2015

OIL AND GAS

DEVELOPMENT
COMPANY
MUHAMMAD USMAN

[DAKHNI GAS PROCESSING

PLANT REPORT]
PROCESSING UNITS DETAIL ABOUT GAS PROCESSING IN OIL AND GAS PLANT
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Chapter No. 01
1.1 Introduction
Dakhni Gas Processing plant is situated in Tehsil Jand District Attock about 120 km
north-west of Islamabad. It has been named after the geographical /territorial name of
the land where the existing facility stands.

It was the first major oil & gas processing facility set-up by OGDCL in 1983 by OGDCL. So
far, 15 wells have been drilled out of which, 07 wells are producing wells. Among these
07 wells, 03 wells are sour and 04 wells are sweet. Upon evaluation of raw fluid, it was
found that sour wells contain 7-8 % H2S gas. Since H2S gas is a highly toxic, lethal and has
very corrosive effect and is an environmental hazard, it was decided to install oil & gas
sweetening facility and also to Recover marketable products e.g. LPG, Elemental Sulfur,
NGL. It is the largest sour gas processing plant in Pakistan. Pakistani firm M/S ENAR
designed the plant in collaboration with M/S Lummus Crest of U.K. M/S HMC did
fabrication, erection and installation of plant and E & I work done by DESCON
Engineering Company and Abbasin Contractors did the civil work of plant. The plant was
commissioned by OIL & GAS DEVELOPMENT COMPANY LIMITED on 19th December
1989

1.2 Wells Status

Total Wells Drilled: 15

Well under drilling: 03 (DNI # Deep-4, DNI # Deep-3A, DNI # 12)

Wells on flow: 07 (DNI # 01, 03, 04, 08, 11, Deep-1, Deep-2)

Dry wells: 04 (DNI #, 06, 07, DNI South-West, DNI N-1)

Abandoned wells: 04 (DNI # 02, 05, 09, 10)

1.3 Existing Plant Production

 SALE GAS = 48 - 50 MMSCFD

 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) = 15 - 16 M.TONS/D

 SULPHUR = 70 - 75 M.TONS/D

 NGL (Natural Gas Liquid) = 1600 - 1700 BBLS/D

1.4 Characteristics of Dakhni Reservoir

1 Formation Chorgali, Sakessar anticline, Lockhart,

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Datta

2 Age Eocene

3 Porosity 3.4 – 12.6%

4 Permeability 0.09 – 15 md

5 Pay Zone 35 – 85 M (135M open hole Dakhni # 08)

6 Water saturation 20 – 53%

7 Dew point pressure 5014 – 6090 Psi

8 Reservoir initial pressure 7351 Psi

9 Reservoir initial temperature 274oF

10 Area Extent 15 km in East-West Direction

05 km in North-South Direction

1.5 Present Wells Data

Well No. Choke size W.H.F.P (Psi) W.H.F.T (oF) Remarks

DNI # 01 32/64” 2450 164 Flowing

Temporary
DNI # 02 -- -- --
abandoned
DNI # 03 20/64” 3200 122 Flowing

DNI # 04 22/64” 3200 138 Flowing

Temporary
DNI # 05 -- -- --
abandoned
DNI # 06 -- -- -- Abandoned

DNI # 07 -- -- -- Abandoned

DNI # 08 28/64” 3200 122 Flowing

DNI # 09 -- -- -- Abandoned

DNI # 10 -- -- -- Abandoned

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DNI # 11 24/64” 1850 110 Flowing

DNI Deep-1 32/64” 2100 148 Flowing

DNI Deep-2 40/64” 3500 164 flowing

DNI South-
-- -- -- Abandoned
West
DNI North-1 -- -- -- Abandoned

1.6 Surface facilities at well site

The Production of Dakhni wells is processed through a vital plant therefore the line
heaters are utilized for each well to rise up the temperature and pressure as required
for the feed or intake of plant. The surface safety valves or Actuators are also installed
and that is operated through ESD panel. The corrosion inhibitor chemical is injected in
well bore as well as in the line after heater by batch treatment through chemical
injection pump.

1.7 Purpose of Line Heater

The flow stream from well when passes through choke its temperature decreases due to
cooling effect & there may be possibility of line freezing in winter season and cause plug
but the main reason is the required temperature for the feed to the plant line heaters
are installed at each Dakhni Wells for safe transmission of feed to the plant. Some
important points are listed below

 Heater is operated by natural Gas.

 Heater shell side contains 50% Glycol and 50% water, where heat exchange
occurs.
 In heater wellhead fluid enters through FCV (pneumatically operated).
 In heater wellhead fluid temperature rises to required level which is set by
automatic temperature controller.
 For safety of outlet flow line of heater, PSV is installed which is set at 1500PSI.

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 Continuous corrosion inhibitor is injected in flow line with pneumatically

operated chemical injection pump.

1.8 Plant overview

Dakhni gas processing plant is well designed that it processes different products. Since
H2S that is highly toxic, fatal and corrosive gas produced in concentration of 8% of

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production so it was decided to install processing treatment facilities for sweetening gas
and crude. Apart from gas treatment section the facility also has LPG extraction unit,
Sulphur recovery unit, condensate treatment unit and associated off sites and utilities.

The processing capacity of plant is:

 Sulphur Recovery Unit 65 Ton

 LPG Extraction Unit 26 Ton
 NGL Stabilization Unit 1800 bbl
 Gas Processing Unit 50 MMSCF
 De-mineralized Water Unit 36 m3/cycle
 Power Generation 5.4 MW
Different utilities are also required at plant site such as

 Raw water
 Cooling water
 De-mineralized water
 Electric power
 Hot oil
 Methyle diethanol amine (MDEA)
 Mono-ethanolamine (MEA)
 Tri-ethylene glycol (TEG)
 Steam
 Instrument air
This plant also covers some associated off sites as

 Sulphur storage and loading area

 LPG and NGL storage areas
 API standard disposal pit
 Liquid Sulphur underground tank
 Power turbines (5.4 MW each of 2.7MW)

1.9 General Process Description

Dakhni oil field’s currently producing wells are 01, 03, 04, 11 Deep # 1+8, & Deep # 2.
Wells # 11, Deep #1+8 & Deep # 2 are sweet wells having negligible H2S contents while
remaining are sour wells. Sour and sweet feed mixture from wellhead is received at
their respective separators through gas gathering lines. In the feed treating system, the
feed gas is first cooled or preheated, depending on the inlet temperature, in the Inlet

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Gas Cooler/Heater to 105oF.The feed gas then enters into the Inlet Gas Separator, a
horizontal three phase gas separator where feed is allow to expand, as a result
condensate (oil and water) separates from the raw gas stream. After separation, gas and
oil are sent to their respective treatment units, water is drained to API standard disposal
pit through water degasser.

