AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

© 2015,Science Huβ, http://www.scihub.org/AJSIR

ISSN: 2153-649X, doi:10.5251/ajsir.2015.6.5.97.102

Effect of spray dried whole egg powder on physicochemical and sensory

properties of cake
Asghar, A and Abbas, M
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

As egg is a primary source of high quality proteins and offers a balanced distribution of basic food
constituents such as minerals (iron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium) and vitamins,
particularly vitamin E, A, B12, B2 and folic acid alongside high amounts of lipids, such as
triacylglycerols, phospholipids and cholesterol to the body. Eggs were spray dried, that ultimately
increase the shelf life and stability by preventing microbial and enzymatic reactions. Drying of
whole egg into powder form facilitate its easy handling and transportation. Glucose and
salmonella microorganism were removed to prevent browning process. The chemical analysis of
whole egg powder showed that it contained moisture contents 4.9±0.17 %, ash 2.47±0.26 %, fat
10.5±0.23 %, crude protein 41.76±0.32 %, crude fiber 1.01±0.07 %, NFE 39.36± 0.15%, foaming
capacity 34.33±2.51 %, foaming stability 47.66±3.05 % and water hydration capacity 2.25± %.
The mandate of research was to observe the effect of utilization of whole egg powder with the
replacement of fresh eggs in the bakery products. Chemical analysis of whole egg powdered
cake at different doses showed the mean values of 29% moisture content, 1.53% ash, 8% fat,
5.8% protein, 2% fiber and 1.422% water activity. The sensory evaluation of cakes having 100%
substitution showed that results are significant.
Keywords: spray drying, whole egg powder, egg powder substitution, physicochemical analysis,
sensory evaluation of cake

INTRODUCTION or into major components of egg yolk and egg white.

Chicken is an excellent source of high quality
proteins, vitamins and minerals. Humans and animals
require protein for building of their body structures.
We depend upon animal protein and vegetable
protein because this makes possible the supply of
amino acids which are essential for our body
(Weggemans et al., 2001). Egg offers a balanced
distribution of minerals like iron, calcium, phosphorus
and potassium. Egg also has vitamins, particularly
vitamin E (tocopherols), vitamin A (retinol), vitamin
B12 (cyanocobalamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and
folic acid (Surai and Sparks, 2001). Egg is a rich
source of lipids, such as triacylglycerols,
phospholipids and cholesterol (Watkins, 1995).
Fresh raw egg however, difficult to transport due to
their bulkiness, fragility and highly vulnerable to the
surrounding environment due to their perishable
nature (Jay, 2000). Egg in powder form provides a
near complete solution to these problems. The recent
technological procedures of egg powder production is
to wash, break, dilute with water, mixing, filter and
pasteurize the egg liquid produced, dry them whole
Many processing and preservation methods have
been adopted like spray drying, tray drying and
freeze drying techniques with very little or no effect
on the qualities of the products (Potter and Hotchkiss,
2006).
Egg industry has become competitive due to
advances in technologies and commercial standards.
To provide better quality product to consumers at
lower price has been driving the technological
innovations in egg industry. Egg powder is widely
used in bakery industry due to its ability of air
trapping while its incorporation with other material,
which gives the characteristic spongy texture to the
product and to produce stable foam. The foam is an
important ingredient in the preparation of bakery
cakes. Foam is a two phase system having a
dispersed phase (usually air) and a continuous
phase. Dispersed phase is larger than the continuous
phase. So dried egg can be used in cookies, biscuits
and cakes just like raw eggs (Alleoni and Antunes,
2004).

