IBP1104_19

A FE APPROACH TO ESTIMATE THE

FATIGUE RESISTANCE OF PRESSURE
ARMORS IN FLEXIBLE PIPES
José Renato M. de Sousa, Fernando Jorge M. de
Sousa1, Marcos Q. de Siqueira1, Luís Volnei S.
Sagrilo1, Carlos Alberto D. Lemos2

Copyright 2019, Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute - IBP

This Technical Paper was prepared for presentation at the Rio Pipeline Conference and Exhibition 2019, held
between 03 and 05 of September, in Rio de Janeiro. This Technical Paper was selected for presentation by the
Technical Committee of the event according to the information contained in the final paper submitted by the
author(s). The organizers are not supposed to translate or correct the submitted papers. The material as it is
presented, does not necessarily represent Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute’ opinion, or that of its
Members or Representatives. Authors consent to the publication of this Technical Paper in the Rio Pipeline
Conference and Exhibition 2019.

Abstract

In the recent years, much effort has been dedicated to estimate the fatigue life of the tensile
armors of flexible pipes relying on the hypothesis that the fatigue resistance of these wires
governs the service life of the whole pipe. However, due to the higher internal and external
pressures and curvature variations, the fatigue resistance of the pressure armor is becoming
more and more critical and, consequently, needs to be considered as a design criterium. In this
work, a three-dimensional finite element approach is proposed to estimate the fatigue life of the
pressure armors of flexible pipes. This approach accounts for residual stresses due to the
manufacturing of the layer and the factory acceptance test and operational loads such as tension,
internal and external pressures and bending. A case study is presented to illustrate its use
evidencing stress concentration regions in the analyzed pressure armor that may induce
premature fatigue failure.
Keywords: Flexible pipes; fatigue; pressure armor.

1. Introduction

In the last few years, offshore oil and gas exploitation has been moving to areas with
very deep water depths. In order to address the requirements to operate in these areas, flexible
pipes, such as the one presented in Figure 1, are designed with larger bores and must be capable
of sustaining high tension and curvature variations in conjunction with high internal and
external pressures. Under these conditions, the fatigue life prediction of these structures is a
major aspect to a successful design.
Much effort has been recently dedicated to estimate the fatigue life of the tensile armors
of flexible pipes relying on the hypothesis that the fatigue resistance of these wires governs the
service life of the whole pipe. However, due to the higher internal and external pressures and
curvature variations, the fatigue resistance of the pressure armor is becoming more and more
critical and, consequently, needs to be considered as a design criterium.

______________________________
DSc, Civil Engineer – Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
DSc – Petrobras
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inner carcass

pressure armor
inner sheath

tensile armors

anti-wear tapes

outer sheath

Figure 1 – Typical unbonded flexible pipe.

The prediction of the fatigue resistance of pressure armors is considerably more

complicated than its prediction for the wires of the tensile armors. In the tensile armors, the
longitudinal stress along the helical path of each wire is much higher than the other stress
components and, consequently, a uniaxial fatigue response may be considered. In the pressure
armor, due to its complex cross-sections (Figure 1), the stress state generated by the imposed
loads is multi-axial leading to a multi-axial fatigue phenomenon. Hence, the evaluation of the
fatigue life of pressure armors has two difficulties: the prediction of the stress state in these
layers, as the theoretical tools available in the public literature usually estimate average stresses
and also neglect the stresses induced by curvature variations or during the manufacturing of the
layer; and the prediction of the service life related to a multi-axial fatigue phenomenon, as
fatigue is usually treated as a uniaxial phenomenon.
Therefore, in this work, in order to overcome these difficulties, a methodology to
evaluate the fatigue life of pressure armors is proposed. This methodology relies on a finite
element (FE) model that predicts the stresses in pressure armors and, furthermore, on transfer
functions that allow the computation of the various time series of stresses that are usually
required in a typical fatigue analysis. These time series serve as an input to compute the fatigue
life. The fatigue life computation addresses the multi-axial phenomenon by decoupling the
different fatigue failure mechanisms.

