MATHS GRADE 12 MODULE

UNIT ONE

MATRICES

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the matrix are called entries
or elements. These numbers are arranged in rows and columns.

For example: Rolls

a b c
d e f Columns

This example has 2 rows and 3 columns. It is called a 2 by 3 matrix and written as a 2x3
matrix.

Another example would be:

3 4 2
1 2 1
4 5 6
This matrix has 3 rows and 3 columns. It is called a 3x3 matrix or 3 by 3 matrix. Since it
has equal rows and columns, it is called a square matrix.

In this matrix (1 3 4), there is 1 row and 3 columns. It is known as a row matrix because
of having one row.

In 2 we have 4 rows and 1 column. So we call it a column matrix.

4
7
8

ORDER OF A MATRIX

1
The order of a matrix is the number of rows by the number of columns. Let us take the
earlier example:
a b c

d e f

It has 2 rows and 3 columns. So it is of order 2 x 3. In general it is row x column = r x c.

Examples:

What is the order of each of the following:

(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 2 C (c) 1 2 3 6 7

1 1 1 1 4 7

(d) 4
4
7

Solutions

(a) 2x4 (b) 2x2 (c) 1x5 (d) 3x1

EQUAL OF MATRICES

If you have two matrices like

X= 1 4 and Y= 1 4

7 8 7 8

The matrix X is equal to matrix Y because of:

(a) they are of the same order 2 x 2
(b) the corresponding elements are equal e.g. 1 corresponds to 1

2
 7 corresponds to 7
4 corresponds to 4
8 corresponds to 8.

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If X = a b e
Then the transpose of X which is denoted by XT will be
c d f

a c
b d
e f

The rows become the columns and columns become rows.

A= 1 2 3 AT = 1 4
4 5 6 2 5
3 6

The first row in A becomes the first column in AT. The second row in A becomes the
second column in AT.

Activity 1

1. State the order in each of the following:

(a) -4 7 1 (b) 1 (c) 3 7 8 9

2 4 2 6 1
0 0 0 0

(d) 10 12 3 (e) 2
0 1 2
4 7 8

2. Give two pairs of equal matrices.

3. Find a and b in the following:

(a) 3a 2 = 6 2
4 6b 4 12

3
 (b) a+b = 6
b+2 8

4. Give the transpose of each of the following:

(a) 1 2 3 (b) 6 (c) 1 4 (d) 3 6 7 8

7 1 8 1 2 5 8
8

TOPIC 2 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

You can only add or subtract matrices if they are of the same order. Why is this so. It is
because when adding or subtracting matrices, we add or subtract corresponding elements
in the two matrices.

Example 1: If X = 2 3 Y= 1 3
4 5 4 8

Find (i) x+y

(ii) x–y

Solutions:

(i) x+y

2 3 1 3 2+1 3+3 3 6
+ = =
4 5 4 8 4+4 5+8 8 14

(ii) x–y

2 3 1 3 2-1 3–3 1 0
_ = =
4 5 4 8 4–4 5–8 0 -3

Example 2

If X = 4 7 Y = 0 0

4
 9 2 0 0

Find (i) x + y. y is the zero matrix.

Solution:

X+y = 4 7 0 0
+
9 2 0 0

= 4+0 7+0

9+0 2+0

= 4 7
9 2

Y is the identity matrix for addition of matrix X. So in general the zero matrix of any
order is the identity matrix for addition of matrix. This is so because when you add a zero
matrix to a non-zero matrix, the non-zero matrix does not change e.g.

a b c 0 0 0 a+0 b+0 c+0 a b c

+ = =
d e f 0 0 0 d+0 e+0 f+0 d e f

Addition of matrices is commutative e.g.

A= 1 2 B= 4 7
3 4 8 1

A+B =B+A

1 2 4 7 4 7 1 2
+ = +
3 4 8 1 8 1 3 4

However, subtraction of matrices is not commutative.

Addition of matrices is an associative e.g.

If A = 1 2 B= 4 7 C = 1 1
3 4 8 1 1 1

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then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

1 2 4 7 1 1 1 2 4 7 1 1
+ + = + +
3 4 8 1 1 1 3 4 8 1 1 1

5 9 1 1 1 2 5 8
+ = +
11 5 1 1 3 4 9 2

6 10 6 10
=
12 6 12 6

However, subtraction is not associative.

(a – b) – c + a – (b – c)

Activity 2

1. Find the sum of the following:

(a) 2 3 + 4 7 (b) (7 9) + (1 10)

1 1 1 9

(c) ½ ¼ 0 ¼
7 ½ ½ 8

2. If x = 4 9 Y= 7 11
2 1 12 1

Find (i) x+y (ii) y–x (iii) yT + x

(iv) xT – x (v) xT + yT

3. If a 3 4 - 1 4 2 = 4 3 1
6 b 4 4 6 1 2 2 6

6
 Find a and b.

Topic 3 Multiplication of Matrices

MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR

What is a scalar? This is a number which is multiplied by a matrix. For example, if A is a

matrix 3 x A = 3A then 3 is a scalar.

So if A = 1 2 then 3A = 3 1 2
3 4 3 4

3A = 3x1 3x2
3x3 3x4

= 3 6
9 12

Examples:

If B = 4 12
7 1

Find: (i) 4B (ii) ½B

Solution:

(i) 4B (ii) ½B
4 4 -2 ½ 4 -2
7 1 7 1

16 -8 2 -1
28 4 7 ½
2

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MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A MATRIX

Two matrices can be multiplied if the number of columns in first matrix is equal to the
number of rows in the second matrix. For example:

2 4 2 5 3
1 1 1

RxC RxC
1x2 2x3

Columns in matrix 1 are equal to rows in matrix 2. So they can be multiplied.

2 4 2 5 3 The answer will of order 1 x 3

1 1 1
1x2 2x3

We multiply row by column.

Solution: (2 x 2 + 4 x 1) (2 x 5 + 4 x 1) (2 x 3 + 4 x 1)

(8) (14) (10)

= (8 14 10) which is of order 1 x 3

More examples:

2x3 3x1

(i) 2 3 6 -2
4 1 0 1
-2

3 columns and 3 roles.

So we can multiply. The solution will be of order

2x1 2x3 3x1

2 3 6 -2 2 x 1 for the solution

4 1 0 1
-2

2 x –2 + 3 x 1+6 x –2

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 4 x –2 + 1 x 1+ 0 x -2

-4 + 3 – 12
-8 + 1 + 0

= -13
- 7 which is 2 x 1 matrix.

(ii) 1x2 2x2

4 2 3 4 the solution will be of order 1 x 2

1 2 1x2 2x2

1 x 2 order for solution

(4 x 3 + 2 x 1) (4 x 4 + 2 x 2)
(12 +2) (16 + 4)
(14) (20) which is 1 x 2

Activity 3

1. Multiply the scalar by the matrix

(a) 4 3 4 (b) -½ 1 2 (c ) 6 a b c
3 4 e f g

2. Multiply the following matrices:

(a) a b 3 (b) 6 -12 4

8 3
8

(c ) 1 1 4 7 (d) 11 4 9 1
4 0 8 1 23 1 0 0

3. Find the values of a, b, c and d in the following matrix equation:

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 (i) 4 2 9 2 (ii) 1 a 2 2 = 16 4
2 2 4 1 b 4 c 12

(iii) 4 1 a = 8 (iv) 2a 3a 1 = 20
3 1 b 12 3b 2b 4 42

5. Find A2 if A = A 4a 2b
a b

THE DETERMINANT OF A 2 X 2 MATRIX

If X = a b minor diagonal
c d

Then the determinant of X is found by a b

c d
major diagonal
Subtracting the product of minor diagonal from the product of the major diagonal.

Ad –bc so the determinant of X denoted by I x I = ad – bc .

Example:

Find the determinant of the following:

(a) 4 2 = P (b) -2 -7 = Q
1 3 -8 1

Solutions:

(a) P = 4x3–1x2 (b) Q = -2 x 1 – 7 + 8

= 12 – 2 = -2 – 56
= 10 = -58

If the determinant of a number is zero then the matrix is called a singular matrix.

THE IDENTITY MATRIX FOR MULTIPLICATION

The identity matrix is a denoted by “I” 1 0 is he identity matrix for a 2 x 2 matrix.

0 1

If B is a 2 x 2 matrix then 1 0 x B=Bx 1 0 =B

0 1 0 1

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For example:

If B = 1 4 then 1 0 1 4 = 1x1+0x2 1x4+0x1

2 1 0 1 2 1 0 x 1 + 1 x 2 0 x 4 + 1x 1

= 1 4
2 1

and 1 4 1 0 = 1x1+4x0 1x0+4x1

2 1 0 1 2 x 1 +1 x 0 2 x 0 + 1 x 1

= 1 4
2 1

THE INVERSE OF A 2 X 2 MATRIX

If B is a matrix, the inverse of B is denoted by B-1. So B x B-1 = B-1 x B = 1 0

0 1
= I (identity).

Let us look at an example:

B= a b we want to find B-1.

c d

First you get the determinant: B = ad – bc

The inverse will be 1 X d-b

B -c a

= 1 d–b
ad – bc -c -a

NOTE
You swap elements in the major diagonal and multiply elements in the minor diagonal by
–1.

Let us take a practical example.

Say: A= 2 2 then inverse A-1 will be = ¼ 6 -2

4 6 -4 2

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 A = 2x6–4x2 = 6 -2 = 3 -1 = A-1
= 12 – 8 4 2 2 2
= 4 -4 2 -1 ½
4 4

Set A = A = 4

Examples:

Find the inverse in each of the following:

(a) 3 8 = P (b) -1 -2 =Q
2 9 3 -1

Solution

(a) P = 3x9–2x8 (b) Q = -1 x -1 – (-2 x 3)

= 27 – 16 = 1+6
= 11 = 7

P-1 = 1 9 -8 Q= 1 -1 2
11 -2 3 11 -3 -1

= 9 -8 = -1 2
11 11 7 7

-2 3 -3 -1
11 11 7 7

Activity 4

1. Find the determinant in the following matrices:

(a) 2 9 (b) 3 -4 (c) a b

9 1 2 1 k 3

2. Calculate the inverse of the following matrices:

(a) 2 -1 (b) 6 6 (c) -7 -3 (d) -1 6

4 3 14 4 -5 2 -2 4

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3. Determine which matrix is singular from the following matrices:

(a) 8 4 (b) -2 7 (c) a k (d) 6 6

6 3 2 7 a k 6 -6

4. If 4 a is singular. Find the values of a and b if b – 9 = 2.

b 1

Topic 4 Solution of Simultaneous Equation

We can solve simultaneous linear equations using matrices of order 2 x 2. Let us consider
an example below:

1 1 x = 8
1 -1 y 2

Let us multiply the two matrices.

X+y=8 This is a pair of simultaneous equations. In matrix form it will be

X–y=2
1 1 x = 8
1 -1 y 2

1 1 is called the co-efficient matrix because it is made up of co-efficient of

1 -1 x and y in he two equations.

Let us find the inverse of the co-efficient matrix.

1 1 The inverse will be -1 -1 -1

1 -1 2 -1 1

which is -1 -1 -1
2 -1 1

Let us pre-multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse.

-1 -1 -1 1 1 x = -1 -1 -1 8
2 -1 1 1 -1 y 2 -1 1 2

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-1 -1 + -1 -1 + 1 x = -1 -8 – 2
2 -1 + -1 -1 + -1 y 2 -8 + 2

-1 -2 0 x = -1 -10
2 0 -2 y 2 -6

If you pre-multiply a matrix by its inverse you get an identity matrix.