The processes mostly used in dried egg production
include pan drying, foam-drying, freeze-drying, and
spray-drying; Spray drying being frequently used
(Guardiola et al., 1995). In this process a liquid
droplet is rapidly dried, when it comes into contact
with a stream of hot air. The small size of the liquid
droplets allows for very rapid drying and the stay time
of the material inside the spray dryer is in the order of
seconds. The dried material is separated from air in a
cyclone separator. The drying rate and the time
required for drying depend on the temperature of the
droplet being dried (Toledo, 1980).
Atomizer is the heart of spray drying process that
disperse the material into very fine particles, in this
way surface area of the feed material is increased
and material is distributed well within the dryer
chamber. The droplets after atomization must not be
large enough that produce partially dried powder
product, nor so small in size that causes difficulty in
recovery of the product. There are several atomizer
configurations; however, the most commonly used
designs are in the configuration of two fluid nozzles,
an ultrasonic nozzle, high-speed rotating disc, airless
atomization nozzles and pressure nozzle. Circulation
of air within the drying chamber makes a flow which
is of well pattern, this avoid the accumulation of
incomplete dried powder product on the atomizer or
walls. The temperature and air movement of inlet
affect the final product (Ronald, 1997).
In addition to the basic components of spray drying
technology, Patel et al. (2009) reported the
temperature of inlet air, temperature of outlet air, the
feed viscosity, the feed solid contents, the feed
surface tension, temperature of feed, nozzle material
and solvent volatility as major parameters of spray
drying system. Spray drying process is an ideal
technique where the final product must have some
precise and good quality standards like residual
moisture content, particle size distribution,
morphology and bulk density. In recent years food
powders production by spray drying technique has
received more attention due to its controllability and
versatility.
In cake production eggs perform different kinds of
functions, providing high loaf volume, tenderness,
structure and nutritional qualities to the product. Due
to high protein contents egg has the ability to form
firm and complex networks with gluten due to its
binding ability. Due to its whipping property and
forming stable foams, it participates in the
development of cake structure and volume. The egg
proteins are denatured upon heating, in this way they
98
Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2015, 6(5):97-102
help in stabilizing and setting the structure of product
crumb. The yolk portion of an egg contains high
lecithin and lipid contents which impart a tenderizing
and emulsifying effect to the product. Egg helps in
stabilizing the emulsion, retaining gas produced by
the leaveners and preventing coalescence of air cell
in the batter, resulting in desirable texture and fine
crumb grain. Egg also imparts significant color, flavor
and enrich nutritional value to cake (DesRochers et
al., 2003).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Procurement of Raw Material: (i) Fresh good
quality eggs were procured from Poultry Farms. The
eggs were candled or dipped in water to confirm their
freshness. During dipping in water fresh eggs
remained at the bottom while rotten eggs start
floating on the surface of water. (ii) Eggs were
cleaned by dusting and washing in order to remove
dirt and other undesirable material to avoid any
contamination.
Deshelling: Eggs were carefully deshelled and
whole egg liquid obtained in a graduated cylinder.
Mixing: Whole egg liquid was mixed in a blender or
mixer during which one drop of hydrogen peroxide
solution was added to free the products from viable
salmonella and to prevent browning of the product.
During mixing, water was added to the whole egg
liquid in order to make a dilution. The whole egg
liquid was mixed with water in order to make fine and
continuous dilution in 1:1 ratio. This procedure was
adopted to prevent and avoid the accumulation of
whole egg liquid particles during spray drying process
and to obtain fine grain powder.
Spray drying: Spray drying process was used to dry
the whole egg liquid into powder form. Small drops of
liquid sample was produced by atomization, high
surface of small drops involve in high mass transfer
rate which lead to less drying time (Fernandez et al.,
2004). The spray drying technology involved: Dilution
of feed material. Feed material atomization. In the
chamber air-droplet contact, the liquid which was
atomized brought in contact with hot gases, which
resulted in 95% evaporation of the water remained in
the droplets within a few seconds. The drying of
droplets and evaporation of moisture takes place in 2
stages, (a) rate of evaporation was relatively constant
during the first stage and there was sufficient
moisture in the drop to replace the liquid evaporated
at the surface (Keey & Pham, 1976), and (b) the
second stage of moisture evaporation began when
there was no longer enough moisture to maintain

