CE141 - Midterms The main physical features of the tree stem grain; radial, or cross the growth rings;
n; radial, or cross the growth rings; and
include the bark, cambium, wood, and tangential, or tangent to the growth rings. Wood, Plastics and Composites pith. WOODS The anisotropic nature of wood affects The bark is the exterior covering of the tree physical and mechanical properties such as Wood - used extensively for buildings, and has an outer and an inner layer. The shrinkage, stiffness, and strength. bridges, utility poles, floors, roofs, trusses, outer layer is dead and corky and has great and piles. Because of its availability, Wood Production variability in thickness, dependent on the relatively low cost, ease of use, and species and age of the tree. The inner bark Wood is harvested from forests as logs. durability, wood continues to be an layer is the growth layer for bark but is not They are transported to saw mills, where important civil engineering material. part of the wood section of the tree. they are cut into dimensional shapes to The cambium is a thin layer of cells situated produce a variety of products for Structure Of Wood engineering applications. between the wood and the bark, and is the Wood has a distinct structure that affects its location of all wood growth. 1. Dimension lumber is wood from 2 in. to 5 use as a construction material. in. thick, sawn on all four sides. The rough- The wood section of the tree is composed Civil and construction engineers need to sawn lumber is surfaced to produce smooth of sapwood and heartwood. understand the way the tree grows and the surfaces. Dimension lumber is typically used anisotropic nature of wood in order to Heartwood is often darker colored and for studs, sill and top plates, joists, beams, properly design and construct wood occurs at the center of the cross section and rafters, trusses, and decking. structures. is surrounded by sapwood. Sapwood 2. Heavy timber is wood sawn on all four functions as a storehouse for starches and 1. Growth Rings sides; common shapes include and larger. as a pipeline to transport sap. Heavy timber includes Beams and Stringers The concentric layers in the stem of Sapwood is not durable when exposed to (subjected to bending) and Posts and exogenous trees are called growth rings or conditions that promote decay. Heartwood Timbers (used as posts or columns). As with annual rings. is not a living part of the tree. It is the case of dimension lumber, these sizes The wood produced in one growing season composed of cells that have been physically specify rough-sawn dimensions in inches. constitutes a single growth ring. Each and chemically altered by mineral deposits. Heavy timbers are used for heavy frame annual ring is composed of earlywood, The heartwood provides structural strength construction, landscaping, railroad ties, and produced by rapid growth during the spring, for the tree. marine construction. and latewood from summer growth. 2. Anisotropic Nature of Woods 3. Round stock consists of posts and poles Latewood consists of dense, dark, and thick- used for building poles, marine piling, and Wood is an anisotropic material that has walled cells producing a stronger structure utility poles. different and unique properties in each than earlywood. direction. The three axis orientations in 4. Engineered wood consists of products wood are longitudinal, or parallel to the manufactured by bonding together wood strands, veneers, lumber, and other forms on several items including (1) grain Typical mechanical properties of interest to of wood fiber to produce a larger and orientation, (2) moisture content, (3) civil and construction engineers include integral composite unit. These products are specific gravity, (4) extractive content, and modulus of elasticity, strength properties, engineered and tested to have specific (5) structural irregularities such as knots. creep, and damping capacity. mechanical responses to loads. Specific Heat - is the ratio of the quantity of Modulus of Elasticity Structural engineered wood products heat required to raise the temperature of - It is the slope of the linear portion of the include the following: the material one degree to that required to representative stress–strain curve of the raise the temperature of an equal mass of -structural panels including plywood, wood. The stress–strain relation of wood water one degree. An increase in oriented strand board, and composite varies within and between species and is temperature increases the energy panels affected by variation in moisture content absorption of wood and results in an and specific gravity. -structural