1 0 x = 5
0 1 y 3

x+0 = 5
0+y 3

x = 5
y 3

x=5 y=3

Example

Use matrix method to solve the following simultaneous equations:

2x + y = 5
x–y=4

First write in matrix form

2 1 x = 5
1 -1 y 4

Then get the inverse of the coefficient matrix: 2 1 det = -2 – 1 = -3

1 -1

Inverse of 2 1 = 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -3 -1 2

Then pre-multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse.

-1 -1 -1 2 1 x = -1 -1 -1 5

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3 -1 2 1 -1 y 3 -1 2 4

-1 -2 – 1 -1 + 1 x = -1 -5 – 4
3 -2 + 2 -1 – 3 y 3 -5 + 8

-1 -3 0 x = -1 -9
3 0 -3 y 3 3

1 0 x = 3
0 1 y -1

x = 3
y -1

x = 3 y = -1

Activity 5

Solve the following simultaneous equation suing matrices.

(1) x + 2y = 7 (2) 2x + 3y = 7
x – 3y = 3 x + 2y = 4

(3) 3a + 5b = 8 (4) 3x + 4y = 29
4a – b = 3 y + 2x = 1

SUMMARY

In this unit you looked at the introduction of matrices which involved, order of a matrix
and equal matrices. Then you looked at addition and subtraction of matrices,
multiplication of matrices and finally solving simultaneous equations using matrices. I
hope you enjoyed your study and ready for the next topic.

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 UNIT TWO

TRANSFORMATIONS

Introduction

In the last unit, you looked at matrices. In this unit you shall continue using matrices in
solving transformations.

This unit has 6 topics:

• Topic 1: Translation, column vector of translation.

• Topic 2: Reflection, equation of mirror line
• Topic 3: Rotation, centre, angle and direction of rotation
• Topic 4: Enlargement, centre and scale factor
• Topic 5: Stretch, shear factor and invariant line
• Topic 6: Shear, shear factor and invariant line

If you do the activities given to you in this unit, you are expected to complete it between
sixteen to eighteen hours.

Objectives:

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) Find the column vector of translation;

b) Find the equation of the line of reflection (mirror line);
c) Find the centre, angle and direction of rotation;
d) Find the centre and the scale factor of enlargement;
e) Find the shear factor and invariant line; and
f) Find the stretch factor and the invariant line.

Topic 1 – Translation

A transformation is an operation which maps a geometrical shape from one position to

another following a certain set of rules. Examples of transformation are translation,
reflection, rotation, enlargement, shear and stretch. In transformation, we use certain terms
which we need to understand. These include words such as:

(i) Invariant – this is when the transformation has not moved.

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(ii) Congruent – this is when the image and the object have same shapes and have the
same size and same angles.
(iii) Similarity – this is when the image and the object have same shapes, their sides are
proportional and have same angles.

In this topic, we shall look at a translation. Many are the times we hear of this word, what do
does it mean?

A translation is a transformation which moves the object in a straight line to a new position.
A translation has both magnitude and direction. For example a square ABCD has been
moved to A`B`C`D` as show below.

D C D` C`

N N1

A B A` B`
(a) (b)
Figure 1

Object N is said to have been “displaced to position (b) by a given number of units”.
Transformation is usually denoted by the letter ‘T’. So the image of N in figure 1 is T(N) =
N1.

1.1 Translation in the Coordinate Plane

A translation in the coordinate plane is represented in column form as follows:

T= a
b

Where a is the number of units the object moves parallel to the x – axis and b is the
number of units the object moves parallel to the y – axis.

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For example, if B is (2, 1) the coordinates of the image of B under translation T = 2
can be found as shown below in figure 2. 3
1
B (4, 4)

B(2,1)

Figure 2

How do you think we can find the coordinates of the image of B without using the diagram?
This is obtained by adding the components of the translation to the corresponding
coordinates.

If B is (2, 1) and T = 2
3

then T (B) = B1

= B+T

= 2 + 2
1 3

B1 = 4
4

B1 (4, 4) in coordinate form.

Example 1
Given that A is (-4, 1), find the coordinates of A1 under the translation T = -1
-4

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Solution
A1 = A + T

= -4 + -1
-1 -4

A1 = -5
-3

∴ A1 is (-5, -3).

Topic 2 Reflection

2.1 Each day we wake up we look in the mirror before we move out of our rooms/houses
to see how we look. In transformation, we also have reflections. If an object is
reflected in some form of a mirror, then every point on the has a corresponding point
in the image which is formed across what is called the mirror line. (i.e. the surface of
the object acting as the mirror). A reflection is usually denoted by the letter “m”.

For example square ABCD is reflected in the y-axis.

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 Thus under reflection in the y-axis.

A (1, 1) → A1 (-1, -1)

B (4, 1) → B1 (-4, 1)
C (4, 4) → C1 (-4, 4)
D (1, 4) → D1 (-1, 4)

Note that:

(i) Any line which is drawn to join the object point to the image point is always
perpendicular to the mirror line.
(ii) The object point and its image point are equidistant from the mirror line.

Example 2

Given that ∆PQR is such that P is (-4, 1) Q is (-4, -1) and R is (-1, -1). Draw the image of
∆PQR under reflection in the line y = -X. Write down the co-ordinates of P1, Q1 and R1.

Solution

y = -x

The image coordinates are P1 (-1, 4), Q1 (1, 4) and R1 (1, 1).

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2.2 Transformation matrices of Translation and Reflection

2.2.1 Translation Matrix

A matrix can be used to transform shapes in the Cartesian Plane. For example a
translation represented in matrix form as T = a
b
If A is the point (P,Q) and A1 (P1, Q1) is its image under the translation T = a
b
then A is calculated as follows:

T (A) = p + a = p+a
q b q+b

∴ A1 is (p + a, q + b)

Transformation is generally described by 2 x 2 matrix. If a transformation P is

represented by a matrix a b,
c d
1 1
then the image (P , Q ) of an object point (P, Q) under this transformation is found by
pre-multiplying the coordinates of the object point, in column form, by the matrix as
shown below:

a b p = ap + bq
c d q cp + dq

∴
p1 , q1 = ap + bq, cp + dq

2.2.2 Reflection matrix

Let us consider the points (1, 0) and (1, 0) on the Cartesian plane. We shall reflect in
different mirror lines “M”.

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(a) Reflection in the y – axis

y Mirror line

(0,1)

x
(1,0) (1, 0)

We see that the point (1, 0) will have the image at (-1,0) and the point (0,1)
will be an invariant point (will not move). In component form, we have

1 -1
0 0

0 0
1 1

∴ The matrix associated with the reflection in the y-axis is -1 0

0 1

(b) Reflection in the x-axis

Again consider the points (1,0) and (0,1). What are our image points?

(0,1)

x mirror line
(0,-1) (1, 0)

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 Object Image
1 1 ∴ The matrix associated with the reflection in the
0 0 x-axis is 1 0
0 -1
0 0
1 -1

(c) Reflection in the line y = x

We still consider the points (1, 0) and (0, 1)

y Y = x (mirror line)

(0,1)

x
(1, 0)

Object Image
1 0
0 1

0 1
1 0

∴ The matrix associated wit the reflection in the line y = x is 0 1

1 0

Try and find the matrix associated wit the reflection in the line y = -x. What
have you got?

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 (0,1)

(0, 1) (1, 0)
(0, -1)

y = -x (mirror line)

Object Image
1 0
0 -1

0 -1
1 0

The matrix associated with the reflection in the y = -x is 0 -1

-1 0

Well done. In general the transformation matrix for reflection is found by pre-
multiplying the object coordinates with matrix a b
c d
and then solve the pairs simultaneously.

Example

Given that ABC is such that A is (-4, 1), B is (-3, 5) and C is (1, -4). The image
of ABC under a reflection in the line y = -x are A1 (-1, 4). B1 (5, 3) and C1 (4, -1).
Find the matrix associated with this reflection.

Solution
A B C A1 B1 C1
a c -4 -3 1 -1 5 4
b d 1 5 -4 4 3 -1

We have the following:

-4a + c = -1 -4b + c = 4
-3a +5c = 5 -3B + 5d = 3
a – 4c = 4 b – 4d = -1

Pick on any two pairs of equations from both sides and solve them simultaneously.

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 (-4a + c = -1) x 1

(a – 4c = 4) x4

-4a + c = -1
+ 4a – 16c = 16

-5c = 15
∴ c = -1

Replacing c in any of the two equations we have:

a – 4c = 4
a – 4(-1) = 4
a+4=4
∴a = 0

Then take the other two pairs of equations we have:

b – 4d = -1 3
-3b + 5d = 3 1

3b – 12d = -3
-3b + 5d = 3
-7d = 0
∴d = 0

Replacing d with 0 in any of the two equations we have:

b – 4(0) = -1
b – 0 = -1
∴b = -1

Therefore, the matrix associated with this reflection is:

0 -1
-1 0

Activity 1

1. A point A (-2, -4) is translated to B (2, 2). Calculate the translation vector.

2. Transformation P maps (1, 0) onto (2, -1) and (0, 1) onto (-1, 2).
(a) State the matrix of P.
(b) What happens to the point (1, 1) using the transformation P?

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 3. If 1 → 0 and 0 → 3 under the transformation Q.
0 5 1 1
Find the matrix of Q and state the image of A (1, 1) under Q.
4 (a) Triangle ABC has vertices A (3, 2); B (4, 2) and C (3, 5). Draw ABC.
(b) Triangle ABC is translated using the vector 3 to A1B1C1.
Show A1B1C1 on your diagram. 2
(c) Triangle A1B1C1is reflected in the line x = 3 to A2 B2 C2. Show A2 B2 C2.
on your diagram.
(d) Triangle A2 B2 C2 is reflected in the line x = 0 to A3 B3 C3.
Show A3 B3 C3 in your diagram.
(e) What is the vector of translation that will take A3 B3 C3 to ABC.

5 (a) ABC has vertices A (1, 1); B (2, 4) and C (2, 2). Draw ABC.

(b) ABC is translated to A1B1C1 by a vector 1 . Dr aw A1B1C1.

4
(c) ABC is reflected in the line y = - x to A2B2C2. Draw A2B2C2.

(d) A1B1C1 is reflected in the line y – x = 0 to A3B3C3. Draw A3B3C3.

Topic 3 Rotation

A rotation is a circular transformation about a fixed centre, through a given angle, in a given
direction. It is usually denoted by “R”. This may be clockwise or anticlockwise. A rotation in
the anticlockwise direction is a positive rotation (figure 4(a)) and a rotation in the clockwise
direction is a negative rotation (figure 4(b)), these are denoted by R (0, +90o) and R (0, -90o)
respectively.

A B

(a) (b)
Figure 7

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In general a positive rotation about a centre C, through an angle xo is denoted by R(0, +xo)
and a negative rotation about a centre C, through an angle xo is denoted by R(0, -xo).

Example

ABC has vertices A (1, 0); B (2, )) and C (0, 3). Draw and label ABC on the xoy
plane. Find the coordinates of the vertices of ABC under the following rotations:

(a) R (0, -90o) (b) R (0, +90o) (c) R (0, 180o)

Solutions

(a) R (0, -90o) (b) R (0, +90o) (c) R (0, 180o)

A1(0, 1) A11(0, -1) A111(-1, 0)
B1(0, 2) B11(0, -2) B111(-2, 0)
C1(-3, 1) C11(3, -1) C111(-1, 3)

3.1 Finding the centre of Rotation

If the position of the object and its image are known, it is possible to locate the centre
of rotation and determine the angle of rotation. If in figure 5, AB is mapped onto line
A1B1 by a rotation.