2. Numerical model

2.1. Description

Figure 2 presents an overview of the finite element model developed in ANSYS®

(version 19.1). In this model, two distinct regions can be observed:
1. In the first region, the tendons are represented by three-dimensional beam elements.
These elements are positioned on a circumference whose diameter is equal to the mean
diameter of the layer, considering therefore that the pressure armor can be approximated
by a succession of rings spaced by the linear pitch of the layered tendons.
2. In the second region, the lines are interrupted and the profile of the pressure armor is
detailed represented. In the numerical model, this is the region of interest for stress
analysis, which is discretized with three-dimensional solid elements.
In order to reduce the computational effort, the polymeric layers next to the pressure
armor are not represented. Furthermore, the model should be constructed considering such a
length that the extremity effects do not interfere with the stresses that develop in its central

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region. After performing some tests, models with a total length at least of 5 linear pitches of the
tendons are used.
The section modeled with three-dimensional beam elements serves as a "boundary
condition" for the solid region of interest, decreasing the number of degrees of freedom required
for analysis. Elements with two nodes and six degrees of freedom per node are used: translations
and rotations around the global axes X, Y and Z. In ANSYS ®, these elements are labeled as
BEAM188.

Figure 2 – Finite element mesh for the stress analysis model in pressure armors. Detail of the connection
between the beams and the three-dimensional solids.

The three-dimensional beam elements allow the real profile of the discretized pressure
armor to be taken into account, internally, by means of cells. However, the generated stress
field is one-dimensional, which means there are only normal stresses to the laying direction.
Thus, to ensure the interaction between the tendons in the modeled region with three-
dimensional beam elements, nonlinear rotational springs are used. These elements are labeled
as COMBIN39 in ANSYS® and are intended to restrict the rotation of the profile when there
is contact between the nub of one tendon with the valley of the other tendon, as indicated in
Figure 3 (a). These elements are positioned over the nodes of the three-dimensional beam
elements. The load vs displacement (translation or rotation) curves of these springs have the
shape indicated in Figure 3(b).

nub

valley

(a) (b)
Figure 3 – (a) Schematic representation of the contacts between wires; (b) Typical moment vs. rotation curve.

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The solid region of interest is modeled with three-dimensional isoparametric solid

elements labeled as SOLID185 in ANSYS®. These elements have eight nodes and three
degrees of freedom per node: translations in the global directions X, Y, and Z.
The connection between the beam and the solid elements is made with node-surface
contact elements called, in ANSYS®, CONTA175 and TARGE170. The beam element node is
coincident with the centroid of the cross-section, as shown in Figure 2. The connection between
this node and the nodes on the solid surface is considered rigid, therefore guaranteeing the
transfer of acting forces and moments from the three-dimensional beam elements to the solid
region. It is also worth noting that node-surface contact elements are also positioned in the
central section of the solid region in order to set the boundary conditions on the model and to
apply the bending load, as will be discussed further ahead. In this case, a node (pilot) is created,
also coinciding with the centroid of the tendon cross-section, which is connected to the nodes
on the solid surface. In the pilot node, the displacements and loads acting on this section are
applied.
The nub-valley interaction in the solid region is assured by surface-to-surface type
contact elements, called CONTA174 and TARGE170 in ANSYS®. At these interfaces, the
pinballs algorithm is used to identify the contact regions and the augmented Lagrangean method
is used to evaluate the contact forces between the surfaces. These elements also allow the
modeling of friction between surfaces by means of Coulomb's law.
Finally, it is important to note that the model considers, not only the non-linearity of
contact, but also the non-linear physical behavior of the material that constitutes the tendon of
the pressure armor. This behavior is simulated through a bilinear curve by reporting the yield
strength and Young's modulus after yielding (tangent modulus). The non-linear physical
behavior is simulated considering kinematic hardening rule.

2.2. Loads considered and application

In a typical fatigue analysis of a pressure armor, the following loads are taken into
account:
1. Initial deformations due to the manufacturing process.
2. Operational axisymmetric loads such as tension, internal and external pressure.
3. Bending.
The way these loads are imposed to the finite element model is detailed in the following
topics.