glued laminated timber (glulam) increase in the specific heat. -structural composite lumber Strength Properties Thermal diffusivity - a measure of the rate -composite structural members at which a material absorbs heat from its - This vary to a large extent, depending on surroundings. The thermal diffusivity for the orientation of grain relative to the Physical Properties wood is much smaller than that of other direction of force. Common strength common building materials. properties for wood include modulus of 1. Specific Gravity & Density Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - a rupture in bending, compressive strength - Specific gravity of wood depends on cell measure of dimensional changes caused by parallel and perpendicular to the grain, size, cell wall thickness, and number and a temperature variance. Thermal expansion tensile strength parallel to the grain, and types of cells. The substance composing the coefficients for completely dry wood are shear strength parallel to the grain. cell walls of wood has a specific gravity of positive in all directions. Load Duration 1.5. Because of this consistency, specific - Wood can support higher loads of short gravity is an excellent index for the amount Elastic Properties duration than sustained loads. Under of substance a dry piece of wood actually sustained loads, wood continues to deform. contains. Air-dry wood is a good electrical insulator. If the maximum stress levels are exceeded, 2. Thermal Properties As the moisture content of the wood the structure can deform prematurely. increases, the resistivity decreases by a - Thermal conductivity, specific heat, factor of three for each 1% change in - Generally, a load duration of 10 years is thermal diffusivity, and coefficient of moisture content. However, when wood used for design. thermal expansion are the four significant reaches the fiber saturation point, it takes Damping Capacity thermal properties on the resistivity of water alone. - Damping is the phenomenon in which the Thermal Conductivity - is a measure of the Mechanical Properties amplitude of vibration in a material rate at which heat flows through a material. decreases with time. The thermal conductivity of wood depends - Reduction in amplitude is due to internal General Properties of Plastics Molding and Fabricating Methods for friction within the material and resistance Plastics -Some Plastics show no yield point, because of the support system. Moisture content they fail before a yield point can be - Thermosetting materials are commonly and temperature largely govern the internal reached. formed by placing molding powder or friction in wood. -Others have a moderately high elastic molded preform in heated dies and range, followed by a highly plastic range. compressing under heat and pressure into the final infusible shape. PLASTICS Polymers are produced by combining a -Still others are highly extensible and are - Thermoplastics are commonly formed by employed at stresses far beyond the yield large number of small molecular units injection molding, that is, by forcing soft, point. (monomers) by the chemical process known hot plastic into a cold die, where it hardens as polymerization to form a long - chain -Plastics are sensitive to temperature and to by cooling. molecules. the rate and time of application of load. Thermosetting Plastics Fillers and Plasticizers Phenol Formaldehyde Two Main Types: Fillers are commonly added to Epoxy and Polyester Casting Resins Thermoplastics thermosetting plastics, to alter their basic Polyester Molding Materials characteristics. Melamine Formaldehyde When the material is heated, the intermolecular forces are weakened and the -Wood Flour converts a hard, brittle resin, Cellulose Acetate Butyrate polymer becomes soft and flexible; at high difficult to handle, into a cheaper more Silicones temperatures it becomes a viscous melt. easily molded material for general Cellulose Nitrate When it is allowed to cool again it solidifies purposes. Polyurethane -Asbestos fibers provide better heat Urea Formaldehyde resistance Thermosetting Thermoplastic Resins -Mica gives better electrical properties The principal thermosetting polymers which -Fibrous materials (chopped fibers, chopped Acrylics are used in composites in construction are Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene fabric, and chopped tire cords) increase the polyesters, epoxels, and phenolics. (ABS) strength and impact properties. Polyethylene Plasticizers are added to thermoplastics to Polypropylene Either originally soft or liquid, or they soften transform hard and rigid materials into a Polycarbonate