saturated conditions at the droplet surface, causing a
dried shell to form at the surface and finally
Separation stage; in which egg powder is formed
(Patel et al., 2009).
Proximate analysis of Egg: Proximate composition
(moisture, fiber, ash, crude protein, crude fat and
NFC) was determined by using the protocols as
described in AOAC (2000) respectively.
Foaming ability: Foaming properties were
determined by foam stability (FS) and foaming
capacity (FC) as described by Ferreira et al. (1995).
The volumes of liquid phase and foam were
determined in Stoppard graduated cylinders.
Foaming Capacity (%) = (FV/ILV) x 100%
Foaming Stability (%) = [(ILV-DV)/ILV] x 100%
Drainage (mL) = LVM-LVS
Where:
FV = volume of foam
ILV = volume of initial liquid phase
DV = volume of drainage
LVM = volume of the liquid phase at t = 60 min after
finishing of foaming
LVS = volume of the liquid phase at t = 30 sec after
finishing of foaming (Chang and Chen, 2000).
Water hydration capacity: Water hydration capacity
was determined as the maximum amount of water
that 1 g of material was imbibing and retain under
low-speed centrifugation. Since only enough water is
added to saturate the sample and not to cause a
liquid phase, measurement is not affected by
solubility of the material. Water hydration capacity
was determined by the method as describe in AACC
method No. 56-30. (AACC, 2000).
Product development: Powdered egg was used in
cake making in place of liquid egg. In the preparation
of powdered egg cake, whole egg powder was used
instead of whole egg liquid at various concentrations
as shown in Table 3.1. Gradual replacement of whole
egg liquid with whole egg powder was done in order
to evaluate the whole egg powder influence on
different characteristics of cake.
Table 3.1: Treatments plan used for this research
Treatments Egg powder %
T0 0 judges on 9-point Hedonic Scale (Land and
T1 25
T2 50
T3 75
T4 100
99
Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2015, 6(5):97-102
Physical analysis of cake:
Color measurement: The color of cakes at different
storage intervals was determined according to
method described by Rocha and Morais (2003) with
the help of hand held tristimulus colorimeter. The
colorimeter was calibrated by using standards (54
CTn for dark and 151 CTn for light). The color of the
cakes was determined by placing the cakes under
the photocell.
Textural analysis: Texture was determined following
the protocol of Piga et al., (2005) using a texture
analyzer (Model. TA-XT2, Stable Microsystems,
Surrey, UK), The Texture Expert program version 4
was used for data analysis. Textural determinations
were made by using a 75 mm Compression Platen
(P/75) for a compression test. Samples were
positioned centrally with the core at right angles to
the direction of force, on the Petri plates. Once a
trigger force of 100 g has been achieved the
compression platen proceeds to move down onto the
spread and a rapid rise in force is observed. During
this stage the sample was deformed under the
applied force but there was no apparent breakdown
of the product. As the compression distance
increased small peaks were seen on the graph
profile, each peak indicating a compressive failure of
the sample. This stage ended abruptly when the test
completed and is indicated by a large decrease in
force. The greater the distance, the greater is the
ability to withstand compression without sample
breakage.
Water activity: Water activity was determined using
hygropalm water activity meter as described by Piga
et al. (2005). Hygropalm is a portable humidity
temperature indicator, it displays the measurements
from the probe connected to the remote unit. The
ground sample was filled in the plastic jar and the
hygro palm probe was inserted in it. The display
shows the water activity (0-1), along with temperature
o
( C) and time (s).
Sensory evaluation: Cake was evaluated for
sensory characteristics such as color, flavor,
o
firmness, taste and overall acceptability at 4 C
temperature in sensory evaluation laboratory by
Shepherd, 1988).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from different parameters were
analyzed Statistically following the Analysis of
Variance interpreted according to Duncan’s Multiple
 Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2015, 6(5):97-102