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 A1

B1

B
Figure 5

The following is the procedure for finding the centre, angle and direction of the
rotation:
(a) Join any two corresponding pairs of points from the object and its image as
shown by dotted lines AA1 and BB1 (figure 6).
(b) Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the line segments, where they intersect is
the centre of rotation. Label it ”C”.
(c ) Join any two corresponding points to the centre, say B and B1. Angle BCB1 is
the angle of rotation.

Figure 6

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When the rotation is anticlockwise, the angle of rotation is acute angle, BCB1 = 600
When the rotation is clockwise, the angle of rotation is the reflex angle BCB1 = 600

Example

In the diagram below, ABC is mapped onto A1B1C1 by a rotation. Using a scale of
1cm to 1 unit on both axes, find by construction:

(a) The coordinates of the centre of rotation.

(b) The angle of rotation and its direction.

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Solution
(a) Centre of rotation is (6, 2)
(b) Angle of rotation is 90o, direction anticlockwise.

3.2 The transformation matrix for Rotation

We shall consider the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) like we did in reflection. Remember we
are looking at rotation. The centre of rotation is the origin.

(a) Rotation through +90o

y 1 0
0 -1
(0,1)
0 -1
0 0
x
(-1,0) (1,0)

The matrix associated with rotation through 90o in the anticlockwise direction is

0 -1
1 0

(b) Rotation through –90o

y 1 0
0 -1
(0,1)
0 1
1 0
x
(1,0)

(0,-1)

The matrix associated with the rotation through 90o in the clockwise direction is

0 1
-1 0

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(c ) Rotation through 180o

y 1 -1
0 0
(0,1)
0 0
1 -1
x
(-1,0) (1,0)

The matrix associated with the rotation through 180o in the either clockwise or
anticlockwise direction is -1 0
0 -1

If we were to re-examine the rotations in (a) and (b) we notice that +90o is the same
as –270o and –90o is the same +270o.

Note that rotation can be through any other angle and the centre of rotation can either
be given or one has to find it.

Activity 2

1. A quadrilateral has vertices A(2, 4); B(-6, -6); C(-6, 4) and D(-2, -5).

(a) Using a scale of 1cm to 1 unit, draw the XOY plane for values of x
and y in the ranges –6 ≤ x ≤ 6 and –6 y ≤ 6. Draw and label the
quadrilateral ABCD.

(b) The transformation R1, is a rotation of 90o centre (0, 0) and maps
quadrilateral ABCD onto quadrilateral A1B1C1D1. Draw and label
quadrilateral A1B1C1D1.

(c ) The transformation R2 is a rotation of –90o centre (-2, 2) and maps

quadrilateral ABCD onto quadrilateral A11B11C11D11. Draw and label
quadrilateral A11B11C11D11.

(d) The transformation R3 is a rotation of 180o centre (0, 0) and maps

quadrilateral ABCD onto quadrilateral A111B111C111D111. Draw and
label quadrilateral A111B111C111D111.

31
2. A triangle with vertices A(B, -2); B(4, 0) and C(7, -4) is mapped onto DEF
with vertices D(2, 0); E(4, 4) and F(0, 1) by a rotation. Using a scale of 1cm to
1 unit, draw axes for x with values from –1 to 9 and for y with values from –5
to 5. On the axes:

(a) Draw and label triangles ABC and DEF.

(b) Find the centre of rotation.
(c ) Find the angle of rotation
(d) Find the direction of rotation.

3. A rotation maps ABC with vertices A(1, 1); B(2, 1) and C(2, -1) onto
GHI with vertices G(-1, 1); H(-1, 2) and I(1, 2). Find the matrix of this
rotation.

Topic 4 Enlargement

An enlargement in transformation is either an increase or a reduction in the size of an

object.

4.1 How to find the image of an object under an enlargement

4.1.1 Centre of enlargement within the object

For instance, ABC has vertices A(0, 0); B(3, 0) and C(2, 3) as shown in (a)

32
 Figure 7

In (b) we see that image of ABC has been enlarged with the centre (2, 2).
In short this is found by the following procedure:
• Join the centre to the object point i.e. A to C; B to C; C to C
• Draw the line AC and produce it to such that A1C = 2AC and d the same
to the other points respectively.

Shown in figure 8 below:

In mathematical terms, we say that the triangle ABC has been enlarged to the
triangle A1B1C1 under an enlargement with centre (2, 2). An enlargement is
fully described by giving the centre and the scale factor.

33
4.1.2 Enlargement with the centre at the edge of the object

Figure 8

Figure 8 shows a square with vertices A(1, 0); B(1, 1); C(0, 1) and O(0, 0). If
we want to enlarge the same object under an enlargement with centre (0, 0)
and scale factor 2.

This becomes 2 times larger than the square OABC. That is, draw the lines
OA, OB and OC produce to OA1, OB1 and OC1 respectively such that OA1 =
2OA, OB1 = 2OB and OC1 = 2OC as show below.

A1 B1

A1 B

1
0 C 2C1

4.1.3 Enlargement with the centre outside the object

ABC is triangle with vertices A(1, 1), B(2, 1) and C(1, 2). When we want to
enlarge it with centre (0, 0) and scale factor 3, we shall have the image with
vertices A1(3, 3), B1(6, 3) and C1(3, 6).

34
 Figure 9

Again you notice that OA1 = 3OA, OB1 = 4OB and OC1 = 3OC. As shown in
figure 9.

4.1.4 Enlargement with the object and image on opposite sides of the
centre

Let us consider the triangle in 4.1.3 i.e. A(1, 1), B(2, 1) and C(1, 2). We see
that to find the image of ABC under enlargement with centre (0, 0) and
scale factor –3, draw ABC extend the line OA, OB and OC. Mark the
points A1, B1 and C1 on AO, BO and CO respectively.

Figure 10

35
Figure 10 shows the enlargement of ABC with centre (0, 0) and scale
factor –3, i.e. A1(-3, -3), B1(-3, -6) and C1(-6, -3).

Note that, when the scale factor is positive the object and its image are on the
same side of the centre of enlargement. When the scale factor is negative, the
object and its image are on opposite sides of the centre of enlargement.

Activity 3

Use graph paper for all the questions

(a) Given that ABC has vertices A(2, 2), B(4, 2) and C(3, 4). Find the
1 1 1
image A B C under the following enlargements with centre (0, 0) and
scale factors.
(i) 2 (ii) -2 (iii) ½ (iv) -½

(b) Draw on the same diagram the rectangle ABCD whose vertices are
A(2, 0), B(4, 0), C(4, 1) and D(2, 1) and its image A1B1C1D1 under the
following transformation.

(i) Enlargement centre (3, 0.5) and scale factor 3. Draw axes such
that –1 ≤ x ≤ 7 and –2 ≤ y ≤ 3.
(ii) Enlargement centre (0, 0) and scale factor –2. Draw axes such
that –9 ≤ x ≤ 0 and –3 ≤ y ≤ 1.

(c ) Write down the coordinates of the image vertices in (a).

4.1.5 Finding the centre and scale factor of enlargement

Any line, which is drawn from a point on the object to its

corresponding point on the image under an enlargement, passes
through the centre of the enlargement. It follows therefore, that the
interTopic of any pair of such lines is the centre of enlargement. The
scale factor is denoted by “K”. It is found using the formula.

K = CA1 Where C is the centre of enlargement and A is a point

CA on the object and A1 is a point on the image.

or

K = A1B1 where A1B1 is the distance between A1 and B1 on the

AB image AB is the distance between A and B on the
object.

36
 K is positive if the object and the image are on the same side of the
centre.

Figure 11

To find the scale factor of ABC in figure 11, we have:

K = OA1 = 2 = 2
OA 1

or OB1 = 2 = 2
OB 1

or A1B1 = 2 = 2
AB 1

or A1C 1 = 2 = 2
AC 1

The enlargement has centre (0, 0) and scale factor 2.

4.1.6 The transformation matrix of an enlargement

The image of a triangle with vertices P1(3, 3) Q1(3, -3) and R1(6, 3) under an
enlargement with centre (0, 0) and scale factor 3 has its vertices P(1, 1), Q(-1,
-1) and R(2, 1). Find the matrix associated with the enlargement.

Solution

a b 1 1 2 = 3 3 6
c d 1 1 1 3 -3 3

37
 a+b a – b 2a + b = 3 3 6
c+d c – d 2c + d 3 -3 3

a+b=3 c+d=3
a–b=3 c – d = -3
2a + b = 6 2c + d = 3

Taking any two pairs and solve them simultaneously.

a+b=3 c+d=3
- a–b=3 + c – d = -3
2b = 0 2c = 0
b=0 c=0

a+b=3 c+d=3
a+0=3 0 + d =3
a=3 d=3
∴ The matrix associated with the enlargement is 3 0
0 3

In general, an enlargement with centre at the origin 0(0, 0) the scale factor
“K” is represented by the matrix K O
O K

Activity 4

1. The image of a triangle OAB with vertices 0(0, 0), A(1, 0), B(1, 1)
under the enlargement with centre (0, 0) and scale factor 2 is the
triangle and their corresponding images construct a matrix
representing this enlargement.

2. The parallelogram ABCD has vertices A(-1, 0), B(2, 0), D(0, 3),
C(3, 3).
(a) Draw in the same diagram the parallelogram ABCD and its
image A1B1C1D1 under the enlargement represented by the
matrix -2 0
0 -2
(b) On the same diagram draw the image A11B11C11D11 of
A1B1C1D1 under enlargement represented by the matrix
3
/2 0
3
0 /2

38
 (c ) Find the matrix of enlargement which image ABCD onto
A11B11C11D11.

Topic 5 Stretch

A stretch is also an enlargement but this time it is in one direction. As in figure 12(a) and (b).

C1 B1

B B1
C C1 B
1
A A
0 A

(a) (b)

Figure 12

In the figure above we see that in (a) OC does not have images and in (b) OA also does not
have images. If this is so these are known as invariant lines.

To find the matrix associated with these stretches, they are also obtained by using the matrix
a b multiplied by the object points
c d

In general:

(a) The matrix 1 0 represents a stretch with x-axis invariant and scale factor K. if K
0 k is positive, the object and image are on the same side of the
invariant line. Images are on opposite sides of the invariant line.

(b) The matrix K O represents a stretch with y-axis invariant and scale factor K.
O 1
To find the scale factor of a stretch with the y-axis as the invariant line

K = OA1 or K = area of image

OA area of object

39
Topic 6 Shear

This can be referred to as a push which will cause a slant i.e.

(a)

(b)

Figure 13

From the figure above, the shear forms the shape to be a parallelogram.

6.1 The matrix of a shear

It is also found using the matrix a b then pre-multiply it to the object vertices.
c d
This is in the from I K with the x-axis invariants and K is a scale factor.
O I
When the y-axis is invariant we have the matrix I O
K I

6.2 Scale factor of a shear

40
 2 C B C1 B1

1 P Q P1 Q1

0
A
Figure 14

To find the scale factor one can use either:

(a) Using the matrix if either x or y-axes are invariant or
(b) Using the figure 14, we can calculate the shear factor as follows:

PP1 = 1 = 2, QQ1 = 2, CC1 = 4 = 2

OP ½ AQ 1 OC 2
BB1 = 4 = 2
AB 2

In general, if a point A(x, y) is mapped onto A1(x2, y2) under a shear with the
invariant line y = b, then the shear factor K is given by the formula.