2.2.1. Deformations induced by the manufacturing process

In this work, the stress components induced by the manufacturing process are associated
with an initial deformation in the normal direction to the cross-section of the element (direction
x), 𝜀𝑥𝑥,𝑖 , and the plane stress state condition is assumed. Thus:

sen2 (𝛼)
𝜀𝑥𝑥,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧) = ∙ [𝑦 ∙ sen(𝜆) − 𝑧 ∙ cos(𝜆)] (1)
𝑅

−𝜐 ∙ 𝜀𝑥𝑥,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧), se 𝜀𝑦𝑦,𝑖 ≤ 𝜀𝑒

𝜀𝑦𝑦,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧) = { (2)
−𝜐 ∙ 𝜀𝑒 − 0.5 ∙ [𝜀𝑥𝑥,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧)−𝜀𝑒 ], 𝑠𝑒 𝜀𝑦𝑦,𝑖 > 𝜀𝑒

𝜀𝑧𝑧,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝜀𝑦𝑦,𝑖 (𝑦, 𝑧) (3)

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where 𝜀𝑦𝑦,𝑖 and 𝜀𝑧𝑧,𝑖 are the initial deformations in the directions y and z of the element (Figure
2); υ is the Poisson’s ratio of the material; 𝜀𝑒 is the yield strain of the material; R is the mean
radius of the layer; y and z are the coordinates of a point in the cross-section of the element
(Figure 2); and λ is the angle of inclination of the neutral axis (Figure 2), given by:

1 2∙𝐼𝑦𝑧
𝜆 = 2 ∙ atan (𝐼 ) (4)
𝑧𝑧 −𝐼𝑦𝑦

where 𝐼𝑦𝑧 is the product of inertia of the section; and 𝐼𝑦𝑦 and 𝐼𝑧𝑧 are the moments of inertia in
relation to the y and z axes, respectively (Figure 2).
These strain components are imposed, in the solid region, directly on the centroids of
the three-dimensional solid elements. In regards to the pipe region modeled with three-
dimensional beam elements, these strains are imposed on the centroids of the cells that make
up the cross-section.
In order to avoid the model from becoming hypostatic and to guarantee an adequate
representation of the axisymmetric loading imposed on the pipe in the subsequent steps, all the
displacements of the pipe are released, except for the translations in relation to the local axes y
(tangential) and z (axial) and the rotations around of the x (radial) and z (axial) axes of the nodes
situated at positions θ = 90°, 180° and 270°. At θ = 0°, the pilot nodes have the translations in
relation to the local y (tangential) and z (axial) axes restricted. These nodes do not have the
degrees of freedom related to rotation, since these are associated to the translations of the nodes
on the solid face in the central section of the solid model. Moreover, the connecting nodes
between the three-dimensional beam elements and the solid region located at the first and last
tendons of the modeled section have all the displacements restricted in order to simulate a rigid
connection in those regions.
Finally, in order to avoid possible discontinuities in the displacement fields in the
regions modeled with three-dimensional beam elements and with solid elements, the rotations
around the y (longitudinal) axis and the translations in relation to the x (radial) axis of the nodes
of the three-dimensional beam elements and of the node located in the central section of the
solid region were coupled.

Axisymmetric loads imposed on the pipe

Axisymmetric loads imposed on the pipe, such as tension, internal pressure and external
pressure may squeeze or expand the pressure armor. These pressures can be evaluated through
any of the models for local analysis of flexible pipes available in the public literature (Muñoz
et al., 2016).
Nevertheless, some care in the application of such loadings should be taken, as the
proposed model disregards the inner sheath of the pipe. Ideally, the pressures act evenly along
the pressure layers. However, since the pressure armor tendons do not provide a continuous
support surface for the polymeric layers, as shown in Figure 3, the pressure acting on the surface
of the pressure armor is different from the pressure calculated with the models for local analysis.
Thus, the pressure acting on the upper or lower face of the pressure armor, 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 , must be
corrected to:
𝐿𝑝
𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 (5)
𝑤 ∙𝑏𝑎

where 𝑏𝑎 is the length of the tendon supporting the inner or outer layer (Figure 3); and 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 is
the pressure acting on the polymeric layers.