Range Test at 5% level of significance as described
by (Steel et al., 1997). Conclusively moisture
contents are important factor controlling the shelf life
of egg powder. In the present study moisture content
range was 4.9 ± 0.17% were reported in Table 1. The
fat contents was observed 10.48 ± 0.23. Ash
contents exhibited the ascending order. However, the
differences among these samples were significant
with respect to ash contents. The ash contents in the
present study ranged from 2.4 to 2.81% as shown in
Table 1. Crude fiber was ranging from 0.94 to 1.10%
as shown in Table 1. Crude protein was ranging from
41.56 to 42.18%. The results are in accordance with
the results of Jay (2000), Krause and Maham, (1984),
Vaclavik and Christain, (2008).
Table .1: Proximate analysis of whole egg powder
Chemical Composition Results (%)
Moisture 4.9 ± 0.17
Fat 10.48 ± 0.23
Ash 2.47 ± 0.26
Protein 41.76 ± 0.32
Fiber 1.01 ± 0.07
NFE 39.36 ± 0.15
Water hydration capacity (WHC) of whole egg
powder was observed in the range of 1.9025 to
2.25% in present study as shown in Table 2.
According to Lechevalier et al. (2007) whole egg
powder’s flow and water sorption properties with flow
conditioners and without flow conditioners were
reported. Due to surface modification of the particles,
the egg powder flowability improved by the flow
conditioner sodium silico-aluminate and silica. The
foaming capacities (FC) and foaming stabilities (FS)
which were observed from the analysis of whole egg
powder were in the range of 31 to 36% and 45 to
51% respectively as shown in Table 2. This result is
in accordance with Marques, (2000) who reported the
40% foaming capacity and 59.29% foaming stability
of whole egg powder.
Table .2: Physical analysis of whole egg powder
The present study showed, there was gradual
decrease in moisture content of cake from control T 0
having raw egg to T4 having whole egg powder. T0
had the highest mean value 32.94 and T 4 had the
lowest moisture percentage 25.52. Akhtar et al.
(2006) observed high moisture contents (41.32%) in
commercial cakes available. The cakes made from
high amount of whole egg powder had high
percentages of ash contents as compared to the
cakes which were made from whole egg liquid. As
the mean values of ash percentages increased
gradually from T0 to T4 as 0.90, 1.53, 1.35, 1.78 and
1.99, respectively. The results of this study are in
accordance with the results of Imran (1996), who
reported that the ash content of cake was 0.87%,
however, Akhtar et al. (2006) also reported that
cakes of bakeries were low in ash. There was no
significant difference among the mean values of fat.
Cakes made from whole egg powder and cakes
made from whole liquid egg showed almost similar
results. T0 and T1 had similar values 8.77 and 8.06
respectively, showing slight difference from T 4 value
6.25. There was gradual decrease in fat content from
T0 to T4. So the cakes having high whole egg powder
quantity showed little lower contents of fat as
compared to the cakes having high quantity of whole
egg liquid. This decrease in fat content is not
significant, so the results are almost similar. Tsong-
Ming et al. (2010) reported the similar results of fat
contents of cake made from whole egg powder. As
the fiber contents of T1 and T2 were 1.19 and 1.50
respectively. So by using whole egg powder in place
of raw egg, no much affect was observed in the fiber
contents of cake. Crude protein contents of whole
egg powdered cake showed a linear decrease from
T0 to T4. Tsong-Ming et al. (2010) reported the similar
results.
Table .3: Proximate analysis of cake
Treatments Moisture Ash Fat Fiber Protein
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
T0 32.94a 0.90c 8.77a 0.67c 6.17a
T1 31.17b 1.53bc 8.06b 1.19bc 5.82b

Parameters Results (%) T2 28.47c 1.35b 7.28c 1.50b 5.60bc

WHC 2.1 ± 0.15
T3 27.43d 1.78a 6.50d 2.63a 5.44c
FC 34.33 ± 2.51
T4 25.52e 1.99a 6.25d 2.57a 5.00d
FS 47.66 ± 3.05

100
 Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2015, 6(5):97-102

The means of color for all the treatments determined Table .5: Sensory evaluation of cake
by color meter are given in Table 4.13, it remained treatments Color Flavor firmness Taste Overall
144.67 CTn for the treatment in which 25% egg acceptably
powder was used, which was comparatively higher T0 6.36
e
6.36
e
6.20
e
6.10
e
6.50
e

than other treatments including T 2 (134.33 CTn), T0 d d d d d

T1 6.96 6.90 6.66 6.90 6.86
(132.33 CTn), T4 (119.00 CTn) and T3 (113.67 CTn).
c c c c
These values showed that T 0, T1 and T2 represented T2 7.46 7.50 7.36 7.36 7.43c
almost the similar mean values and these treatments T3 8.33
b
8.30
b
8.36
b
8.10
b
8.26
b