Sweet gas from separator area is taken to TEG (Tri-Ethylene Glycol) absorption unit
where water is removed from sweet gas while Sour gas from separator which is
saturated with water and having acid gases i.e 8% H2S and 5% CO2 is taken to amine
sweetening unit where it is treated with DEA (Di-Ethanol Amine) to remove acid gases
and then the gas goes to TEG (Tri-Ethylene Glycol) absorption column where water is
removed from the gas. DEA that is rich in H2S and CO2 coming from the bottom of gas
absorber comes to regenerator where the solution is regenerated by heating. The
heating media is Stenotherm ‘C’ (Hot Oil). The gases coming out of the top of the DEA
regenerator are cooled and taken to Sulphur Recovering unit, which comprises of muffle
furnace, Reactors and Condensers. Sulphur in the liquid state from the plant is stored in
a pit from where it is pumped to storage yard and loaded in the trucks to various
companies.

The water free process gas is cooled and chilled in a refrigeration package and LPG is
removed from the gas. Sweet natural gas after metering is piped to SNGPL. LPG
Recovered from the chilling unit is purified in two columns De-ethanizer and De-
butanizer respectively where lighter and heavier hydrocarbons are removed. LPG thus
produced is about 60% propane and about 40% butane and is sent to the storage tanks
from where it is piped to M/S Lub Gas across the road. The NGL is processed in NGL
stabilization and treatment unit then to storage tanks from where it is transported to
Attock Oil Refinery Ltd.

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Chapter No. 02

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Detailed Process Description

Dakhni has the following processing facilities.
 Separation Unit
 Sour Gas Sweetening Unit
 Glycol Dehydration Unit
 Dew Point Reduction Unit
 LPG Recovery Unit
 NGL Treatment/ Stabilization Unit
 Sulphur Recovery Unit
 De-mineralized Water Plant
2.1 Separation Unit
The separation unit consists of three phase horizontal separators. The three phase
separators separates gas, oil and water from one another. The produced fluid stream,
coming from the producing wells, enters the separator and hits the inlet diverter or
impingement plate, where the initial bulk Separation of the gas and liquid (oil + water)
takes place due to the change in momentum and difference in fluid densities. The gas
flows horizontally through the gravity settling section (the top part of the separator)
where the entrained liquid droplets, down to a certain minimum size (normally 100 µm),
are separated by gravity. The gas then flows through the mist extractor, where smaller
entrained liquid droplets are separated, and out of the separator through the pressure
control valve, which controls the operating pressure of the separator and maintains it at
a constant value.
Oil being intermediate is separated from water by maintaining level in the separator
which also provides residence time for both oil and water to settle down to different
phases. Oil is separated as a top layer by weir plates and recovered then flows to the
fractionation unit through level control valve and water is separated out from bottom
through another level control valve that water contain the dissolved sour gas and some
of oil so the water is passed through degasser where the sour gas separates out and
vent to flare. The remaining water is disposed off in API standard pit where the skimmer
is installed for recovery of remaining NGL from water which makes top layer on water
and is pumped to the storage tank.
The essential characteristics of the conventional separator are the following:
1. It causes a decrease in the flow velocity, permitting separation of gas and liquid by
gravity.
2. It always operates at a temperature above the hydrate point of the flowing gas.
The choice of a separator for the processing of gas–oil mixtures containing water or
without water under a given operating conditions and for a specific application normally
takes place guided by the general classification illustrated in Figure below.

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Classification of Separators

Configuration Function No, of Phases Operating Application

(shape) Separated Pressure

Three types are known: Three types are known

1. Horizontal cylinder 1. Low Temp
2. Vertical cylinder Many types are found Three types are known: Separator
3. Spherical cylinder among which are: 1. Low Pressure 2. Test Separator
1. Separator (20 – 200 PSI) 3. Production
2. Scrubber 2. Medium Pressure Separator
3. Knock out (200 – 700 PSI)
4. Flash drum 3. High Pressure
(700 – 1500 PSI)

2 - Phase 3 - Phase

There are two common types of horizontal three - phase separators:

1. Separator with interface controller and weir design
2. Separator with bucket and weir design
The difference between the two types is mainly in the method of controlling the levels
of the oil and water phases. In the first type, an interface controller and a weir provide
the control while in second type a bucket and weir provide control and eliminates the
need for an interface controller.
The schematic diagrams of two common types of horizontal three-phase separators are
illustrated below.

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Fig: Horizontal three-phase separator with interface controller and weir design

Fig: Horizontal three-phase separator with bucket and weir design

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2.1.1 Design Equations for Horizontal Separators

The main equation for designing horizontal separator is Souder - Brown correlation. The
equation is the relation of vapor maximum velocity with density of liquid and gas with Kv
as an empirical constant that depends on the properties of the fluids, the design of the
separator, the size of the drops, the vapor velocity, and the degree of separation
required.

Vv = 1.25Kv √ (ρL – ρV)/ ρV

Where Vv = Max vapor velocity

ρL = Liquid density
ρV = Vapor density
Kv = 0.10 ft/s (0.0305 m/s) — with no mist eliminator
Kv = 0.35 ft/s (0.107 m/s) — with a mist eliminator

Cross sectional area can be found by equation.

Flow rate of gas = 0.5 × Max vapor velocity × Cross sectional area
Qv = 0.5 × Vv × A

Diameter can be calculated by equation.

A = πD2/4

Length “L” of separator can be calculated by equation.

0.5×L×A = QL× TS

Where QL is liquid flow rate

And TS is retention time or residence time of liquid.