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(a) (b)
Figure 3 – (a) Internal pressure acting on the real structure; (b) Equivalent model.

The application of the pressures in the region of the model represented with solid
elements is immediate, which means it is enough to impose the calculated pressures on the
respective faces. However, in the application of the pressures on three-dimensional beam
elements one must take into account that:
1. The element is defined only by its axis, that is, it is a unidirectional element.
2. This axis is the locus of the centroids of the tendons that form the pressure armor, as
indicated in Figure 2.
Therefore, in the region modeled with three-dimensional beam elements, the layer is
represented as a series of thin-walled rings, while in the solid region the ring thickness is
considered and the internal and external pressures are applied to the respective faces. Thus, to
make the displacements compatible in the two regions, the internal and external pressures in
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡
the region modeled with three-dimensional beam elements, 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 and 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 , respectively, are
given by:

𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 1 𝑡 1 𝑡 2

𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 ∙( 𝑅
) ∙ [1 + 2 ∙ 𝑅 + 8 ∙ (𝑅) ] (6)

𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 2 1 𝑡 1 𝑡 2

𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 ∙( ) ∙ [1 − ∙ + ∙ ( ) ] (7)
𝑅 2 𝑅 8 𝑅

𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡
where 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 and 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 are, respectively, the pressures acting on the inner and outer faces of the
layer corrected by Eq. (5); and 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 and 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 are, in that order, the inner and outer radii of the
pressure armor.
As the beam elements are one-dimensional, the pressure imposed on these elements,
𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 , is the difference between the internal, Eq. (6), and external pressures, Eq. (7), that is:

𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑝𝑣𝑖𝑔𝑎 = 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 (8)

In addition, since the acting axes of the forces resulting from the application of internal
and external pressures are not in line with the torsional center of the profile, it is necessary to
impose the torque 𝑇𝑟 of these forces, which is given at each node by:

𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑝𝐿 𝑝
𝑇𝑟 = (𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 + 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑑 ) ∙ 𝑛 ∙ 𝑑𝑐 ∙ 𝐿𝑒𝑙 (9)
𝑤

where 𝑛𝑤 is the number of tendons in the pressure armor; 𝑑𝑐𝑝 is the distance from the midpoint
of the upper and lower fibers of the profile to its torsion center; and 𝐿𝑒𝑙 is the sum of the lengths
of contribution of each element to the node.

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In order to avoid the model from becoming hypostatic, the boundary conditions
indicated at the end of the loading step related to the imposition of the initial deformations were
maintained throughout the analysis considering axisymmetric loads.

Bending of the pipe

The bending imposed on the pipe is simulated by prescribing displacements to the nodes
of the model in the plane in which the flexible pipe is bent. Assuming that the axis of the pipe
maintains the same length during bending and that the cross-sections of the pressure armor
remain perpendicular to the neutral axis of the section, it can be established that the
displacements suffered by each node in the plane of the pipe’s bending are given by (Lu et al.,
2008):
1
𝑢ℎ (𝑑, 𝜓) = (𝜅 + 𝑑) ∙ sen(𝜓) − 𝐿
𝑡
{ 1
(10)
𝑢𝑣 (𝑑, 𝜓) = (𝜅 + 𝑑) ∙ [cos(𝜓) − 1]
𝑡

where 𝜅𝑡 is the total curvature of the pipe; L is the distance from the node considered to the
origin (extremity of the pipe as indicated in Figure 4); d is the distance from the node to the
pipe axis (being positive if the node is above the axis of the pipe and negative, otherwise); and
𝜓 = 𝐿 ∙ 𝜅𝑡 .
These displacements are imposed on the nodes of the beam elements and on the pilot
nodes, which is sufficient, given the continuity of the model, to obtain the deformed
configuration of the pressure armor.