were not considerably different from each other. T4 8.90

a
8.86
a
8.80
a
8.73
a
8.86
a

However results of color change were in accordance

with Matsakidou et al. (2010) who did not find the
effect of whole egg powder replacement treatment on
the cake color. The means for texture of samples
determined by texture analyzer are given in Table
4.15. Texture of cakes was observed, the force
applied on T2, T3 and T4 was 1191.5, 1175.4 and
1157.3 respectively. The results were in agreement
with the findings of Lee and Lin, (2008). However
Kamel and Rasper, (1988) pointed out that the
texture of cakes was directly related to the density of
the tested materials (indirectly to its volume). The
mean values of water activity of whole egg powdered
cake were significant with each other and show
approximately the same results. It showed that water
activity of cake was not affected by replacement of
whole raw egg with whole egg powder. However T 0
had the highest water activity value that was 1.68 and
T4 had the lowest water activity value that was 0.99.
This linear decrease in water activity from T 0 to T4
showed that water activity decreased as the
concentration of egg powder was increased. The
results are in consistant with Masood et al. (2002)
and Tsong-Ming et al. (2010).
Table .4: Physical analysis of cake
Treatments Color Texture Water
activity
T0 132.33b 1789.7a 1.68a
T1 144.67a 1260.9b 1.42b
T2 134.33b 1191.5b 1.32c
c b
T3 113.67 1175.4 1.25c
T4 119.00c 1157.3b 0.99d
The treatment in which 100% whole egg powder was
used in place of whole egg liquid showed the best
results. Because egg powder have high firming and
leavening properties as compared to egg liquid. Thus
T4 containing 100% whole egg powder got maximum
scores as compared to T0. The results of color
change were in accordance with Matsakidou et al.
(2010).
Conclusion: The cakes were prepared by the
replacement of whole egg liquid with the whole egg
spray dried powder. Moisture contents of cake can
adversely affect the shelf life of the cake. High
moisture content can deteriorate the cake rapidly due
to facilitating heavy growth of microorganisms. The
present study showed that there was gradual
decrease in moisture content of cake from control T 0
having raw egg to T4 having 100% whole egg
powder. T0 had the highest mean value 32.94 % and
T4 had the lowest moisture percentage 25.52 %.
There was gradual decrease in fat content from T 0 to
T4. So the cakes having high whole egg powder
quantity showed lower contents of fat as compared to
the cakes having high quantity of whole egg liquid. T3
and T4 showed the highest contents of fiber 2.63 and
2.57% respectively while the cake made solely from
raw egg (control) showed the lowest contents of fiber
0.67%. Crude protein contents of whole egg
powdered cake showed a linear decrease from T0 to
T4. Control showed high contents of protein while as
the amount of egg powder increase within the cake
the contents of protein began to decrease. Thus it
has been concluded from this research that Spray
drying is an excellent technique for converting whole
egg liquid into whole egg powder to preserve eggs.
As, the Eggs are excellent source of high quality
proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals. Whole egg
powder is easy to handle, transport and showed
excellent functional properties like foaming, firmness
and increase of loaf volume during baking process.
REFERENCES
th
AACC. 2000. Approved Methods of Analysis. 11 ed.,
AACC International, St. Paul, MN, USA.
Akhtar, M.S., N. Zulifqar., N. Ahmad., N. Bhatti and A. Ali.
2006. Nutritive value of some bakery products from
selected bakeries in Faisalabad. Pak. J. Food Sci. 16
(1): 914-915.
Alleoni, A. and A. Antunes. 2004. Albumen foam stability
and ovalbumin contents in eggs coated with whey