Retention time TS should be,

7.5 ≤ TS ≤ 10 min

___________________________
Reference: Chemical Process Engineering Design and Economics by Harry Silla

2.1.2 Design specifications of 3- Phase Separators at Dakhni Plant

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Type 3-phase high pressure/test separator

Size 1016mm OD X 3000mm Side to Side
THK Shell 45mm
THK head 44mm
Design pressure 1265 psig
Design temperature 200oF
Operating pressure 1250 psig
Operating temperature 150oF
Capacity 2.2m3
Manufacturer Black, Sivals & Bryson (NEDERLAND) STEINER –GmbH

2.1.3 Design Specifications of Water Degasser

Designed by Enar Petro Tech. Services Ltd

Manufacturer HMC – Taxila
Design Pressure 65 Psi
Design Temperature 98oF
Hydro test pressure 98 Psi
Radio graphed 100%
Capacity 0.61 M3

2.2 Sour Gas Sweetening Unit

2.2.1 Introduction
Natural gas usually contains some impurities such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon
dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), and heavy hydrocarbons such as Mercaptans. These

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compounds are known as ‘‘acid gases.’’ Natural gas with H2S or other sulfur compounds
(such as COS, CS2 and Mercaptans) is called ‘‘sour gas,’’ whereas gas with only CO2 is
called ‘‘sweet gas.’’ It is usually desirable to remove both H2S and CO2 to prevent
corrosion problems and to increase heating value of the gas.
Sweetening of natural gas is one of the most important steps in gas processing for the
following reasons:
1. Health hazards. At 0.13 ppm, H2S can be sensed by smell. At 4.6 ppm, the smell is
quite noticeable. As the concentration increases beyond 200 ppm, the sense of smell
fatigues, and the gas can no longer be detected by odor. At 500 ppm, breathing
problems are observed and death can be expected in minutes. At 1000 ppm, death
occurs immediately.
2. Sales contracts. Three of the most important natural gas pipeline specifications are
related to sulfur content, such contracts depend on negotiations, but they are quite
strict about H2S content.
3. Corrosion problems. If the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds 15 Psia, inhibitors usually
can only be used to prevent corrosion. The partial pressure of CO 2 depends on the mole
fraction of CO2 in the gas and the natural gas pressure. Corrosion rates will also depend
on temperature. Special metallurgy should be used if CO2 partial pressure exceeds 15
Psia. The presence of H2S will cause metal embrittlement due to the stresses formed
around metal sulfides formed.

Table: Natural Gas Pipeline Specifications

Characteristic
Water content
Hydrogen sulfide content
Gross heating value
Hydrocarbon dew point
Mercaptans content
Total sulfur content
Carbon dioxide content
Oxygen content
Sand, dust, gums, and free liquid
Delivery temperature (°F)
Delivery pressure (Psia)
Specification
4–7 lb/MMSCF maximum
0.25 grain/100 SCF maximum
950 Btu/SCF minimum
15°F at 800 psig maximum
0.2 grain/100 SCF maximum
1–5 grain/100 SCF maximum
1–3mol% maximum
0–0.4mol% maximum
Commercially free
120°F maximum
700 psig minimum

2.2.2 Gas-Sweetening Processes

There are more than 30 processes for natural gas sweetening. The most important of
these processes can be classified as follows:
1. Batch solid bed absorption: For complete removal of H2S at low concentrations, the
following materials can be used: iron sponge, molecular sieve, and zinc oxide. If the

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reactants are discarded, then this method is suitable for removing a small amount of
sulfur when gas flow rate is low and/or H2S concentration is also low.
2. Reactive solvents: MEA (Monoethanol amine), DEA (Diethanol amine), DGA (Diglycol
amine), DIPA (Di-isopropanol amine), hot potassium carbonate, and mixed solvents.
These solutions are used to remove large amounts of H2S and CO2 and the solvents are
regenerated.
3. Physical solvents: Selexol, Recitisol, Purisol, and Fluor solvent. They are mostly used
to remove CO2 and are regenerated.
4. Direct oxidation to sulfur: Stretford, Sulferox, LOCAT and Claus. These processes
eliminate H2S emissions.
5. Membranes: This is used for very high CO2 concentrations. AVIR, Air Products, Cynara
(Dow), DuPont, Grace, International Permeation, and Monsanto are some of these
processes.
2.2.3 Selection of Sweetening Process
There are many factors to be considered in the selection of a given sweetening process.
These include the following:
1. Type of impurities to be removed (H2S, Mercaptans)
2. Inlet and outlet acid gas concentrations
3. Gas flow rate, temperature, and pressure
4. Feasibility of sulfur recovery
5. Acid gas selectivity required
6. Presence of heavy aromatic in the gas
7. Well location
8. Environmental consideration
9. Relative economics
Below is the schematic diagram that can be used as a guide for the selection of the
proper process depending on the acid–gas concentration in the feed and the required
degree of acid removal and its concentration in the outlet stream, However, final
selection should also consider environmental, economical, and any other
considerations.

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Fig: Selection of gas-sweetening processes

When the feed contains a high amount of H2S and CO2 and it is required to remove both
of them, then chemical solvents such as amines could be used. The amine processes
offer good reactivity at low cost and good flexibility in design and operation.
2.2.4 Amine Sweetening Process
The most widely used for sweetening of natural gas are aqueous solutions of
alkanolamines. They are generally used for bulk removal of CO2 and H2S. Alkanolamines
can be classified into three main categories:
1. Primary Amines
2. Secondary Amines
3. Tertiary Amines
Primary amines include MEA (Monoethanolamine), DGA (Diglycol Amine), etc, and
secondary amines include DEA (Diethanolamine), DIPA (Di-isopropanolamine), etc, while
tertiary amines are MDEA (Methyldiethanolamine) etc. Amine selection is normally
between Monoethanolamine (MEA, 15 to 20 wt %), Diethanolamine (DEA, 25 to 33 wt
%), and Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA, 45 to 50 wt %).

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Primary amines are the strongest to react with acid gases; but the stable bonds formed
make it difficult to recover by stripping. Secondary amines have a reasonable capacity
for acid gas absorption and are easily recovered. Tertiary amines have a lower capacity,
but they are more selective for H2S absorption. Among the amines discussed here, DEA
is the most common. This is may be due to the fact it is less expensive to install and
operate. Di-ethanolamine (DEA, 12 wt %) is being used as a sweetening agent in Dakhni
plant.
Table: Comparison of Amine Solvents
SOLVENT MEA DEA DIPA DGA MDEA
Chemical Formula RNH2 R2NH R´2NH RO(CH2)2NH2 R2CH3N
Molecular Weight 61 105 133 105 119
Amine Type Primary Secondary Secondary Primary Tertiary
Vapor Pressure,
1.05 0.058 0.01 0.16 0.0061
100°F (mm Hg)
Freezing Point (°F) 15 20 16 -40 -25
Solvent Conc. (wt %) 15-20 20-35 30-40 45-65 40-55
Loading (mol Acid Gas
0.35 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.4
/mol amine)
Reboiler Temp. (°F) 240 245 255 260 250

The process of sweetening can be divided into two steps:

1. Amine absorption
2. Amine regeneration
2.2.5 Amine Absorption
The feed sour gas leaves the top of the separator and enters the amine contactor
(absorber) from the bottom. The absorption tower can be a tray tower (for high flow
rates) or packed tower (for lower flow rate). At Dakhni Plant contactor and regenerator
columns have valve trays. As the gas flows up it is contacted by a flowing down Lean
amine solution (12 wt %). The lean amine solution, at temp 130 oF and 600 gpm is used
to reduce the H2S concentration. The sweetened gas exits from the top of the contactor
at a 130 oF and passes through the amine overhead scrubber. The function of the
scrubber is to prevent the amine carry over with gas stream. The sweet gas stream is
then routed to the dehydration plant.
The lean amine solution temperature must be 5 – 15 oF higher than the inlet gas
temperature to avoid condensation of hydrocarbons. Condensation of hydrocarbons
causes foaming and results in amine loses.
The basic reactions of MDEA with H2S and CO2 in absorption tower are as follow:

2R2NCH3 + H2S <=> (R2 NCH2)2S

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(R2 NCH3)2S + H2S <=> 2R2NCH2SH

2R2NCH2

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+ CO2 <=> R2NCOONH2R2

The exit amine solution, loaded with CO2 and H2S, is called rich amine, and is routed to
regeneration unit for regeneration of lean amine.
2.2.6 Amine Regeneration
The rich amine solution leaves the bottom of the tower and flows into the Amine Flash
Drum. The pressure of rich amine is reduced across the contactor level. The reduction of
pressure results in the flashing of dissolved gasses, which are entrained in the rich
amine stream. The dissolved gasses consist of lower hydrocarbons and acid gases. These
dissolve gases passed through the flash gas scrubber which is installed on the flash
drum. The purpose of gas scrubber is to sweet the gas with the split stream of lean
amine from regenerator bottom. This gas is then sent to the fuel gas system. From the
flash drum, the rich amine stream goes through heat exchanger where the streams
temp is raised to approx. 220 - 250oF by exchanging heat with a lean amine stream from
the bottom of amine stripper that is, the still. The still bottoms are heated in the
reboiler. The heat converts some of the water in the amine solution to steam. This
steam rises through the still and heats the counter flowing amine solution. This heat
releases the acid gases, and the steam carries them to the top of the still. The steam and
acid gases then enter the reflux condenser where the steam is condensed, separated,
and pumped back to the still. The acid gases leave the separator and go to the Sulphur
Recovery Unit (SRU). The hot lean amine leaves the bottom of still, is cooled down to
190 oF by flowing it through a heat exchanger. A portion of lean amine 10-25% is filtered
through amine cartridge filters and amine charcoal filters (to remove solid particles and
entrained hydrocarbons) to reduce foaming tendency of solution, and then send to the
surge tank. From there, the cooled amine solution is pumped to the top of contactor.
The lean amine stream before entering the amine contactor is cooled in amine solution
cooler from 190 oF to 130 oF by exchanging heat with cooling water.

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Fig: Process flow diagram of amine sweetening unit

2.3 Gas Dehydration Unit

2.3.1 Introduction

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Natural gas dehydration is the process of removing water vapor from the gas stream to
lower the dew point of that gas. Water is the most common contaminant of
hydrocarbons. It is always present in the gas–oil mixtures produced from wells. The dew
point is defined as the temperature at which water vapor condenses from the gas
stream.
There are three basic reasons for the dehydration of natural gas streams:
1. To prevent hydrate formation. Hydrates are solids formed by the physical
combination of water and other small molecules of hydrocarbons. They are icy
hydrocarbon compounds of about 10% hydrocarbons and 90% water. Hydrates grow
as crystals and can build up in orifice plates, valves, and other areas not subjected to
full flow. Thus, hydrates can plug lines and retard the flow of gaseous hydrocarbon
streams. The primary conditions promoting hydration formation are the following:
• Gas must be at or below its water (dew) point with ‘‘free’’ water present.
• Low temperature.
• High pressure.
2. To avoid corrosion problems. Corrosion often occurs when liquid water is present
along with acidic gases, which tend to dissolve and disassociate in the water phase,
forming acidic solutions. The acidic solutions can be extremely corrosive, especially
for carbon steel, which is typically used in the construction of most hydrocarbon
processing facilities.
3. Downstream processing requirements. In most commercial hydrocarbon processes,
the presence of water may cause side reactions, foaming, or catalyst deactivation.
Consequently, purchasers typically require that gas and liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
feedstock meet certain specifications for maximum water content which is usually
4–7 lb/MMSCF of sale gas.
2.3.2 Gas Dehydration Methods
The most common dehydration methods used for natural gas processing are as follows:
• Absorption, using the liquid desiccants (e.g., glycols and methanol).
• Adsorption, using solid desiccants (e.g., alumina and silica gel).
• Cooling/condensation below the dew point, by Turbo, J -T expansion and/or
refrigeration.
Both liquid and solid desiccants may be used for gas dehydration, but economics favor
liquid desiccant dehydration when it will meet the required dehydration specification.
Liquid desiccant dehydration equipment is simple to operate and maintain. Liquid
desiccants are used for sour gases; however, additional precautions in the design are
needed due to the solubility of the acid gases in the desiccant solution. While solid
desiccants are normally used for extremely low dew point specifications as required for
turbo expander plants to recover liquid hydrocarbons.
The more common liquids in use for dehydrating natural gas are triethylene glycol (TEG),
diethylene glycol (DEG), and tetraethylene glycol (TREG). In general, glycols are used for

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applications where dew point depressions of the order of 15 to 50°C (59 to 120°F) are
required. TEG is the most commonly used glycol.
At Dakhni plant liquid desiccant (TEG, triethylene glycol) is being used as dehydrating
agent. The process is termed as Glycol Dehydration Process.
2.3.3 Glycol Dehydration Process
Basic Principles
The basic principles of relevance to the absorption process are as follows:
 In this process, a hygroscopic liquid is used to contact the wet gas to remove water
vapor from it.
 Absorption, which is defined as the transfer of a component from the gas phase to
the liquid phase, is more favorable at a lower temperature and higher pressure. This
result is concluded by considering the following relationship (which is a combination
of Raoult’s law and Dalton’s law):