K = x2 – x 1
y1 – b

Activity 7

1. A shear with the x-axis as the invariant and scale factor 1.5 is represented by

1 1.5
0 1

(i) Find the image points

(ii) Draw the figure and is image in the same diagram.

(a) The square with vertices A(-1, 0), O(0, 0), B(0, 1) and C(-1, 1).
(b) The square with vertices P(0, 0 ),Q(1, 0), R(1, 1) and S(0, 1).

41
2. The rectangle with vertices A(-2, 1), B(3, 1), C(3, -1) and D(-2, -1) is sheared
using the matrix 1 0
1 1

(a) Find the image points

(b) Describe the shear fully.
(c ) Draw on the same diagram the rectangle and its image.

3. A shear with the y-axis as the invariant maps the point (2, 6) onto (2, -3). Find
(a) the matrix of the shear
(b) write down the shear factor.

4. A shear with scale factor 21/3 onto the point (7, 3). Find
(a) the invariant line
(b) the image of the point

Summary
Hope you enjoyed the study. Let us remind ourselves what we discussed in the unit.

1. Translation
- this is denoted by T and T = a
b
- to find the image of an object under a translation is found using the formula:
Object + Translation = Image
O+T=I

2. Reflection
- this is denoted by M
- matrices associated with reflection in the following mirror line:
-
(a) x – axis 1 0
0 -1

(b) y – axis -1 0
0 1

(c ) y=x 0 1
1 0

(d) y = -x 0 -1
-1 0

42
3. Rotation

- Denoted by R
- Matrices associated with rotation through the following angles and centre
of rotation in the origin (0, 0)

(a) +90o 0 1 also applies to –270o.

1 0

(b) -90o 0 1 this also applies to +270o.

-1 0

(c ) 180o -1 0
0 -1

To find the centre of rotation, join two object points to their corresponding
image points. Bisect them, where he bisectors meet, that is the centre of
rotation.

4. Enlargement
- Denoted by E
- To describe an enlargement, mention the centre of enlargement, scale
factor.
- To find the scale factor, either use the equation K = OA1 or A1B1
OA AB

- The matrix associated with enlargement with centre (0, 0) and scale factor
K is K O
O K

5. Stretch

- The matrix 1 0 represents a stretch with the x – axis in variants and

0 k scale factors K. if K is positive, the object and image
are on the same side. If it is negative, then the object
and the image are on opposite side of the invariant

- The matrix k 0 represents a stretch with the y – axis invariant

0 1 and scale factor K.

43
 - Scale factor k of a stretch is given by the formula k = area of image
Area of object

- When the invariant line is not one of the axes. An invariant line parallel to
the y – axis:

K = x2 – a or a = x2 – kx1
x1 – a 1–k

∴ the invariant line is:

x = x2 – kx1
1–k

- an invariant line parallel to the x – axis

K= y2 – b or y2 – ky
y1 – b 1–k

- an invariant line is y= y2 – ky1

1–k

6. Shear
- Matrix associated with a shear with the x – axis as invariant in 1 k ,
where K is the shear factor. 0 1

- Matrix associated with a shear with the y – axis as invariant is 1 0

k 1
- To find the shear factor, if a point A(x, y) is mapped onto A1(x2, y2) under
a shear with invariant line y = b, then

K= x2 – x 1
y– b

the invariant line is x = kx2 + y1 – y2

k
You may now move to the next unit.

44
 UNIT THREE

EARTH GEOMETRY

Introduction

In the last unit you looked at transformations and now in this unit you will be concerned
with the location of places, the calculations of distances and the determination of time
differences between places on the earths surface. You will consider the earth to be a sphere
with smooth surfaces ignoring all irregularities like hills, valleys, mountains etc.

This unit has 4 topics:

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Distance along the circle of Longitude and Latitude
• Shortest distance between two points measured on the surface of earth
• Speed in nautical miles per hour and time.

If you study this unit properly and do all the activities you are expected to take eight to nine
hours. However, you can take more or less hours. What is important is to understand the
topic so well.

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) Name latitudes and longitudes;

b) Locate places using latitudes and longitudes;
c) Find the radius of latitudes in kilometres and nautical miles;
d) Find distance along the circle of latitudes and longitudes;
e) Find the shortest distance between two points on the earth surface; and
f) Find speed in nautical miles per hour.

45
Topic 1 Latitudes and Longitudes

Latitudes

Latitudes are line that run from west to east on the earths surface. They are parallel to each
other. The equator is a line of latitude and it cuts the earth into two equal parts called
hemisphere.

Longitudes

Longitudes are lines which run from North to South along the earth surface. These lines
are also called meridians. All longitudes pass through the North Pole and therefore divides
the earth into two hemisphere.

The Greenwich Meridian is a meridian from which all other longitudes are measured from.

Great Circles

These are imaginary circles around the earth surface and whose centre are at the centre of
the earth.

46
Longititude are great circles.

Let us now look at how to name

Latitudes and Longitudes

Latitudes

Example

Note

The angle formed by the radius of

earth from the Equator gives or names
the latitude which the radius touches.

The angle is formed along the circle of

Longitude then the angle defines the latitude.

Longitudes

The angle marked χo defines the longitude on which c lies. So c is on longitude χ0 east of
Greenwich Meridian. If the angle is formed along the latitude, then the angle defines the
longitude.

Example 1 In the diagram below NADS is the Greenwich meridian and D and C are on
the equator.

Describe the position of A,B,C,D in terms of latitudes and longitudes.

47
Solutions

A is the point on Latitude 40oN, Longitude 0o (40oN , 0o)

B is the point on Latitude 40o N, Longitude 50oE (40oN, 50oE)
C is the point on Latitude 0o, Longitude 50oE (0o, 50oE)
D is the point on Latitude 0o, Longitude 0o (0o, 0o)
The 40o angle defines 40o latitude north of equator because it opens along the longitude.

The 50o angle defines the 50o longitude because it opens along a latitude.

Example 2

Town A is on latitude 20oS and 30oe and Town B is o n latitude 20oS and longitude 40oW.
find the difference in their longitude.

Solution

Since Town A and Town B are on opposite sides of the Greenwich Meridian, the difference
in longitude is found by adding the two longitudes, 30o + 40o = 70o i.e. BOA = 700

48
Activity 1

(1) From the diagram below, Describe the positions of the points A,B,C,D,E, & G.H.I
in terms of latitudes and longitudes N,B,E,H,S in the Greenwich Meridian.

(2) A point P is on latitude 40oN and longitude 50oW. State possible position of a point
Q which is diametrically opposite the point P on the earth surface.

(3) What is the difference in latitude or longitude between the following pairs of points:

a) Town a is on latitude 20o 25oN and longitude 30oE

Town B is on latitude 40o 50o and longitude 30oE

b) Point S is on latitude 50oN longitude 70oS

Point K is on latitude 50oN Longitude 60oW

(4) Draw a sketch of the earth and mark the North and south pole, the equator and
Greenwich meridian. Mark

(a) Without measuring angles (i) latitude 30oN (ii) longitude 45oE
(iii) A point C (30oN,45oE).

49
Topic 2 Distance along the circles of latitudes and longitudes

Latitude

Radius of a circle of latitude

r = radius of latitude 70o

R = radius of earth

Cos χo = r Sin r = R Cos χo

R

r = R Cos χo is the formula for getting the radius of circle of latitude χo

R = radius of earth which is 6370Km

Example

Find the radius of a circle of latitude 30oN given the radius of earth as 6370Km

r = R Cos χo χ = 30o

r = 6370 Cos 30o

= 6370 x 0.8660

= 5516.58Km

The radius can be converted to nautical miles.

A nautical mile is a measurement just like kilometre, or a mile. Nautical mile (nm) is a unit
for measuring distance on the earth’s surface.

A nautical mile is a distance on a great circle which substances an angle of 1 minute (11) at
the centre of the earth.

50
1nm = 11

60nm = 601

60nm = 601 – 1o

60nm = 1o

Circumference of the earth = 21600nm

The circumference of the earth makes a Revolution which is equal to 360o

Since 1o = 60nm

360o = χKm

χ = 360 x 60

χ = 21600nm

Example

Find the radius of the circle of latitude 30oN given that the radius of the earth is 3437nm in

a) nm b) lnm

a) r = R Cos χo b) r = 6370 x Cos 30

= 3437 x Cos 30 5516.58km
= 2976.53nm

NOTE

1nm = 1.853km R = 6379km

R = 3437nm

51
So you can use this to convert from km to nm or vice versa.

If R is in km then your answer is in km

If R is in nm then you answer is in nm

Activity

1) find the radius of the circle of latitude 40oN in

a) Kilometres
b) Nautical mile

2) Calculate the circumference of the circle of latitude 30o in

a) Kilometre
b) Nautical miles

3) A circle of latitude has radius 2500km, find the latitude

Distance along the circle of latitude

Y = difference in longitude.

Arc AB = Zo arc AB is part of the circle of latitude χo

Circumference 360 yo = angle made by arc AB
of latitude χo

arc AB = Zo r = R Cos χo
2πr 360 χo = the latitude
Z = is the angle formed the arc ANrs

Arc AB = 2π R Cos χo x Zo
360

Example

Point χo lies on latitude 60oN and longitude 20oE. Point y lies on 60oN and longitude 30oE.

52
Find the length of χy which lies along the circle of latitude in (i) nautical miles
(ii) kilometres

π = 3.142 R = 6370km = 3437nm

Arcχy = 2πr Cos χo yo

360
= 2 x 3.142 x 3437 x Cos 60 x 10
360

= 299.97nm

Arc χy = 2 x 3.142 x 6370 x Cos 60 x 10

360
= 555.96Km

Activity 3

1) Point p is on 55oN longitude 50oE and point Q is on 55oN longitude 130oE.

Find the distance between p and Q in (i) km (ii) nm

2) Two towns on the equator have longitudes 24oW and 36oE. Find the distance
between the two towns in (i) km (ii) nm

3) A town on latitude 42oS and longitude 20oE

Calculate the length of the latitude

(i) kilometres
(ii) nautical miles

4) Point A is 40oN longitude 30oE

Point B is 40oNo longitude 60oW

Find the distance between A and B in

(i) kilometres
(ii) nautical miles

Longitude

χo arc AB
360o =
Circumference of a circle

53
arc AB = χO
2πr 360O

arc AB = χo2πr x χo χo is the difference in latitude

360

Example

Find the distance between points A and B along the longitude in the kilometre and nautical
miles. If point A is on latitude 40oS and longitude 30oE π = 3 + 42

Arc AB = 70O x 2 x 3.142 x 6370

360
= 7783.43 km

Arc AB = 70 x 2 3.14 x 3437

360

= 4199.63nm

Activity 3

1. A point X is on Latitude 450N long 200E

A point Y is on Latitude 350N long 200E

Find the distance between X and Y in (i) Km (ii) nm

2. Two towns lie on the same meridian. Find the difference in the latitudes if the
places are

(a) 300 nautical miles apart.

(b) 480 kilometres apart.