once upon heating; but upon further variety of forms having varying degrees of Polytetrafluorethylene heating, they harden permanently. softness, flexibility, rigidi materials into a Polyvinylfluoride variety of forms having varying degrees of Polyvinyl Formal and Polyvinyl softness, flexibility, and strength. Butyral Vinyl Chloride Polymers and Types of Macroscopic Composites It has two basic classes: Fiber-Reinforced Copolymers and Particle-Reinforced which is based on Plain Portland Cement Concrete is a Vinylidene Chloride the shape of the dispersed phase. Nylon composite material consisting of cement paste and aggregate particles with different Polystyrene physical and mechanical properties. Fiber-reinforced Composites include fibers COMPOSITES Reinforced Portland Cement Concrete dispersed in a matrix such as metal or - It is the need for materials with properties Steel-reinforced concrete can be viewed as polymer. Fibers have a very high strength- not found in conventional materials, a composite material, consisting of plain to-diameter ratio, with near crystal-size combined with advance technology, has concrete and steel rebars. Since concrete diameters. resulted in combining two or more has a very low tensile strength, which is Particle-reinforced Composites consist of materials to form what are called typically ignored in designing concrete particles dispersed in a matrix phase. The composite materials. structures, steel rebars are usually placed in strengthening mechanism of particle- - Strength, stiffness, specific weight, areas within the structure that are reinforced composites varies with the size fracture resistance, corrosion resistance, subjected to tension. of the reinforcing particles. wear resistance, attractiveness, fatigue life, Asphalt Concrete used in pavements is temperature susceptibility, thermal LECTURE 2 - METALS another composite material. It consists of insulation, thermal conductivity, and two materials with distinct properties. HISTORY OF METAL acoustical insulation can all be improved by Asphalt concrete consists of approximately Used as early as 8000 B.C. composite materials. 95% aggregate and 5% asphalt binder, by weight. • Early civilizations mainly used metal for Classification of Composites: Engineered Wood is manufactured by weapons, tools, and body armor bonding together wood strands, veneers, or • Metal has been used for construction 1. Macroscopic lumber with different grain orientations to material ranging from simple fasteners to It is used in many engineering applications produce large and integral units. Since main structural members due to its large property, how the load is engineered wood consists of components of 2 TYPES OF METALS carried and how the properties of the the same material, it does not qualify as a composites components are improved vary composite according to our definition. 1. Ferrous- metals containing a large from one composites to another. percentage of iron. They have small 2. Microscopic amounts of other metals or elements Common macroscopic used by civil Many microscopic composite materials added, to give the required properties engineers are Plain Portland Cement, Steel- consist of two constituent phases: a reinforced Concrete, Asphalt Concrete, and • Cast iron continuous phase, or matrix, and the Engineering wood such as glued laminated dispersed phase or reinforcing phase, which • Wrought iron timber and structural stand board is surrounded by the matrix. • Mild steel • Carbon steel • Stainless steel • Bearing - A steel plate that is set on top of - Lack ductility and therefore should not be masonry support on which beam can rest. hammered or beaten. 2.Non-Ferrous- metals which do NOT contain iron. Which are often used in • Embossing- creating a raised surface - Relatively corrosion resistant. Contains 2-4 industrial applications such as gutters, (design) on metal by die pressure or by % carbon and 1-3% of silicon - Used for roofing, pipes, and electrical stamping or hammering on the reverse gratings, stair components, manhole covers, surface • Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys some piping • Extrusion – forcing a molten metal • Lead Wrought iron through a die by pressure • Zinc • Forging- heating and hammering or - Tough form of iron suitable for forging. • Tin pressing metal into a desired shape - Contains < 1% carbon • Titanium MATERIALS USED TO MAKE IRON - Used for railings, grilles, fences, screens, • Copper and various ornamental work • Brass • COKE- SUBSTANCE MADE BY HEATING COAL UNTIL IT BECOMES A PURE CARBON STEEL • Bronze • Blanking- in sheet metal work, the cutting • IRON ORE -RICH