Pi/P = Yi/Xi = Ki

Where Pi is the pressure of pure component I, P is the total pressure of the gas
mixture (system), Xi is the mole fraction of component I in the liquid phase, Yi is the
mole fraction of component I in the vapor phase, and Ki is the equilibrium constant,
increasing with temperature and decreasing with pressure.
Now, if temperature decreases (where P is constant), Pi decreases, which means that
the water vapor concentration in the gas, Yi, decreases, allowing more absorption of
water in the liquid phase.
 The actual absorption process of water vapor from the gas phase using glycol is
dynamic and continuous. Therefore, the gas and liquid glycol flows countercurrent
to let a vapor and the liquid reach an equilibrium condition. Two means are provided
to accomplish this task.
I. Tray column, or stage wise operation (equilibrium concept)
II. Packed column or continuous-contact operation (rate concept)

2.3.4 Process Description

The Glycol dehydration process is divided in two steps:
1. Glycol absorption
The wet inlet gas stream first enters the unit through a separate vertical inlet gas
scrubber. In this scrubber any liquid accumulations in the gas stream are removed. The
wet gas then passes out of the top of the inlet scrubber through a high-capacity, high-
efficiency, and stainless steel wire mesh mist eliminator that allows for virtually no
liquid carryover. Then wet gas enters the absorption column (glycol contactor) near its

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bottom and flows upward through the bottom tray to the top tray and out at the top of
the column. Lean (dry) glycol is fed at the top of the column and it flows down from tray
to tray, absorbing water vapor from wet gas. Lean glycol temperature should be 10 -15
°F higher than inlet wet gas temperature to avoid hydrocarbon condensation. The rich
(wet) glycol leaves from the bottom of the column to the glycol regeneration unit. The
dry gas then leaves the contactor tower at the top. The operating pressure and
temperature of the absorption column is 1200 - 1250 Psi and 80 to 90°F respectively.
2. Glycol regeneration
The glycol regeneration unit is composed of a reboiler where steam is generated from
the water in the glycol. The steam is circulated through the packed section to strip the
water from glycol. Stripped water and any lost hydrocarbons are vented at the top of
the stripping column. The top temperature of stripping column should be more than
212°F (b.p of water) and less than 404°F which is glycol degradation temperature. The
hydrocarbon losses are usually benzene, toluene, xylene, and ethyl benzene (BTXE) and
it is important to minimize these emissions. The rich glycol is preheated in heat
exchangers, using the hot lean glycol, before it enters the still column of the glycol
reboiler. This cools down the lean glycol to the desired temperature and saves the
energy required for heating the rich glycol in the reboiler.
In the glycol reboiler, the glycol temperature is normally raised up to between 370°F
and 390°F. This results in a lean glycol concentration of about 98.5–98.9%. A higher
temperature will cause degradation of the glycol. To achieve higher glycol
concentrations (99% plus), stripping gas is used. The warm lean glycol stream flows from
the reboiler to a surge tank, next, the regenerated lean glycol flows through the glycol
heat exchangers for cooling and is recirculated to the contactor by the glycol pump.

The process flow diagram of glycol dehydration unit is illustrated on the next page.

Fig: Process flow diagram of glycol dehydration unit

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2.3.5 Design equations for Absorber column

The absorber column diameter and height can be determined by the following
procedure:
 Column diameter
The column diameter can be calculated using the Souder–Brown correlation:

Vv = Kv √ (ρL – ρV)/ ρV

Where Vv = Max gas velocity (ft/hr)

ρL = Liquid density (lb/ft3)
ρV = Gas density (lb/ft3)
Kv = Souder–Brown coefficient (ft/hr)

The cross-section area of the column can be calculated as:

A = V/Vv
Where V is the gas flow rate at operating conditions.
From gas law,

V = nZRT/P

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The compressibility factor Z can be calculated from the corresponding state method as:

Z = 1 + BrPr /Tr

Br = B° + wB’

B° = 0.083 – 0.422/Tr1.6

B’ = 0.139 – 0.172/Tr4.2

Pr = P/Pc (reduced pressure of natural gas)

Tr = T/Tc (reduced temperature of natural gas)

Diameter can be calculated by equation.

A = πD2/4
 Column height
The number of theoretical plates can be calculated using the McCabe–Thiele method.
The distribution of water between TEG and natural gas (equilibrium line) is almost
linear:
Y = 0.1042X
Where Y is the water content in the gas and X is the rich glycol concentration.
The actual number of trays can be calculated as:

N actual = N theoretical /η
Where η is tray efficiency.
The height “H” of the column can be calculated as:

H = (Tray spacing) × N actual

2.4 Dew Point Reduction (DPR)

2.4.1 Introduction
The purpose of DPR is to avoid condensation of hydrocarbons during transmission and
provide feed for LPG unit. The dew point of natural gas can be depressed by condensing
the heavier hydrocarbons out of the gas. The condensation of heavier hydrocarbons is
carried out for several reasons:

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 To avoid condensation of hydrocarbons in transmission lines when the ambient

temperature approaches the dew point of gas.
 The condensed heavier hydrocarbons have their own market value.
 The purchaser don’t require heavier hydrocarbon along with natural gas.
There are three main processes used to liquefy and separate heavier hydrocarbons from
natural gas.
1. Lean oil absorption.
2. Refrigeration
3. Cryogenics
2.4.2 Lean oil absorption
Lean oil absorption is the oldest separation method. The unit consists of two sections:
the absorption and regeneration. An up flow natural gas stream is brought in direct
contact, counter currently with the solvent (light oil in the kerosene boiling range) in the
absorber. The column—a tray or packed one—operates at about 400–1000 Psia and
ambient or moderately sub ambient temperatures. The rich oil (absorbed heavier
hydrocarbons plus solvent) is directed to a distillation unit to separate and recover the
heavier components, whereas the lean oil is recycled back to the absorber. Because of
high energy requirement in distillation, this process is not very energy efficient,
therefore relatively expensive to operate. 90 – 95 % of propane and 98 – 100 % of
heavier hydrocarbons can be separated and recovered by lean oil absorption. Ethane
recovery is very little or none. Due to economical point of view this process has been
phase out.
2.4.3 Refrigeration
The production of liquefied hydrocarbons at low temperature is practiced in many gas
processing plants in order to condense heavier components from gas stream. In
refrigeration process gas stream passes through chiller which cools the gas stream to
the temperature range of 0 to -20 °F using either Propane or Freon - 22 as refrigerant.
Chilling of gas stream causes heavier hydrocarbon to condense which can be separated
downstream in cold separator.
Two main objectives are usually targeted when the desired temperature of the gas–
liquid stream leaving the chiller is specified: (1) dew point control (dpc) of the
hydrocarbons and (2) liquid recovery. Now, if the dpc of the hydrocarbon is the primary
target, then the temperature of the gas–liquid stream is set at about 6–10°C below the
desired dew point temperature. On the other hand, if the liquid recovery is the main
objective, then condensing the least amount of nonsalable components should be
achieved. Compressing the refrigerant and driving the condenser are the main energy
requirement of the refrigeration process. Compare with lean oil absorption,
refrigeration uses less equipment and energy to recover similar amount of heavier
hydrocarbons. In addition it can also recover small amount of ethane.