3. A small town is on Latitude 310S and long 200E. How far in Km is the town from
the north pole along the longitude.

54
Topic 3 Shortest Distance between Two Points on the Surface of the Earth

The shortest distance on the earth surface is through the great circles

Example 1

Point A is on latitude 30oN longitude 80oE and point b is 30oN longitude 100oW.
Find the shortest distance between A and B.

The 80oE and 100oW is one great circle. So the shortest distance is through this circle of
longitude, that is through A N B and not direct from A to B through the latitude. Arc on
longitude = y x 2πR
360

Arc AB = angle made by the arc x 2πR

360

= 120 x 2 x 3.142 x 6370

360

= 13343.03km

Since A and B are diametrically opposite it is easy to find the angle made by the arc ANB
through the great circle which is a longitude.

55
Arc ANB form 120o

What if they are not diametrically opposite. Let us consider example 2

Example 2

A point A is on latitude 50oN and longitude 80oW and a point B is on longitude 50oN and
latitude 12oW. Find the shortest distance between A and B. the shortest distance is through
the great circle. Since A and B are not diametrically opposite.

The point A and B are not diametrically opposite since the two longitudes where they lie do
not add up to 180o or the difference in longitudes is not 180o.

For the purpose of solving, we can redraw the diagram as follows:

80oW and 12oW are two different longitudes and so A and B are not diametrically opposite,
so we cannot use the great circle which is a longitude, but we have to use other great circles
passing through the two points like the one drawn in pencil.

56
 We extract a triangle and use it to find the
angle formed at the centre of the great circle
we have drawn.

Angle BPA is the difference in longitude. That is (80-12)

= 68o so TPA = 68o ÷ 2 = 34o

So we can get TA

Sin 34o = TA
r

Sin 34o x r = TA But TA = R Cos 0

= 6370 Cos 50o
= 4094.56km

TA = Sin 34o x 6370 Cos 50o

So we can get yo using the cord

57
Sin yo = TA Sin yo = 2289.65
R 6370

yo Sin yo = 0.3594

yo = 21.07

Then we multiply by 2 to get the angle form by the arc AB on the new great circle.

Angle formed by Arc AB = 21.07 x 2

= 42.14o

Activity 4

1) A point A is on latitude 35oS longitude 60oW and a point B is on latitude 35oS

longitude 120oE

Find in nautical miles and in km the distance between A and B

(i) through the latitude

(ii) through the great circle.
(iii) Which is the shortest distance.

2) Town P and Q are on the same latitude 40oN

Town Y on 30oE and the other is on 90oE. find in nautical miles the distance
between two points

a) along the latitude

b) along the great circle
c) which is the shortest distance

58
Topic 4 Time and Speed

Time

The earths makes a complete rotation of 360o in 24 hours.

So 15o gives 1 hour.

Using the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

15o to the west 15o to the east

1 hour is lost of the Bm, 1 hour is gained
30o to the west 30oto the east 2 hours is gained
2 hours is lost

Example 1

A town is on longitude 45oE what is the local time in that town is 04:00 hrs GMT.

Solution

45o = 3 hrs So this town is 3 hrs ahead of the GMT

15o

So the time will be 04:00 + 3 hrs

= 07:00 hrs

Example 2

A town is on longitude 88oW

What is the relationship between the local time in that town and the GMT

Solution

Time in the town

59
88 = 53 hours behind the GMT
15 15

Activity 5

1) Find the local time at each of the following places if its 0900 hrs GMT

a) Town a 30oW
b) Town B 75oE
c) Town C 24o 121E
d) Town D 69oW
e) Town E 90o 151E

Speed in Nautical miles

Speed on the earth surface is measured in nautical miles per hour which is equal to a knot

So 5 knots = 5nm/h
So S = D The distance should be in nautical miles
T

Example

A plane flies from town P (30oS, 15oE) to town (30oN 15oE) in 12 hours. Find the speed of
the plane taking the radius of the earth to be 3437 nautical miles and π = 3.142

First find the distance of PQ

Arc PQ = yo x 2 x 3.142 x 3437

360

y = difference in latitude 30 + 30

= 60 x 2 x 3.142 x 3437
360

60
S =D S = 3599
T 12

= 300 knots

Activity 6

Point A is on latitude 30oS, longitude 60oW and point B is on latitude 30oS longitude
60oW and point B is on latitude 30oS longitude 120oE

a) Find in nautical miles the distance between A and B through the great circle.
b) Find the speed of the plane on the great circle if the plane took 30 hours to fly
from A to B.

Summary

In this unit you looked at 4 topics. That is the latitudes and longitudes, distance along the
circle of latitudes and longitudes, the shortest distance between two points on the surface of
the earth and lastly the time and speed in nautical miles. It is important to note that the
shortest distance between two points on the earths surface is through the great circle. All
longitudes are great circles, the equator is a great circle and there are other great circles
which are not longitudes.

61
 UNIT FOUR

TRIGONOMETRY

Introduction

In the last unit you looked at Earth Geometry. In this unit we shall continue with
Trigonometry from where we ended in the previous module.

This unit has 4 topics:

•
Finding sine, cosine and tangent of angles from 0o to 360o
• Sine rule
• Cosine rule
• Area of triangle using ½ ab sin c.

Having done all the activities in this unit, you are expected to complete the unit between
eight to nine hours. You read and understand at your own pace.

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) Find the three trigonometric ratios of angles from 0o to 360o;

b) Use the Sine rule;
c) Use the Cosine rule; and
d) Use the formula ½ ab sin C to find the area of a triangle.

Topic 1 Finding Sine, Cosine and Tangent of angles from 0o to 360o

1.1 Angles Between 0o to 90o

In the previous module we looked at the three trigonometric ratios

for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 90o:

These ratios were defined as

Sin θ = opposite = O
Hypotenuse H

62
 Cos θ = adjacent = A
Hypotenuse H

Tan θ = opposite = O as shown in the figure below

Adjacent A

c
a

Q
b
Figure 1

Example 1

A 50.30

In the diagram beside, <DAB = 50.3;

2.1cm AD = 2.1 cm and DCB = 6.7CM
Calculate (a) AC (b) <ACd (c) BC

B D 6.7cm C

Solution

AC2 = AD2 + DC2

= (2.1)2 + (6.7)2
= 4.41 + 44.89
= 49.3
AC = √49.3 :. AC = 7.02

(b) ACD
Using any of the trigonometric ratios we can find <ACD

i.e Sin θ = opposite

Hypotenuse

Sin θ = 2.1
7.02
Sin θ = 0.2991

θ = Sin-1 0.2991

63
 θ = 17.400

Or Cos θ = A
H
= 6.7
7.02
= 0.9544

= Cos-1 0.9544

= 17.36

≈ 17.40

or Tan Ơ = 0
A

= 2.1
6.7
= 0.3134

= Tan-1 0.3134

= 17.40o

(c) To find BC we have to add AD or DC

First find AD

Using the trigonometric ratio

Tan θ = opposite
Hypotenuse

Tan 50.3o = BD
2.1

BD = 2.1 Tan 50.3o

= 2.1 x 1.205

= 2.5305

= 2.53 (2 d.p)

BC = BD + DC

64
 = 2.53 + 6.7

: . BC = 8.23

Activity 1

(All the measurements in the activity are in centimetres).

1. Calculate AB in each of the following:

(a) (b) 15
C B C

12

39.40
A B A
0
28.6

(c) (d) 8
A 54.70 A
C

Tan B = 1.8

C B B
6.4

2. Calculate MO, given that NO = 7.5 and Sin N = 0.2315

M O

7.5

65
3. In the diagram, BAC = ADC = 90o, AD = 5 CM AND AC = 9cm

Calculate

a) <ACD
b) AB

A 9 C

4. Find tan c given that sin C = 0.5143 and Cos C = 0.9532

5. Sibeso is due West of Kabwe on a straight shore line. Sibeso sees a boat on the lake
at a bearing of 113 while Kabwe sees the same boat at a bearing of 245o. If the
shortest distance between the boat and the shore line is 78 metres, calculate the
distance between:

a) Sibeso and the boat

b) Sibeso and Kabwe

1.2 Angles from 90o to 360o

Let us use our calculators to find the following values of the following:

a) Sin 36o = 0.5878

Cos 36o = 0.8090
Tan 36o = 0.7265

b) Sin 135o = 0.7071

Cos 135o = 0.7071
Tan 135o = -1

c) Sin 164o = -0.9945

Cos 264 = -0.1045
Tan 264 = 9.5144

d) Sin 321o = -0.6293

66
 Cos 321o = -.7771
Tan 321o = -0.8098

Let us look at each of the above results, in (a) we see that all the results are positive,
meaning that the three trigonometric ratios are positive. Hence we can conclude
that in the first quadrant all trigonometric ratios are positive.

When we look at results in (b) we see that only the Sin ratio is positive, while the
other ratios i.e cosine and tangents are negatives.

i.e Angles associated with acute angles Sin 135o = Sin (180-135o)
= Sin 45O
= 0.7071

Cos 135o = Cos (180-135o) = - Cos 45o

= 0.7071
Tan 135o = Cos (180-135o) = - Tan 35o
= -1

:. In the second quadrant, Q ranging from 90o to 180o, only Sine is positive while
cosine and tangent is negative.

In (c), we see that only tangent is positive i.e Angles associated with acute angels
Sin 264 = Sin (264o-180o) = Sin 84o
= -0.9945

Cos 264o = -Cos (264o- 180o) = Cos 84o

= -0.1045

Tan 264o = Tan (264o-180o) = Tan 84o

= 9.5244

:. In the third quadrant, Q ranging from 180o to 270o. Only tangent is positive while
Sine and Cosine ratios are negative.

In (d), we see that only cosine is positive i.e Angles associated with acute angles
Sine 321o = -Sin (360o-321o) = -Sin 39o
= -0.6293

Cos 321o = Cos (360o-321o) = -Tan 39o

= 0.8098

:. In the fourth quadrant, Q ranging from 270o to 360o. Only the cosine ratio is
positive while Sine and Tangent ratios are negative.

67
 Figure 2 shows the ratios which are positive in the four quadrants.

2nd 1st
Sine All

Tangent Cosine
3rd 4th

Figure 2

Activity 2

1. State the quadrant in which each of the following angles lies.

a) 140o f) 210o
b) 263o g) 359o
c) 92o h) 86o
d) 306o i) 112o
e) 280o j) 41o

2. Find the associated acute angle (where applicable) for each angle in question 1.

3. Find values of each of the following:

a) Sine 153o
b) Sin 63.4o
c) Sin 262.73o
d) Cos 108.2o
e) Cos 311o
f) Cos 54o
g) Tan 17o
h) Tan 184.6o
i) Tan 356.1o
j) Sin 496o

68
4. given that 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o, find two possible values of θ in each of the following:

a) Sin θ = 0.3613
b) Cos θ =0.5611
c) Tan θ = 1.41
d) Sin θ = -0.5613
e) Cos θ = 0.1149
f) Tan θ = -3.1417
g) Sin θ = Cos Ơ
h) Cos θ = 0

Topic 2 Sine Rule

Let us look at figure 3 below

b a

A D B
c
Figure 3

Figure 3 shows an acute-angle triangle ABC.