Figure 4 – Flexible pipe bending.

3. Methodology for fatigue analysis

The approach to calculating fatigue life of pressure armors consists of the following
steps:
1. Identification of fatigue sea states.
2. Global analysis and identification of the working forces on the pipe.
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3. Selection of a section of the pipe for useful life evaluation.

4. Local analysis of the pressure armor to determine the stresses from the
manufacturing process and the FAT.
5. Identification of the stresses related to the operational load.
6. Calculation of the useful life in the cross-section.
Steps 1 to 3 follow the procedure described, for example, in de Sousa et al. (2012).
The evaluation of the stresses induced during the manufacturing process and the FAT,
step 4, can be done directly in the proposed model, as described in the previous section.
Obtaining the stresses related to the operational load, however, requires an alternative approach,
given the high number of sea states to be considered in a typical fatigue analysis that would
demand a very high computational cost. In order to overcome this difficulty, the proposed three-
dimensional model is used to obtain transfer functions between the applied load and the state
of stresses at a point in the cross-section of the pressure armor. A similar approach can be seen,
for instance, in de Sousa et al. (2012). Thus, the stress state 𝝈 =
[𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]𝑻 in a point i of the cross-section of the pressure armor of a
flexible pipe can be written as:

𝝈𝑖 = (𝒇𝑭𝒊 ∙ 𝐹𝑟𝑒 + 𝒇𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒊 ∙ 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝒇𝑷𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒊 ∙ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) + 𝒇𝜿𝒚 ∙ 𝜅𝑦 ∙ cos(𝜃) + 𝒇𝜿𝒛 𝒊 ∙ 𝜅𝑧 ∙ sen(𝜃) (11)
𝒊

where 𝐹𝑟𝑒 , 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 and 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 are the real tension, internal pressure and external pressure acting on
the pipe; 𝜅𝑦 and 𝜅𝑧 are the curvatures imposed on the pipe in the directions y and z; θ is the
angular position of the section considered; and f are the transfer functions related to each of the
loads.
The calculation of the service life also requires attention, since the state of stresses
generated in each point of the cross-section of the pressure armor is three-dimensional (Ye and
Saevik, 2011). Thus, two fatigue failure modes are considered in this study: the failure mode
longitudinal to the profile, Figure 5 (a); and the failure mode transverse to the profile, Figure 5
(b).

(a) (b)

Figure 5 – Fatigue failure modes in the pressure armor: (a) longitudinal; (b). transverse.

For the evaluation of the longitudinal failure mode, the stresses transverse to the profile
are considered (𝜎𝑧𝑧 , Figure 2). For the transverse failure mode, the stresses longitudinal to the
profile are considered (𝜎𝑥𝑥 , Figure 2). Therefore, for each moment of time in each sea state, the
points on the surface of the profile of the pressure armor have the time series of stresses 𝜎𝑥𝑥
and 𝜎𝑧𝑧 evaluated. Fatigue damage at these points is calculated by means of S-N curves and
the stress cycles in the time series are counted using the Rainflow method. The calculated
damages are later accumulated by the Palmgren-Miner rule.

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4. Case study

4.1. General description

In this work, the fatigue life of a cross-section at the top of a 6" jumper was evaluated.
In this cross section, the jumper has a pressure armor of 8mm of total thickness with an internal
radius of 92.4 mm. The tensile armors have an approximately rectangular cross-section with 6
mm of thickness and 14 mm of width laid in an angle of 35 degrees. The pressure imposed on
the FAT is 51 MPa and, in all analyses, the acting internal pressure is 14.7 MPa, while the
external pressure is 0.1 MPa. Finally, the fatigue analyses involved 1836 different sea states.
Fatigue damage is calculated at points on the surface of the pressure armor profile considering
S-N curve evaluated in the presence of contaminant (CO2).