IN IRON DIOXIDES • A malleable alloy containing less than 2% out of a piece of metal (using a press) carbon and 1% manganese and small • SINTER - ROASTED WITH COKE AND LIME amounts of silica. Bracket - A structural support projecting TO REMOVE AMOUNT OF IMPURITIES IN from a support member. ORE. • Main methods for making steel - Basic • Fading- Refers to finish paint on panels oxygen furnace process - Electric arc becoming less vibrant of color. • LIMESTONE- USED AS A FLUX furnace process • Casting- an article formed by • FLUX – A MATERIAL ADDED TO REACT Metal Ingots solidification of molten metal in a mold CHEMICALLY WITH IMPURITIES AND • Fabrication - The manufacturing process REMOVE THEM FROM MOLTEN METAL Ingot- molded square or rectangular blocks in a plant to convert raw material into of cast metal • PIG IRON- INITIAL MOLDED PRODUCT finished metal building system components Ingots are further squeezed between rollers FROM A BLAST-FURNACE; WEAK & BRITTLE, • Cold-rolled- metal rolled at room BUT VERY HARD to produce: temperature, below the softening point, usually harder, smoother, and more Types of Iron 1. Bloom- a rectangular solid of steel accurately dimensioned that hot-rolled formed from an ingot as an intermediate Cast iron (and gray cast iron)- a hard step in creating rolled steel structural material. relatively brittle of alloy and carbon shapes (over 36” square) 2. Billet- a large cylinder or rectangular solid - Carbon Steel WITHOUT FILLER MATERIAL, TO PRODUCE of metal (smaller then 36” square) AN ACTUAL UNION THROUGH FUSION. Carbon steels are a series of alloys of 3. Slab – if the width is 2x the thickness or carbon and iron containing up to about 1% • THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS OF more carbon and up to 1.65% Mn, with elements WELDING USED IN SPECIFIC SITUATIONS added in specific quantities for (SHIELDED METAL ARC IS THE MOST DESIGNATIONS OF ROLLED STEEL SHAPES deoxidization and residual quantities of COMMON IN STEEL WORK). • W – wide flange other elements. • WELDING SYMBOLS AND BASIC JOINTS • S – beams Types of Carbon Steel: LOW CARBON STEEL, ARE STANDARDIZED BY AWS (AMERICAN MEDIUM CARBON STEEL, HIGH CARBON WELDING SOCIETY) • C – channel STEEL Aluminium • L – angles (may be equal or unequal legs) - Tool Steel Highly resistant to weather and corrosive • WT or ST – structural tees A variety of high-hardness, abrasion environments CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL resistant steels. Specific tool applications Adequate high strength to weight ratio are dies (stamping or extrusion), cutting, Four main types of steel moldmaking, or impact applications like Aluminum can be economically extruded to - Stainless Steel - to be considered stainless hammers (personal or industrial). It is also a many shapes (mouldings, edgings, window a steel must contain 11.5 % chromium . common material used to make knives mullions)It is very malleable, quite ductile, non-corrosive, and strong in proportion to - There are basic series of stainless steel: Steel Construction: its weight. 200, 300, 400, & 500 series 3 basic types: Lead -Available in many finishes ranging from - Wall bearing - Skeleton framing - Long- matte to highly reflective (mirror) A soft malleable heavy metal, with a density span that exceeds the most common materials - Alloy Steel Steel Fasteners: Reliable in terms of materials due to low Steel that has an additive of other alloy 3 Main fasteners: melting point. elements such as Manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium, And aluminum. - Rivets – Bolts – Welds High Ductility Beneficial due to economical cost, availability, Welding Highly Resistant to Corrosion ease of Processing, and mechanical properties. A PROCESS OF JOINING METALS BY APPLYING HEAT AND PRESSURE, WITH OR Zinc Used for doors, windows, railings, trim, • Pre-engineered metal buildings consist of grilles and for finish hardware prefabricated structural steel members Is brittle and low in strength including beams, columns, girts, and trusses. Nickel, Chromium, and Monel Major use is in galvanizing (dipping hot iron • A variety of steel shapes are commonly used or steel in molten zinc) Chromium and nickel are used primarily as in structural steel construction. alloying elements, however, both can take a May also be used for roofing, flashing, and • Standard abbreviations and designations are bright polish and do not tarnish in air, hardware included on erection plans to indicate making them ideal for use in plating. structural steel members. Copper Monel, a nickel-copper alloy, is mostly used • A wide variety of structural steel shapes are A