In ∆BCD

Sin B = CD
a

CD = a Sin B……………………(i)

In ∆ADC,

Sin A = CD
b

69
 CD = b Sin A………………(ii)

Solving for CD using equations (i) and (ii) we see that

A Sin B = b Sin A

Multiplying both sides by 1 , gives:

Sin B

A = bsin A
Sin B

Now multiply both sides by 1 we find that

Sin A

A__ = b___
Sin A Sin B

If instead of CD, a perpendicular is drawn from B to AC, it can be shown that:

a = c
Sin A Sin C

Similarly,

b = __c__
Sin B Sin C

Therefore

a = __b__ = _c_
Sin A Sin C Sin C

The same result can be obtained when ∆ ABC IS obtuse angle as shown in figure 4. angle
A is obtuse.
C

a
b

D B
A
c Figure 4

70
In ∆BDC,

Sin B = CD
a

CD = a Sin B…….. (i)

In ∆ADC

Sin (180o – A) = CD
a

But Sin (180o – A) = Sin A

That is Sin A = CD
b

CD = b Sin A……….. (ii)

Solving for equations (i) and (ii) we see that:

A Sin B = b Sin A

a = __b__
Sin A Sin B

Similarly,

b = __c__ and _a_ = __c__

Sin B Sin C Sin A Sin C

=› _a__ = __b__ = __c__

Sin A Sin B Sin C

Therefore in general

_a__ = __b__ = __c__

Sin A Sin B Sin C

or

Sin A_ = _Sin B_ = _Sin C__

a b c

71
the above relationship between the sides of triangle and the sine of the corresponding
opposite angles is called the Sine Rule. Any pair of the three ratios gives an equation
connecting two angles and their corresponding opposite sides.

The Sine Rule is used to find angles and sides of triangles when we are given:

(i) Two sides and a non-included angle.

(ii) Two angles and one side

Example 1

In triangle ABC, <A = 54.6o, <C = 26-71o and a = 16.4cm. Calculate c.

A
51.60

C 16.4cm B

26.710

Solution

_a__ = __c__
Sin A Sin C

16.4____ = c___
Sin 54.6o Sin 26.71o

C Sin 54.6o = 16.4 Sin 26.71o

Sin 54.6o Sin 54.6o

C = 16 Sin 26.71o
Sin 54.6o

= 16 x 0.4495
0.8151

= 7.192
0.8151

:. C = 8.823 cm

72
Example 2

Triangle PQQ is such that p = 14.63, q = 3.21 and <p = 69.1o. Find <Q

14.63

69.10
P R
3.21
Solution

Sin P = Sin Q
p q

Sin 69.1o = Sin Q

14.63 3.21

Sin Q = 3.21 sin 69.1o

14.63

Sin Q = 0.2050

<Q = Sin-10.2050

<Q = 11.83o

Example 3

In triangle PQR, <P = 26o, r = 6.43cm, and p = 3.5cm

Solve the triangle.

3.5

260
P 643cm Q

73
Solution

Sin P = Sin R
P r

Sin 26o = Sin R

2.5 6.43

Sin R = 6.43 Sin 26o

2.5

Sin R = 2.819
3.5

Sin R = 0.8054

<R = Sin -10.9054

:. <R = 53.64o or 126.36o

When <R = 53.64o, <P = 26o and <Q = 100.36o

When <R = 126.36o, <P = 26o and Q = 27.64o

The diagram below shows the two possible positions of R, i.e. R1 and R2

R2

R1
q p

P Q
6.43

This is an example of an ambiguous case where there are more than one possible answer.

(i) The lengths of two sides and a non-included acute angle are given.
(ii) The length of the side opposite the acute angle is less than the length
of the other given side.

74
Example 4

In ∆ABC, AB = 14.6cm, BC = 6.1cm and <A

14.6
6.1

A C

Solution

a__ = _c__
Sin A Sin C

6.1_ = 14.6____
Sin A Sin 115.4o

Sin A = 6.1 Sin 115.4o

14.6

Sin A = 5.51_
14.6

Sin A = 0.3774

<A = Sin -10.3774

:.<A = 22.17

Activity 3

1. In ∆ABC, calculate the sides and angles in each of the following

a) a = 14.5cm, <B = 63o and <C = 61o. Find b.

b) c = 21 cm, , <A = 54o, , <C = 66o. Find a

c) b = 19.4 cm, , <B = 81o and c = 11.5 cm. Find , <C and a.

d) a = 5.5 cm, , <B = 18.6o and , <C = 134.6o. Find b and c.

e) <B = 28.5o, c = 12.6 cm, <C = 116.21o. Find b.

75
2. Triangle ABC is such that BC = 9.4 cm, <BAC = 32o and AB = 14.3 cm. Calculate

a) <ACB
b) AC

3. In the diagram below, AD = 17.4 cm, BD =11.6 cm, DC = 9.3 cm and <BCD = 53o.
Calculate:

a) <CBD
b) <ADC D
c) AB

17.4 11.6 9.3

530
A B C

120 B

170
D C
6cm E

4. In diagram above, BCD is a right angle, DE = 6 cm, <EBD = 12 and <BDE = 17.
Calculate:

a) BD
b) CE

76
Topic 3 The Cosine Rule

The Sine rule cannot be used to calculate the unknown sides and angles of a triangle in
which either two sides and an included angle or three sides only are given. In both of these
cases we need to use the cosine rule to calculate the missing dimensions.

The cosine rule can be applied to both acute angled, triangles and obtuse angled triangles.

The following statements are interpretations of the cosine rule:

a 2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 -2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C

When the lengths of three sides of the triangle are given and we need to find an angle it is
better to make the cosine of that angle the subject of the formula.

We use the following circle in the clockwise direction is a useful way of remembering all
of the six versions of the rule as shown below in figure 5.

Figure 5.

Cos A = b2 + c2 + (-a2)
2bc

Cos B = a2 + c2 + (-b2)
2ac

Cos C = b2 + c2 + (-c2)
2bc

77
Example 5.

In triangle PQR, P = 5cm, Q =78.6o and r = 9 cm. Calculate the length of q and the values
of <p and <R using the formula q2 = r2 + p2 – 2pr – Cos Q

Solution

Q2 = r2 + p2 - 2pr Cos Q
=q2 + 52 – 2(5) (9) Cos 78.6o
= 81 + 25 – 90 Cos 78.6o
5 = 106 – 90 Cos 78.6o
q2 = 88.21
_____
q = √88.21
Q P :. Q = 9.39 cm
9

Having found q we can use the sine rule to find <P and <R

__q__ = _r__ = _p_

Sin Q Sin R Sine P

_9.39__= _9__ = _5_

Sin 78.6o Sin R Sin P

Let us find <P by using

9.39__ = _5_
Sin 78.6 Sin P

Sin P = 5 Sin 78.6o

9.39

Sin P = 0.522

P = Sin -10.522
:. <P = 31.46o

Then we can now find <R

9.39___ = 9___
Sin 78.6o Sin R

78
 Sin R = 9 Sin 78.6o
9.39

Sin R = 0.9396

R = Sin -10.9396

:. <R = 69.98o

Example 6

Calculate all the angles in ∆ABC in which BC = 12 cm

AC = 17 cm and AB = 7 cm.

[Note – in order to find the angles first find the largest angle. This is always opposite the
longest side. Use the Cosine rule which will also help you to determine the size of the
angle, that is, acute or obtuse].

Solution
B

12
7

C
A 17

In the above case, the largest angle is B. Therefore, we shall have

Cos b = a2 + c2 – b2
2ac

= 72 + 122 - 172
2(7)(12)

= 49 + 144 - 289
84

= -96
168

Cos B = -05714 (negative value means the angle is obtuse).

79
 <B = Cos -1 - 0.5714 = (180o – 55o)

<B = 124.85o

Then using the Sine rule we are able to find any of the two missing angles.

__b_ = c__
Sin B Sin C

__17_ = 7_
Sin 124.85o Sin C

Sin C = 7Sin 124.85o

17

Sin C = 0.3379

LC = 19.75o

Since we know that the sum of angles in a triangle is 180o, then we can find <A as follows:

= 180o – (124.85o + 19.75

:. <A = 35.4

Activity 4

1. Find AB in the triangle ABC in which AC = 3 cm, BC = 5 cm and <ACB = 132o

2. In triangle OPQ, solve for the lengths of the sides and/or the values of the angles as
specified in each of the following:

a) PQ = 14 cm, OP = 19 cm, <OPQ = 56O Calculate OQ and <OQP

b) O = 8.5 cm, p = 12 cm, q = 6 cm, Calculate all the three angles.

c) O = 9.5 cm, p = 6 cm, q = 12 cm. Calculate the smallest and the largest

angles.

d) 0 = 26 cm, p = 36 cm, <q = 123. Calculate the length of q and <p.

3. G,H,K and L are four points on the level ground:

GK = 4m, KL = 5m, GL = 7 m, <HGK = 47o and <gkh = 70o. Calculate

80
 a) HK
b) <GKL G
c) ECZ 1983, paper 2
470 7m

H 4m C

5m
0
70

Topic 4 Area of a Triangle

Can you recall the formula for area of a right angled triangle.
If not, it is A = ½ x base x height.

= ½ bh

In this Topic we shall develop this formula further when given two sides and an included
angel.

Let us consider the two triangles in figure 6.

C
C

b h a
b a h

A C B

A B
(a) (b)

Figure 6

81
In both the acute angled triangle ABC in figure 6 (a) and the obtuse angled triangle ABC in
figure 6 (b).

Area of ∆ABC = ½ x base x height

= ½ x (AB x h)
= ½ x c h…………. (i)

In ∆ABC,

Sin A = h i.e. using the Sine ratio opp

b hyp

h = b sin A…………………(ii)
Replacing h by b sin A in (i) we have
Area of ∆ABC = ½ x c x b sin A

Then it follows that

Area of ∆ABC = ½ x a x c x sin B

Area of ∆ABC = ½ x b x a x sin C

Example 1

In ∆ABC, B = 10.4 cm, BC = 8.4 and <ABC = 65o

Find the area of the triangle

Solution

Sketch C

8.4cm

650
A B
10.4cm

82
Solution

Area of ∆ABC = ½ ac sin B since we know

A = 8.4 cm, c = 10.4 cm and <B = 56o, so

:. Area of ∆ABC = 39.59 cm2

Activity 5

1. Find the areas of the following triangles:

a) a = 9.4 cm, b = 5.4 cm, <c = 28o

b) <A = 65.1o, b = 12.47 cm, c = 9.7 cm

c) a = 18 cm, <B = 140.3o, c = 19 cm

2.

In the diagram above, ABCD is a rectangle AE = 12 cm, BE = 8 cm and ∆ABC =

108o. Find the area of the shaded part.

3. In the diagram below GHKL are points on the level ground. GK = 5m, KL = 7m,
HK = 3m <HGK = 43o, <GKL = 70o and <GHK = 65o

Calculate the area of the quadrilateral GHKL.

83
 K

9 700 3

L 5 650 H

430

Summary

Hope you enjoyed the study on trigonometry. Let us review what we learnt:

1. The three trigonometric ratios

Sin θ = opposite
hypotenuse

Cos θ = adjacent
hypotenuse

Tan θ = opposite
adjacent

2. Associated acute angles

Angle θ (interval) Associated acute angel (interval)

90o < θ < 180o…………………………….. 180o - θ

180o <θ <270o………………………………θ – 180o

270o <θ <360o……………………………… 360o - Q

3. Ratios which are positive in the four quadrants

Sine All

Tangent Cosine
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

84
4. Sine Rule

a) __a__ = _b_ = _c_

Sin A Sin B Sin C

or Sin A__= Sin B_= Sin C

Sin a b c

5. Cosine Rule

a 2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos a

b2 = a2 + c2 -2ac cos B

c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C

or

Cos A = b2 + c2 + a2
2bc

Cos B = a2 + c2 + b
2ac

Cos C = a2 + b2 + c
2ab

6. Area of ∆ABC

Area = ½ab Sin C

or
Area = ½bc Sin A

or

Area = ½ac Sin B.