4.2. Results

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the longitudinal and transverse stress distributions obtained in
each of the analysis steps. The operational results correspond to the mean value of the
axisymmetric load, tension of 433 kN, and radius of curvature equal to 7.12 m.
These figures illustrate that the stresses imposed during manufacture are quite high. The
maximum strain in the longitudinal direction of the profile was 4.3% and only a small region
around the neutral line is subjected to purely elastic deformations. During the FAT, the pressure
armor expands radially, inducing, mainly, tensile deformations. Thus, the compressed region,
below the neutral line, has its stresses diminished, while stresses increase in the tensioned
region. After the removal of the pressure imposed on the FAT, however, the stresses imposed
during manufacture are significantly relieved and are below the material yield limit.
The figures also indicate that there is no contact between the tendons during the
application of the axisymmetric loading and their transverse sections are uniformly loaded. The
increase of the imposed tension, due to the squeeze imposed on the pressure armor, tends to
reduce the longitudinal tensile stresses in the cross-section and to increase the compressive
stresses. There are also significant variations in transverse stresses. In the bending that considers
the solid region at 90° to the neutral axis, Figures 6 and 7 indicate that there was an
approximation between the tendons, but there was no contact. The stress field is also slightly
affected.
Considering the methodology proposed in the previous sections and the stress states
obtained in the FE analyses, the fatigue resistance of the analyzed pressure armor is of 1610
years. The failure, in this case, is related to the longitudinal failure mode (Figure 5(b)) and
occurs at the transition between the valley and the nub, as also indicated in Figure 5(b). For the
sake of comparison, the fatigue life of the tensile armors is estimated in 15 years, which is much
lower than the fatigue life of the pressure armor. It should be noted, however, that the fatigue
life and the associated failure mode may change if contact between tendons occur. This is an
aspect that deserves future studies.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6 – Transverse stresses: (a) Manufacturing; (b) Post-FAT; (c) Axisymmetric mean; (d) Axisymmetric
mean + Maximum radius of curvature.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 7 – Transverse stresses: (a) Manufacturing; (b) Post-FAT; (c) Axisymmetric mean; (d) Axisymmetric
mean + Maximum radius of curvature.
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5. Conclusions

In this work, a three-dimensional FE approach to predict the fatigue life of pressure

armors of flexible pipes was proposed. This approach accounts for manufacturing stresses, the
factory acceptance test and operational loads. The stresses associated with different time series
of forces and curvatures are converted into stresses with the help of transfer functions.
The use of this approach in the analysis of a 6” jumper indicated possible points of stress
concentrations in the layer, but the related fatigue life is significantly lower than the fatigue
resistance of the tensile armors. However, the studied case did not induce contact between the
tendons, which may lead to much higher stresses in the layer thus reducing its fatigue life.
Finally, it is authors’ belief that the proposed approach may help in evaluating the
fatigue life of flexible pipes considering their pressure armors. However, experimental tests are
still needed to validate its predictions.

Acknowledgements

Authors thank Petrobras for allowing the publication of this work and the National Council for
Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for the research grant PQ 308403/2016-9.
This study was also financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nível Superior- Brasil (CAPES), Finance Code 001, and by the Fundação Carlos Chagas de
Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).

References

Lu, J., Ma, F., Tan, Z., Sheldrake, T., 2008, “Bent Collapse of an Unbonded Rough Bore
Flexible Pipe”. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, 57063, Estoril, Portugal.

de Sousa, J. R. M., de Sousa, F. J. M., de Siqueira, M. Q., Sagrilo, L. V. S., de Lemos, C. A.

D., 2012, “A Theoretical Approach to Predict the Fatigue Life of Flexible Pipes,” Journal of
Applied Mathematics, 2012, 983819.

Muñoz, H. E. M., de Sousa, J. R. M., Magluta, C., Roitman, N., 2016, “Improvements on the
Numerical Analysis of the Coupled Extensional-Torsional Response of a Flexible Pipe,”
Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 138, p. 011701.

Ye, N., Saevik, S., 2011, “Multiple Axial Fatigue of Pressure Armours in Flexible Risers”.
Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering,
50210, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

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