101

protein concentrate. Brazil. J. Poultry Sci. 6(2): 105-
110.
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). 2000.
Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of
th
Official Analytical Chemists, 17 ed. Washington, D.C.
Chang, Y.I. and T.C. Chen. 2000. Functional and gel
characteristics of liquid whole egg as affected by pH
alteration. J. Food Eng. 45: 237-241.
DesRochers, J.L., K.D. Seitz and C.E. Walker. 2003.
Chemistry of baking. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2(8): 760-765.
Fernandez-perez, V., J. Tapiador, A. Martin and M.D. luque
de-castro. 2004. Optimization of drying step for
preparing a new commercial powdered soup. Innov.
Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 5: 361-668.
Ferreira, M., R. Benringer and R. Jost. 1995. Instrumental
method for characterizing protein foams. J. Food Sci.
60: 90–93.
Guardiola, F., C. Rafael, M. Dave, R. Magda and B. Josep.
1995. Oxysterol formation in egg powder and
relationship with other quality parameters. J. Agri.
Food Chem. 43: 1903-1907.
th
Jay, M.J. 2000. Modern Food Microbiology. 6 ed. Aspen
Publishers Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland. 68-70.
Kamel, B. S. and V.F. Rasper. 1988. Effects of emulsifiers,
sorbitol, polydextrose, and crystalline cellulose on the
texture of reduced-calorie cakes. Journal of Texture
Studies, 19, 307–320.
Keey, R.B. and Q.T. Pham. 1976. Behavior of spray driers
with nozzle atomizers. J. Chem. Eng. 311: 516-521.
Krause, M.V. and Mahan L.K, 1984. Food and Diet
th
Therapy. 7 ed. W.B Saunders Press Coy., Portugal.
Land, D.G. and R. Shepherd. 1988. Scaling and Ranking
Methods. In: Piggott, J.R. (Ed.) Sensory Evaluation of
Foods. Elsevier Applied Science. London. 123-126.
Lechevalier, V., R. Jeantet, A. Arhaliass, J. Legrand and F.
Nau. 2007. Egg white drying: Influence of industrial
processing steps on protein structure and
functionalities. J. Food Engg. 83: 404–413.
Lee, C. C. and S.D. Lin. 2008. Effect of GABA tea on
quality characteristics of chiffon cake. Cereal
Chemistry, 85: 31–38.
lmran, M. 1996. Effect of Soy and Oat Flour
Supplementation on the Quality of Biscuits and Cakes.
M.Sc. Thesis, Deptt. of Food Tech., Uni. Agri.
Faisalabad, Pakistan.
102
Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2015, 6(5):97-102
Marques, M.B. 2000. Development of some high protein
conventional foods based on wheat and oil seed flour.
J. Food Sci. Tech. 37(4): 394-399.
Masood, F.A., B. Sharma and G.S. Chauhan. 2002. Use of
apple as a source of dietary fiber in cakes. Plant Foods
for Human Nutr. 57: 121-128.
Matsakidou, A., G. Blekas and G. Paraskevopoulou. 2010.
Aroma and physical characteristics of cakes prepared
by replacing margarine with extra virgin olive oil. Food
Science and Technology, 43: 949–957
Patel, R.P., M.P. Patel and A.M. Suthar. 2009. Spray
drying technology: an overview. Ind. J. Food Sci. Tech.
2(10): 44-47.
Piga, A., P. Catzeddu, S. Farris, T. Roggio and E. Scano.
2005. Textural evaluation of Amaretti cookies during
storage. Food Research Tech. 221: 387-391.
th
Potter, N. and J. Hotchkiss. 2006. Food Science. 5 ed.
CBS Publisher and Distributors, Dehli, India.
Rocha, A.M.C.N. and A.M.M.B. Morais. 2003. Shelf life of
minimally processed apple determined by colour
changes. Food Control. 14: 13-20.
Ronald, C.D. 1997. Spray drying innovative use of an old
process. J. Design Elements. 7: 97-113.
Steel, R.G.D., J.H. Torrie and D.A. Dickey. 1997. Principles
and Procedures of Statistics: A Biometrical Approach.
rd
3 Ed. McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, USA.
Surai, P.F. and N.H.C. Sparks. 2001. Designer eggs: from
improvement of egg composition to functional food.
Trends in Food Sci. Tech. 12: 7-16.
Toledo, R.T. 1980. Fundamentals of Food Process
Engineering. Westport: AVI. 370-372.
Tsong-Ming L., L. Ching-Ching, M. Jeng-Leun and L.
Sheng-Dun. 2010. Quality and antioxidant property of
green tea sponge cake. Food Chem. 119: 1090-1095.
Vaclavik, A.V. and W.E. Christain. 2008. Essentials of Food
Science. Springer Science Business Media , LLC. New
York. 205-230.
Watkins, B.A. 1995. The nutritive value of the egg. In:
Stadelman, W.J. and O.J. Cotterill (Eds.), Egg science
th
and technology. 4 ed. Food Product Press.
Binghamton, NY. 177-194.
Weggemans, R.M., P.L. Zock and M.B. Kata. 2001. Dietary
cholesterol from eggs increases the ratio of total
cholesterol to high-density lipoproteins cholesterol in
humans: a meta-analysis. Amr. J. Clin. Nutr. 73: 855-
891.