85
 UNIT FIVE

STATISTICS

Introduction

In the last unit we looked at Trigonometry. In this unit you shall look at some components of
statistics we did not look at in the earlier module which had statistics.

In this unit you will look at how to draw the cumulative frequency curves, how to find the
median, lower and upper quartiles. Then you shall also look at how to find the range,
interquartile and semi interquartile range and the finally the percentile range.

If you do all the activities given to you in this unit, you are expected to complete it in between
eight to nine hours. If you take more or less, do not worry as long as you understand the topic so
well.

Objectives:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a) draw the cumulative frequency curve;

b) find median, lower and upper quartile; and
c) find the interquartile range, semi interquartile range and the percentile range.

Topic 1 Cumulative Frequency Curve

From the earlier module, you learnt how to draw a frequency table. So using the same
information but now you will add another column for cumulative frequency. Example, look at
the table below:

MARK FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE

FREQUENCY
11 – 20 2 2
21 – 30 3 5
31 – 40 6 11
41 – 50 7 18
51 – 60 9 27
61 – 70 6 33
71 – 80 4 37
81 – 90 2 39
91 – 100 1 40

86
This is a cumulative frequency table showing marks for 40 pupils. Now let us draw a cumulative
frequency curve.

Example 1

Put a graph

87
Example 2

Draw a cumulative frequency curve from the information in the table below. The table
shows 100 pupils results of a mathematics test.

MARK FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE

FREQUENCY
0 – 10 1 1
11 – 20 2 3
21 – 30 4 7
31 – 40 10 17
41 – 50 24 41
51 – 60 34 75
61 – 70 14 89
71 – 80 06 95
81 – 90 3 98
91 – 100 2 100

88
(Insert a graph)

89
(i) Draw the cumulative frequency curve.

(ii) Show the quartile Q1, Q2 and Q3

The Q1 is the lower quartile
The Q2 is the median quartile
The Q3 is the upper quartile

To find the quartile, we divide the total frequency into 4 equal parts

Q1 ¼ x 100 = 25
Q2 ½ x 100 = 50
Q3 ¾ x 100 = 75

To get Q1, in this question you go to 25cm pupils then draw a line to the curve and
drop it down to the marks axis. The mark you get will be the Q1. the same for Q2
and Q3.

(iii) From the curve, how many pupils -

(a) scored 44 and above?
(b) scored 60 and below?

(iv) How many pupils passed if the pose mark is 70%?

Solutions

(a) You go to mark 44 and draw a line up to the curve then to thin to the vertile
axis showing the frequency (number of pupils). You will find that you will
get 25 meaning 100 – 24 = 76 pupils scored 44 and above.

(b) You go to mark 60 and draw a line up to the curve the to the verticle axis.
You will find the number 75. So from 0 to 75 scored 60 and below. This
means 75 pupils scored 60 and below.

(v) If the pass mark is 70%, you go to 70 and draw a line up then to the verticle axis
and read the frequency which is 89. This means 100 –m 88 = 12 pupils passed the
exam. The 88 pupils are the one below number 89.

90
Topic 2 The semi quartile and inter-quartile range

The inter-quartile range is Q3 – Q1

The semi inter-quartile range is ½ (Q3 – Q1)

From example 2

Q1 = 44
Q2 = 53
Q3 = 60

So inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1
= 60 – 44
= 16

Semi inter-quartile range = ½ (Q3 – Q1)

= ½ x 16
= 8

Topic 3 Percentiles

Using example 2, we shall calculate the following percentiles. The 50th, 30th, and 75th
percentile. To get the percentile, you find the given percentile of the distribution e.g. 50th
percentile is 50 x the distribution minus 50 x 100 = 50
100 100

So you go to the frequency axis at 50 and draw the line to the curve and then drop it to the
horizontal axis and read mark. That mark will be the 50th percentile. In example 2 it is 53.
The 50th percentile is the median mark.

30th Percentile
30 x 100 (distribution) = 30
100

Go to 30 on the frequency axis then draw a line to the curve, drop it to the horizontal axis
and read the mark. In example 2, it is 45.5 and so the 30th percentile is 45.5.

91
75th Percentile
75 x 100 = 75
100

The 75th percentile is 60 in example 2.

Activity 1

(1) From the table below, construct a cumulative frequency curve using a class interval
of 3 and starting at 40.

(a) What is the mode class

(b) Find the mean mark.

54 52 49 46 42 41
55 52 49 46 43 41
55 52 50 46 43 42
57 52 50 47 44 42
57 52 51 47 44 42
57 52 51 47 44 42
59 53 51 48 45 42
60 53 51 48 45 42
60 59 53 48 45 42
60 53 52 49 45 42

(2) From the table below, find the 35th and 65th percentile.

20 23 28 31 33
38 39 40 41 42
47 47 48 48 49
52 52 53 53 53
58 58 59 59 60
63 63 64 64 65
66 67 67 68 69
72 73 74 75 75
78 79 79 80 80
83 84 85 87 88

Use a suitable class interval.

3. The table below gives the frequency of height in cm of 40 pupils in a class.

92
 Height Frequency
140 –144 2
145 – 149 3
150 – 154 4
155 – 159 10
160 – 164 11
165 – 169 7
170 – 174 3
Total 40

(a) Draw a cumulative frequency curve.

(b) Estimate: (i) the 35th percentile
(ii) the 55th percentile
(iii) the percentile of height of pupils below 165cm.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you looked at how to draw a cumulative frequency curve. Using the same
curve, you look at how to get the median, lower and upper quartiles as well as the
percentile. You also looked at inter-quartiles and semi-quartiles range. We hope you
mastered the topic and enjoyed yourself.

93
 UNIT SIX

PROBABILITY

Introduction

In the last unit, you looked at statistics. In this unit, you will look at probability. You have
heard statements such as ‘it is most likely to rain today’ or ‘the national soccer team will
certainly win the game’ and so on. The likelihood of these events taking place is called
probability.

This unit has four (4) topics:

• Experimental probability
• Theoretical probability
• Laws of probability and
• Compound events.

If you are to do all the activities in this unit, you are expected to complete it between eight
and nine hours.

Objectives:

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) find probabilities of single events experimentally;

b) Find probabilities of single events theoretically;
c) Find expected frequency of an event;
d) Find probabilities of mutually exclusive, independent and dependent events; and
e) Use outcome tables (grids) and three diagrams to find probabilities.

Topic 1 Experimental Probability

The probability of an event happening is expressed as a ratio of the favourable outcome to

all the possible outcomes of such an event. That is if P is the probability of an event A
happening, then its probability P (A) is:

P(A) = number of favourable outcomes

Number of all possible outcomes

One of the types of probabilities is experimental probability. Let us do the following

experiments:

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Experiment 1:Toss a ten kwacha coin 50 times and record the number of times the
Zambian symbol (heads) lands face up and the number of times rhino (tails)
lands faces up.

(a) How many heads came up?

(b) How many tails came up?
(c) What fraction is the number of heads out of the total number of
tosses? If the head is the most common outcome then:

P (heads) = number of times heads appears

Total number of tosses

(d) What fraction is the number of tails out of the total number of tosses.
If heads is the most common outcome then:

P (tails) = number of times tails appear

Total number of tosses

Experiment 2:Throw a die 30 times and record the number of times for each of the number
1,2,3,4,5 or 6 appears on top.

If 1 is a favourable outcome, then P(1) = Number of times 2 appears

Total number of throws

What is (a) P(3)

(b) P(4)
(c) P(5)
(d) P(6)

Experiment 3: Put 7 marbles, 3 white and 4 blue of the same size in a bag. Take out a
marble from the bag, note its colour and replace it. Repeat the process 126 times. How
many times does each colour come up? What fraction is the number of times each colour
appears of the total number of draws?

If blue is the colour of marble drawn most often, then

P(blue) = Number of times blue is drawn
Total number of draws

What is P(white)?

The above probabilities found in experiments (1, 2 and 3) are all experimental probabilities.

The experimental probability P of an event A is

P(A) = Number of times the events A occurs
Number of all possible outcomes

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Example 1:

In a certain school, 100 pupils were asked whether they are kapenta. 20 said that they never
ate kapenta. If a pupil is chosen at random from the 100, what is the probability that the
pupil never ate kapenta?

Solution
P (never eats kapenta) = number of pupils who do not eat kapenta
Total number of pupils
= 20
100
= 1
5

1.1 EXPECTED FREQUENCY

If the probability of an event occurring has been found using a small sample of a
large group, that probability can be used to predict the number of times the event
will occur in the whole group. For examples, in the previous example, if the school
had 600 pupils, we could predict the number of pupils in the larger school who do
not eat kapenta. This prediction is called the expected number or the expected
frequency. This is denoted by E.F.
∴ The E.F. of the pupils who do not eat kapenta in the school is found as follows:

P (do not eat kapenta) x total number of pupils

1 x 600 = 120
5

In general if x/y is the probability of an event A, then the expected frequency E.F. of
the event A in a population of size N is given by
E.F (A) = x/y x N

Example: In a raffle where 400 tickets were sold, one probability of Ms Kabwe
winning is 1 . How many tickets did she buy?
40

Solution
Expected frequency = P (win) x number of trails
= 1 x 400
40
= 10

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Activity 1

1. A doctor discovered that 20 patients out of 60 differing from a certain disease

recovered from their illness.

(a) What is the probability that a patient suffering from the some disease will
recover?
(b) Find the E.F. of patients who would recover from 180 patients suffering
from the same disease.

2. There are 60 marbles in a bag. Some are white and others are blue. A marble is
picked at random from the bag and its colour noted and replaced. The process is
repeated 150 times. A white marble is picked 40 times.

(a) How many times was a blue marble picked?

(b) What is the experimental probability of picking?
(i) a blue marble
(ii) a white marble
(iii) blue in the bag
(c) What is the expected number of:
(i) white
(ii) blue in the bag?

Topic 2 Theoretical Probability

When one tosses a coin there are only two possible outcomes. It will land either head up or
tail up. The probability that the coin lands heads up:

= number of heads
number of possible outcomes.

If the coin lands heads up the outcome is favourable, but if it lands tails up the outcome is
said not to be favourable. Since there is an equal chance of either heads or tails. These
events are said to be equally likely or equiprobable events.

P (A) = number of favourable outcomes

total number of outcomes
Example 1: If an unbiased coin is tossed, what is the probability that it lands?
(i) head up
(ii) tail up

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Solution

(i) P (head) = 1
2
(ii) P (tail) = 1
2
Since it is assumed that the coin is unbiased and therefore the possibility of heads =
possibility of tails.

Example 2: What is the probability of picking a 3 from a well shuffled pack of 52

playing cards?

Solution

There are four 3’s in a pack of 52 carols, therefore,

P (3) = favourable events

all possible outcomes
= 4
52
= 1
13

If an event cannot take place then its probability is zero. When it is certain, that event will
occur, its probability is 1. For example:

P (sun will rise tomorrow) = 1

P (gold to float on water) = 0

The probabilities of all other events that are likely to take place ranges between 0 and 1. In
general if P (A) = P > then P (A′) = 1 – P.