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Fig: Refrigeration cycle

2.4.4 Cryogenics
Cryogenics is the newest and the most energy efficient process. In cryogenic process
natural gas stream is cooled to extremely low temperature in the range of -50 to -150°F
instead of using refrigerant. Cryogenics uses a mechanical method to cool the natural
gas to liquefy the heavier hydrocarbons. There are two approaches for cryogenic
process:
1. An expander plant produces refrigeration to condense and recover the liquid
hydrocarbons contained in the natural gas by using turboexpander. In this process,
the enthalpy of the natural gas is converted into useful work, behaving
thermodynamically as an approximate isentropic process.

2. Expansion across the J-T valve will lead to a similar result. However, the expansion is
described in this case as ‘‘isenthalpic.’ The J-T effect is defined as the cooling that
occurs when a highly compressed gas is allowed to expand in such a way that no
external work is done.
Temperatures produced by turboexpansion are much lower than those of valve
expansion. The process represents a new development in the gas processing industry.
Increased liquid recovery (especially ethane) is an advantage of this process.
At Dakhni plant refrigeration along with J-T expansion valve is deployed to condense
heavier hydrocarbon from gas stream.
2.4.5 DPR Process Description
In DPR gas is first cooled in heat exchangers by chilled stream of gas from refrigeration
to the temperature of about -9 to -12 oF. Then the gas is further chilled in refrigeration

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package to the temperature of -17 to -20 oF and after that the gas stream passes
through J-T valve and the temperature of gas decreases to -36 to -40 oF along with
pressure. Thus heavy hydrocarbons in the gas are condensed and separated
downstream in cold separator. Gas leaves from top to metering skid from where it is
sent to SNGPL. As the temperature in DPR is extremely low, therefore, glycol injection
package is installed to prevent hydrates formation.
2.5 LPG Recovery Unit
LPG recovery unit consist of de-ethanizer and de-butanizer. De-ethanizer is used for the
recovery of ethane gas from the condensed heavier hydrocarbons while de-butanizer is
used for the recovery of LPG. Liquid H/Cs from flash drum feed to De-ethanizer column
through heat exchanger. The overheads are processed through chiller, condenser and
flash drum. Lighter of the condensed are flash out to the fuel gas system. The gases
leaving from top of de-ethanizer includes C2 and C3 traces while bottom have C3, C4
and C5+. This liquid flows to de-butanizer and after processing the conditions are
adjusted so that top product mainly LPG (C3, i-C4 and n-C4) and bottom C5+. LPG
product is sent to LPG storage bullets from where it is delivered to LUB Gas Company
Ltd. Bottom of de-butanizer is cooled and mixed with stabilized NGL from fractionator to
storage.
Both contacting towers are packed columns with pall rings as packing material. De-
ethanizer over head condenser is partial condenser and product so produced is vapor
(ethane) and liquid reflux, while de-butanizer overhead condenser is total condenser
means all vapors are condense to produce reflux and liquid product i.e. LPG.

2.6 NGL Treatment/ Stabilization Unit

2.6.1 Introduction
Natural gas liquid (NGL) from separation unit contains light hydrocarbons in it and it is
necessary to remove these gases along with hydrogen sulfide before oil can be stored.
This process is described as a ‘‘dual process’’ of both stabilizing and sweetening an NGL.
The stabilization and sweetening of NGL is done to remove H2S from it and also to
maintain its RVP Reid vapor pressure.
To illustrate the impact of stabilization and sweetening on the quality of oil, the
properties of oil before and after treatment are compared as follows:
1. Before treatment
 Water content: up to 3% of crude in the form of emulsions and from 3% to 30% of
crude as free water
 Salt content: 50,000–250,000 mg/L formation water
 Hydrogen Sulfide: up to 1000 ppm by weight
 Light hydrocarbons depends on gas - oil ratio (GOR)

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2. After treatment
 Water content: 0.3% by volume, maximum
 Salt content: 10–20 lbs salt (NaCl) per 1000 barrels oil
 Vapor pressure: 5–20 psia RVP (Reid vapor pressure)
 H2S: 10–100 ppmw
2.6.2 Process description
NGL from separators enters water boot vessel, here water traces in oil are separated
also flashing of oil is carried out i.e., pressure is controlled here. Thus gases flash out
and sent to flare. Oil is sent to feed bottom exchanger for heating. Heating is carried out
by bottom products. The feed passing through the heat exchanger flows to the NGL
fractionator from top gas flows to cooler condenser, separator and pump for reflux to
the first tray of the fractionator and NGL is recycled through boiler and flows to sour
NGL treatment unit. NGL treatment unit consists of stripping column with sweet gas as a
striping agent. Oil leaving a stabilizer is fed to the top of the column countercurrent to
the stripping sweet gas. Vapors of H2S are striped out from the oil and are incinerated
while the sweetened oil from bottom of stripper is stored in storage tanks.

2.7 Sulfur Recovery Unit (SRU)

SRUs convert the H2S in the acid gas streams from the amine regeneration and sour
water stripper (SWS) units into molten sulfur. The Claus process is used for converting
gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into elemental sulfur.
2.7.1 Process Description
The Claus process consists of a thermal recovery stage followed by two or three stages
of catalytic recovery. In the thermal recovery zone, the acid gas is burned in a reaction
furnace with the appropriate amount of air to combust approximately one-third the H2S
plus all the hydrocarbons and ammonia in the acid gas feed. The combustion of one
third of H2S is accomplished by using a control valve (called a flow ratio controller) to
provide the required ratio of combustion air to feed gas. The reaction furnace pressure
and temperature is maintained at about 1.5 barg and 1,000 °C. At these conditions, the
Claus reaction occurs thermally in the reaction furnace (i.e., without requiring any
catalyst).The SO2 from the combustion reacts with the uncombusted H2S to form
elemental sulfur. The products of combustion are cooled in the waste heat boiler and
thermal sulfur condenser. Steam is raised at the steam drum associated with the waste
heat boiler. Typically, 60 percent or more of the sulfur is recovered in the thermal
recovery section of the Claus unit.