soft, malleable, ductile metal with high to make fasteners and anchors, and has joined together to form a truss. Common steel thermal and electrical conductivity and excellent corrosion resistance. truss designs include the bowstring, flat, Howe, good resistance to corrosion due to the Pratt, scissors, and Warren. Clad Metals protective patina that forms on its surfaces. • STEEL MEMBERS MAY BE CUT TO LENGTH COMBINES THE BEST QUALITIES OF 2 OR USING AN OXYACETYLENE CUTTING TORCH. Commonly used in the construction industry MORE DIFFERENT MATERIALS to form pipes and tubing for potable water • Metal floor decking, manufactured in a distribution and heating and cooling THE INTENT IS TO CREATE A variety of designs and dimensions, is attached systems METALLURGICAL BOND BETWEEN LAYERS to the top of open web steel joists to create a OF MATERIALS floor platform. It is relatively light compared to lead, and requires little maintenance. Structural Steel Construction: • Metal decking may be used as bridge deck forms.The decking remains in place after the Bronze • Structural steel members are erected, braced, shores and falsework are removed. and secured together to create a structural Originally a copper-tin alloy, but now framework. aluminum or silicon added to copper • In beam and column construction, beams and Metal Testing Now may be “phosphor bronze”, girders support floor and roof loads and 2 Categories: “aluminum bronze” or “silicon bronze” distribute the loads to the vertical columns. 1. Non-destructive Widely used for casting delicate mold • In long span construction, long distances are spanned with built-up structural steel girders 2. Destructive impressions (Cathedral doors) and trusses. Hardness Testing Brass • In wall bearing construction, horizontal steel • Most common form of non-destructive test Copper with zinc to form an alloy beams and joists are supported by other construction materials such as masonry. • Used to determine hardness of metal TWO TYPES OF TESTING MACHINES • Standard load of 500 kg used for • For conversion to Pascals use formula: 1 nonferrous metals (Impression larger so kg/cm2 = 980.6 Pa. ● Measure depth of penetration made by a BHN lower) penetrator under known load Example: IMPACT TESTS Rockwell, Brinell, and Vickers hardness SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS TESTER • Measures toughness of metal or ability to testers • Operated on principle that small, withstand sudden shock or impact ● Measure height of rebound of small mass diamondtipped hammer, when dropped • Two tests: Charpy impact test or Izod test dropped from known height Example: from fixed height, will rebound higher from - 10-mm-square specimen - Swinging scleroscope hard surface than from softer one. - Height pendulum of fixed mass raised to standard of rebound converted to hardness reading ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER height - Pendulum released, swings through DESTRUCTIVE TESTING arc and strikes specimen in pendulum's • Indicates hardness value by depth that path penetrator advances into metal under ● Metal properties relationships - Tensile known pressure strength of metal increases as hardness CHARPY TEST increases, and ductility decreases as • 120º conical diamond penetrator (brale • Specimen mounted in fixture and hardness increases supported at both ends with V or notch • 1/16 or 1/8 in. steel ball used for soft ● Tensile strength determined on tensile placed on side opposite direction of materials testing machine pendulum's swing • Designed by various letters and numbers - Maximum amount of pull material can • Pendulum released, knife edge strikes • Scales indicated by letters (A, B, C, D) withstand sample • Difference in height of pendulum atbeginning and end indicates amount of BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER - Also indicates elastic limit, yield point and energy used to fracture specimen percentage of area reduction and • Operated by pressing 10-mm hardened percentage of elongation of material IZOD TEST steel ball under load of 3000 kg into surface of specimen and measuring diameter of TENSILE TESTING (METRIC) • Similar in principle to Charpy test impression with microscope -Brinell • Graduated in kilograms per square • One end of work gripped in clamp with Hardness Number (BHN) determined by centimeter - Cross-sectional area in square notched side toward direction of dividing load in kilograms applied to centimeters - Extensometers graduated in pendulum's swing penetrator by area of the impression (in millimetres square mm) • Amount of energy required to break • Calculations same as for inch calculations specimen on scale