 x + 1 x3 − 1
2
x y x − xy x
3 + · ÷
x+y x−y x4 − y 4 x2 + 2xy + y 2

Exercise 3
Simplify the following:

7 4

2
2− − 2 2+
1 x x c
13 4 3
2
3− + 2 2−
x x 4

2+
c−4
3 1
+
2
p + q p − 2q
p−q
1+
p − 2q

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Factoring

1 Factoring using special products

2 Factoring trinomials by trial-and-error

4 Factoring by completing the square

Math 17 (Inst. of Mathematics) Rational Expressions Lec 4 1 / 22

4 (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd

5 (x ± y)3 = x3 ± 3x2 y + 3xy 2 ± y 3

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How to reduce a rational expression to lowest terms:

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(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16)

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(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

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(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

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(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

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(x2 − 16)(x2 − 4x + 16) (x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 − 4x + 16)

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