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The separated gas from condenser is then reheated and enters the first catalytic reactor
maintained at an average temperature of about 305 °C where about 20% of the H 2S in
the feed gas is converted into elemental sulfur. The catalytic reactors each contain a bed
of catalyst with a depth of about 90 to 120 cm. The most widely used Claus reaction
catalyst is porous aluminum oxide (Al2O3), commonly referred to as alumina. The
alumina catalyst owes its activity to a very high surface area of 300 m²/g or higher.
About 95 % of that surface area is provided by pores having diameters of less than 8 nm
(80 Angstroms). The outlet product gas from the first reactor is cooled in another
condenser while also producing low pressure steam. Again, the condensed liquid sulfur
is separated from the remaining unreacted gas in the outlet end of the condenser and
sent to sulfur pit.

The separated gas from the second condenser is sent to another reheater and the
sequence of gas reheat, catalytic reaction, condensation and separation of liquid sulfur
from unreacted gas is repeated for the second and third reactors at successively lower
reactor temperatures. About 5% and 3% of the H2S in the feed gas is converted into
elemental sulfur in the second reactor and third reactors, respectively. For a well-
designed and operated Claus sulfur recovery plant having three catalytic reactors an
overall conversion of at least 98% can be achieved.
Process Chemistry
H2S + 3/2O2→SO2 + H2O ------- (thermal)
H2S + 1/2SO2 ←→ 3/2S + H2O ------- (thermal and catalytic)

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Fig: Schematic diagram of a Claus sulfur recovery unit.

Best operating results are achieved when feed flow rate and composition are
maintained constant. Additionally, hydrocarbon carryover to the Claus unit must be
minimized. These objectives are met by designing features into the amine unit, such as
large rich amine flash drums to reduce the concentration of hydrocarbons in Claus feed.
When a unit is operated in the pure Claus mode, it is vital to keep the H2S/SO2 ratio in
the tail gas at 2/1, since slight deviations cause significant loss in recovery.

Chapter No. 03
Utilities at Dakhni
3.1 Demin Water Unit
The de-mineralized water is required for plant for proper & efficient performance of
equipments because the minerals & salts makes scales & can be cause of corrosion so

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they might be expelled out. In other sense the de-min water is used in plant to rescue
the equipments from malfunctioning.
The process describes that the raw water is passed through sand filter to the cation
resin chemical vessel then flows to degasser, later on through pump to the anion resin
chemical vessel & at last to de-mineralized storage tank. The use of HCl & NaOH is to
regenerate the anion and cation resin chemical.
HCL Acid NaOH
Dosing Dosing

Filter
Raw water Cation Anion
Pump Resin Resin

Storage
Tank

Fig: Block diagram of Demin water unit

3.2 Turbine
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. The simplest turbines
have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with blades attached. Moving
fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they rotate and impart
energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels.
3.2.1 Elements of a Simple Gas Turbine
A simple gas turbine plant consists of compressor, combustion chamber and turbine.
When the unit runs the atmospheric air is drawn into the compressor, raised to static
pressure several times that of atmosphere. The compressed air then flows to the
combustion chamber where the fuel is injected. The produces of combustion,
comprising a mixture of gases at high temperature and pressure, are passed through the
turbine where they expand and develop motive force fortuning the turbine rotor. After
expansion, the gas leaves the turbine at atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the
produces of combustion is nearly 1000˚F to 1500˚F. The temperature of the exhaust gas
is in the range of 900˚F to 1100˚F. The compressor is mounted on the same shaft as that
of turbine. Major portion of the work developed by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor and the reminder is available as net power output.
3.2.2 Turbines in Dakhni Oil Field

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There are two turbines in this field although one turbine can provide required power
but both turbines are in running condition at half load. If one of the turbine trips all of
the load is automatically goes on the second turbine.
3.2.3 Ruston Gas Turbine
Hot combustion gases are used to run the turbine. It is a twin shaft turbine in which
compressor and H.P. turbine are attached on one shaft while L.P. turbine is attached on
the second shaft. Single shaft turbines are also available. Once it is started it is self
contained system H.P. turbine derives the compressor and its lube oil pumps are also
turbine driven. It is driven by numerically controlled system. It trips automatically in
case of any failure in the system.
3.2.4 Gas Turbine Design Data
Type Open cycle, non-regenerative
No. of shafts 2
Type of compressor Axial, subsonic
No. of stages 12
Pressure ratio 6.9:1
Compressor turbine type Axial
No. of stages 2
Gas generator speed 10,700 r.p.m
Type of power turbine Axial
No. of stages 2
Power Turbine shaft speed 7,950 r.p.m
Maximum continuous power 8,745 r.p.m
Integral epicyclic gear 1,500 rpm
Dry weight of turbine 30,000 lbs
Under base 13,608 kg
Heaviest turbine component 7,840 lbs (3,556 kg)

3.3 Instrument Air Compressor

The instrument air compressor is a Horizontal Reciprocating compressor. It is positive
displacement compressor using a piston driven by a crank shaft. It is a two stage double
acting compressor driven by an electric motor using a V belt. The fluid to be compressed
is air. The air enters the suction side at a pressure of 0.98 kg/cm2 and discharges at a
pressure of 10.13 kg/cm2. Water is used to cool the air after it discharges from the first
stage and the second stage. The compressor is manufactured by Worthington
compressors.
3.3.1 Compressor Data

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Gas Handled Air

Suction Temperature 49°C
Discharge Temperature 175°C
Suction Pressure (Stage 1) 0.98 Kg/cm2
Discharge Pressure (Stage 2) 3.04 Kg/cm2
Suction Pressure (Stage 1) 3.10 Kg/cm2
Discharge Pressure (Stage 2) 10.13 Kg/cm2
Bore Dia (Stage 1) 325 mm
Bore Dia (Stage 2) 185mm
Compressor Capacity 655.4m3/h
BHP 122KW
RPM 835RPM
Item No 805-GB-A/B
Manufacturer WORTHINGTON

Chapter No. 04
LABORATORY
4.1 Introduction
Dakhni gas/condensate processing plant is producing Natural gas, LPG, Condensate &
Sulfur in order to keep these products within the standard specifications and to fulfill
the needs of quality control, a precise well equipped lab is established where different
tests done for each product.
4.2 Sales Gas Specifications
Characteristics/test Specific limit
Specific gravity 0.59-0.60

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Calorific value 1065-1070

Water content 1lb/mmscf
Dew point -2oF
Total Sulfur content 05 ppm

4.3 LPG Specifications

Characteristics/test Specific limit
RVP (min) 70 Psig at 100 O F
RVP (max) 160 Psig at 100 O F
Residue @ 40 O F 5.0% (max)
S.G/API gravity 0.53-0.57
Gross heating value 21300 BTU/lb
Water content Nil