Example 3

A bag contains 2 red balls and 4 blue balls. If a ball is picked at random from the bag, what
is the probability that it is:

(a) red
(b) blue
(c) yellow
(d) a ball
(e) not blue

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Solution

(a) P (red) = 2 = 1
6 3
(b) P (blue) = 4 = 2
6 3
(c) P (yellow) = 0
(d) P (ball) = 6 = 1
6
(e) P (not blue) = 1 – P (red)
=1–2
6
=4 = 2
6 3

Activity 2

1. If a six sided die is rolled, what is the probability that:

(a) 2 turns up
(b) 4 turns up
(c) an odd number turns up
(d) a factor of 6 turns up.

2. A pack of playing cards as well shuffled and a card is drawn at random from it.
Find the probability that it is:
(a) a spade
(b) a 3 hearts
(c) a king or a queen
(d) a diamond or a club

3. A bag contains the following buttons, 2 blue, 6 red, 8 black, 4 white. One bead is
chose at random. Find:
(a) the total number of outcomes
(b) P (white)
(c) P (red)
(d) P (not blue)
(e) P (not white)

4. A football game for a given team can end in a win, lose or draw. Find:
(a) P (losing)
(b) P (draw)
(c) The number of games the team is expected to lose if they played a total of
21 games.

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Topic 3 Laws of Probability (Addition and Multiplication)

3.1 Mutually Exclusive Events

If a fair coin is tossed, it will either land heads up or tails up. It is not possible for
both events to occur at the same time. When two or more events cannot occur at the
same time, they are called mutually exclusive events. When a six-sided dice is
rolled, P (2) = 1, P (3) = 1, P (4) = 1, and so on.
6 6 6
P (2 or 3 or 4) = 3 = P (2) + P (3) + P (4).
6

Thus, for mutually exclusive events, the probability that one or the other events will
occur is the sum of their individual probabilities. In general if x and y are mutually
exclusive events then:

P ( x or y) = P (x) + P (y).

Example 4: A bag contains identical buttons, 5 of which are red, 3 are yellow, 2
are blue and 10 are white. If a button is picked at random from the
bag, find the probability that it is either red or white.

Solution

Total number of buttons = 5 + 3 + 2 + 10 = 20.

P (red) = 5, P (white) = 10,
20 20

P (red or white) = P (red) + P (white)

= 5 + 10 = 15 = 3
20 20 20 4

3.2 Independent Events

Suppose two fair dice are rolled one after another. Then P (3 on 1st die) = 1 and
6
P (3 on 2nd die = 1. The probability of a 3 appearing on the first die has nothing to
6
do with the probability of a 3 appearing on the second die. Events, which have no
effect on each other, are called independent events.

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Table 1 shows the outcomes of rolling two dice
2nd die
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
st
1 dies 3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)

From the table above, we can see that there are 36 possible outcomes when two dice
are rolled together, but only one event is favourable for (3, 3). So P (3 and 3) = 1
which indicates that P (3 and 3) = P (3 on 1st die) x P (3 on 2nd die)
36 =1 x 1
6 6
= 1
36

In general, if A and B are independent events, then P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B).

Example 5: A bag contains 2 red marbles and 3 yellow marbles. A marble is

picked at random from the bag and then replaced. The bag then is
well shaken and a second marble is taken from the same bag.

(a) What is the probability that both marbles are yellow?

(b) If the first marble was not replaced, then what would be the probability that
both marbles chosen were yellow?

Solution

(a) The two events are independent of each other, therefore:

P (yellow) = 3
1st picking 5

P (yellow) = 3
2nd picking 5

P (both yellow) = P (yellow and yellow)

= 3 x 3
5 5
= 9
25

(b) P (yellow) = 3
1st picking 5

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 Since the marble was not replaced after the first picking. This means that
there are 2 yellow marbles remaining in the bag, 4 marbles in the bag.

P (yellow) = 2
2nd picking 4
Therefore, P (both yellow without replacing) = P (yellow and yellow)
=3 x 2
5 4
= 6
20
= 3
10
From the above example, we did not replace the marble, the second choice
was affected by the first and this is an example of Dependent Events.

Activity 3

1. A coin is tossed 4 times.

(a) Find the probability that it turns up:
(i) 4 heads
(ii) 2 heads and 2 tails
(iii) 3 tails and 1 head
(iv) no heads
(v) 1 head and 3 tails

(b) Show that the sum of the probabilities in a (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v)
is 1. Explain why?

2. A bag contains three tennis balls numbered 1, 2 and 3. A tennis ball is drawn
from the bag and then replaced. A second ball is then drawn out. What is the
probability that:
(a) both of the numbers on the ball drawn are odd?
(b) the sum of the numbers is 3
(c) the sum of the numbers is 6
(d) the sum of the numbers is even
(e) the sum of the numbers is odd.

3. A card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is the

probability of drawing?
(a) a queen
(b) an even numbered card
(c) a king or a jack
(d) a number card or an ace.

4. Two fair six-sided dice is rolled. Find the probability that their total score is
(a) 2

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 (b) 9
(c) an even number
(d) a perfect square

5. A dice and two coins are all tossed at the same time. Find the following
probabilities.
(a) P (a 3, head, head)
(b) P (a 5, tail, tail)
(c) P (1 or 3 or 5 on the die).

Topic 4 Compound Events

Let us use a coin to understand what compound events are. If you toss a coin, there are only
two possible outcomes that is a head (H) or a tail (T). The H or T is called Simple Events.
However, when you toss a coin twice there are four possibilities, HH, TT, HT, TH and
these are what we call Compound Events since each element has more than one element.
Compound events can be illustrated in many ways. In this unit we shall consider two ways
which are the Grid and the Tree diagrams.

The Grid

If you toss a coin twice, the result can be presented on the grid as below:

1st Toss

T H
ND
2 Toss T TT HT
H TH HT

You notice that there are four possibilities, which we call the Sample Space(s).
S = TT, HT, TH, HH

From the same sample space we can answer any question that may come.

Example 1

What is the probability that at least a head appears?

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Answer
(i) A head appears in 3 cases so P (at least a head appears) = 3
4

Example 2

What is the probability that no head appears.

Answer

P (no head appears) = ¼

Or 1 – ¾ = 4 – 3
4
=¼

Let us look at another type of a Grid. One which involves a coin and a die.

If you toss a coin and a die is thrown at the same time. What is the sample space.

Coin

TI I
1 H1 T1
2 H2 T2
3 H3 T3
4 H4 T4
5 H5 T5
6 H6 T6

We have 12 outcomes as our sample space. That is H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6

Then we can answer the questions that may follow.

Example 1

What is the probability of getting

(i) A head and an odd number

(ii) A Tail and a prime number

Answer

(i) P(head and an odd number) = ¾

Because there are 3 odd numbers with a Head: H1, H3, H5.

104
(ii) P (tail and a prime number) = 3
4
Because there are 3 prime numbers with a tail: T2, T3 and T5.

TREE DIAGRAM (C) MATHEMTICS 12

The outcome of tossing a coin twice can also be presented on the tree diagram as follows:

Example 1: Toss a coin twice and show the information on a tree diagram.

The First Toss The second toss Outcome

Toss HH
H
½
H ½
½ T HT

• TH

TT
½ H
½

T ½
T
The outcome comprises of 4 elements HH, HT, TH, TT which we refer to as the sample

space. The first toss has two possibilities.

½ H

½ T

You can also draw a tree diagram for selecting a ball from a box of a number of balls.

EXAMPLE (C ) MATHEMATICS 12

A bag contains 8 white balls and 3 black balls and 4 yellow balls. A ball is picked and then
replaced. A second ball is picked. Draw a tree diagram to show all possible out comes.

We shall three branches since there are three different colours of ball.

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 W
8/15
W 3/15 B
4/15
8/15 Y

8/15 W
3/15 B 3/15 B
4/15
Y
4/15
W
8/15
Y 3/15
B
4/15
y
1st Toss Picking 2nd Toss Picking

WW = 8 x 8 = 64
15 15 225
WB = 8 x 3 = 24
15 15 225
WY = 8 x 4 = 32
15 15 225
BW = 3 x 8 = 24
15 15 225
BB = 3 x 3 = 9
15 15 225
BY = 3 x 4 = 12
15 15 225

YW = 4 x 8 = 32
15 15 225
YB = 4 x 3 = 12
15 15 225
YY = 4 x 4 = 16
15 15 225

Total = 225
225
= 1

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Activity 1

Find the probabilities of picking:

(a) Both balls being while P(ww) = 8 x 8 = 64
15 15 225

(b) Two balls of different colours. P(both balls of different colour)

= WB or WY or BW or BY or YW or YB
= 24 + 32 + 24 + 12 + 32 + 12 = 136
225 225 225 225 225 225 225

The second toss brings into two possibilities for each outcome of the first toss.

½
H T
½
½

½
T ½ H

½
T

Activity 2

(a) Find the probability that at least one head appears. You have the branch for HH or
HT or TH and from our previous lessons or means add:
1 x 1 + 1 x 1 + 1 x 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 1 + 1
4 4
= 3
4

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(b) Find the probability that one tail appears. You have branches for HT or TH
1 x 1 + 1 x 1
2 2 2 2
= 1 + 1
4 4
= 2
4
= 1
2

There are cases when you do not replace once you select. How will the tree diagram come
out?

Example
A box contains 6 red balls, 4 are black and 5 are green. A ball is draw and not replaced and
then a second is draw. Show this on a tree diagram.

R
5
/14
4
R /14 B
5
/14
6
/15 6
6
/14 R
4 3
/15 /14
B B
5
/14
6

6
/14 R
4
6 /14
4
/14 B

1st Draw 2nd Draw

Denomination is 15 denomination has reduced since we
did no replace.

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Activity 4

1. A die is thrown; use the grid to show the sample space (all outcomes). Find the
probability of obtains and even number.

2. A box contains 4 red marbles, 2 green and 3 blue marbles.

(a) What is the probability that a marble drawn and will be green, red or blue?
(b) A marble is drawn out, replace then, a second one is draw out.
(i) What is the probability that both are green?
(ii) What is the probability that either the first or second ball is blue?
(iii) What is the probability that both are of the same colour?

3. Two six sided unbiased die are thrown together. Use a grid diagram to show all the
possible outcomes. Find the probability that:
(a) the sum of the two numbers is 10;
(b) the two numbers are different;
(c) When two numbers are multiplied together, the result is an odd number;
(d) The sum of the two numbers is 10 or 11.

4. A box contains 8 white balls, 3 green and 4 blue balls. A ball is selected and not
replaced. A second ball is selected. Draw a tree diagram to show all the possible
outcomes. Find the probability of:
(a) both balls being green
(b) both balls being while
(c) both balls being blue
(d) the two balls being of different colours.

SUMMARY

Let us revise what we have just discussed. We first looked at experimental probability in
the first Topic in which we did some experiments. We then moved onto theoretical
probability, where we said that:

P (A) = number of favourable outcomes

Total number of outcomes

If P (A) = P then P (A1) = 1 – P

In Topic 3, we discussed the two laws of probability i.e. addition and multiplication.
- If two events cannot occur at the same time, then these events are mutually exclusive
events. In general if x and y are mutually exclusive events, then:

P (x or y) = P (x) + P (y)

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- Events which have no effect on each other are called independent events. In general, if
A and B are independent events, then P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B).

In topic 4, you looked at compound events, where you worked through the grid and the tree
diagram.

Hope you enjoyed your study and managed to answer all the activities. You have come a
long way and you should have gained enough confidence to sit for your ‘O’ level
examinations.

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