4.4 NGL Specifications

Characteristics/test Specific limit
RVP 6.4-6.8 Psig
S.G 0.719-0.72
Salts 5-10 PTB
BS&W 0.1-0.5%

4.5 Sulfur Specifications

Characteristics/test Specific limit
Color Bright yellow
Purity 99.658%
Ash contents 0.3% (max)
Moisture 1.0% (max)
Free acidity 0.1%

4.6 Lean/Rich Glycol Specifications

Characteristics/test Rich glycol Lean glycol
Glycol wt % 93 – 96% 98.5 – 99%
Water content % Not more than 5 – 6% Not more than 1.5%
Hydrocarbon content % Less than 0.1% Less than 0.1%
Salt content (ppm) Below 100 ppm Below 100 ppm
Solid content (ppm) Below 100 ppm Below 100 ppm
PH 7.3 – 7.5 7.3 – 7.5
Iron (ppm) Not more than 10 – 15 ppm Not more than 10 – 15 ppm
30ml height/30 sec break 20ml height/15 sec break
Foaming tendency
down down

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4.7 Feed and Sale Gas Analysis

Feed Gas Analysis Sale Gas Analysis
Components Mole % Components Mole %
Methane 83.743 Methane 93.478
Ethane 4.410 Ethane 4.402
Propane 1.588 Propane 1.226
I-Butane 0.376 I-Butane 0.220
N-Butane 0.457 N-Butane 0.226
I-Pentane 0.175 I-Pentane 0.047
N-Pentane 0.127 N-Pentane 0.024
Hexane + 0.217 Hexane + 0.037
CO2 2.628 N2 0.331
N2 0.318 CO2 Nil
H2S 5.961 H2S Nil
S.G 0.6898 S.G 0.5985
H. Value 1166.361 BTU/SCF H. Value 1078 BTU/SCF

Chapter No. 05
Production & Marketing Section
5.1 Introduction
Dakhni field as earlier described that it produces four different products so for that a
section of production marketing is established. These products are marketed as under:
1. NGL Marketing
Production 1600 - 1700 bbl/day
Client Attock Oil Refinery Ltd.
The NGL production of Dakhni field is 1600 - 1700 bbls/d, after processing it is stored in
storage tanks that are 04 No’s of 5000 bbls capacity each.
2. LPG Marketing
Production 16 M. Ton/day
Client LUB Gas Private Ltd.
3. Gas Marketing
Production 48 MMSCF/day
Client SNGPL

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4. Sulphur Marketing
Production 75 M. Ton/day
Average sale 65-70 M. Ton/day
Clients:
 Hazara Phosphate Fertilizer Ltd.  Attock chemical Lahore
 Amber Chemical Hattar (Haripur)  National Chemical Rawalpindi
 Century paper Lahore  Tufail Chemical Lahore
 Packages limited Lahore  Forous Company Lahore
 Prime Chemical Lahore  Progressive traders Lahore
 Noor Chemical Lahore  Chisti Dawakhana Lahore
 Ghosia Oil Traders Lahore
Sulphur is pumped in molten form from plant in to Sulphur storage pit where it
solidified at atmospheric conditions and for transportation the sulphur is loaded into
trucks and the loaded truck is weighted on weighing bridge showing its weight on
electronic indicator and is sent to the clients.

Chapter No. 06
6.1 Health, Safety, Environment & Quality Control
Safety is soul of discipline and without safety the discipline is corpse so in any
organization there should be discipline having proper safety. Safety says that save you
first secondly colleagues and thirdly equipment, plant & environment. The spell binding
of safety is

earch out hazards

nalyze them

ind out its causes

liminate them

ell others

ou are safe
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At Dakhni field there is a good and up-to mark safety precautionary measures

 Proper sign boards at required positions including signals and cautions.

 Proper kit of employees with hard hat and safety shoes at plant area.
 A number of wind socks for wind directions.
 Presence of H2S breathing apparatus.
 The updated all types of fire-extinguishers are also placed at fire points and fire
station.
 There are four fire points through out the plant and central facility and a fire lorry all
the time at location.
 Some advance fire fighting equipments as water ground monitor, water jet monitor
and foam generators from England.
 There is also proper underground hydrant system of 8” pipe-line at pressure of 150
Psi and 29 hydrants are installed at different points through out the plant and
central facility.

6.1.1 PPEs: (Personal Protective Equipments)

PPEs provides protection against injuries of the whole body from head to foot, it means
you will have to protect your self from head to foot, because if you are safe then you
can save the others, company assets & equipments.
PPEs which provide the protection of body are listed below:
Head = Helmet
Ears = Ear plugs or Ears muffs
Eyes = Goggles
Mouth/Nose = Mouth mask/Breathing Apparatus
Face = Face Shield
Body = Coverall
Foot = Safety Shoes
Hand = Hand Glove
6.1.2 FIRE
Basically fire is a combination of three elements

1. Fuel.
2. Ignition temperature
3. Oxygen.

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As for as any fuel it does not burn but its vapors burn. The fire can be extinguished by
cut off any one of the above elements.

 By cut off fuel supply (Starvation of material).

 Reducing temperature (Cooling effect).
 By removal of oxygen (Smothering effect).

6.1.3 Types of Fire

Class Combustible Material/Source of fire Extinguishers/Remedies

Solids: Wood, paper, glass, plastic, fabrics,

A Water by jet or shower
rubber, grass etc.
Liquid: Petroleum, paints, spirit, grease, LPG Foam, CO2, DCP & water
B
etc. showering not jet.

C Gas: Hydrocarbon gases CO2, DCP and water

D Metals: Magnesium, Uranium etc DCP (Dry chemical powder)

E Fire due to electric current and equipments CO2 and DCP not use water

The main reason of accidents is the mental condition.

 Laziness
 Tiresome or fatigue
 Mockery or unserious behavior
 Unnecessary demonstration
 Careless
 Irresponsibility
 Disobedience
 Anger
 Inexperience and ingenuousness

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1. Literature cited:
 Hand Book of Petroleum Refining Processes by Robert A. Meyers.
 Petroleum and Gas Field Processing by H.K Abdel, Aggour and Fahim.
 Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering by William C.
Lyons and Gary J. Plisga.
 Chemical Process Engineering Design and Economics by Harry Silla.
 Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
 Dakhni Plant Literature.
2. Web sources:
 www.wekipedia.com
 www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com
 www.cheresource.com
 www.egpet.net

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