PROJECT REPORT

ON

NETWORKING

S.No. TOPIC
1 INTRODUCTION
2 LITERATURE RIEVIEW
3 NETWORKING
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
3.1.1 MODELS OF NETWORKING
3.1.2 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKING
3.1.2.1 LAN
3.1.2.2 CAN
3.1.2.3 MAN
3.1.2.4 WAN
3.2 OSI MODEL
3.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT LAYER
3.3 IP ADDRESSES AND MAC ADDRESSES
3.3.1 IP CLASS ADDRESSING
3.3.1.1 HOW TO ASSIGN IP ADDRESS TO COMPUTER
3.3.1.2 HOW TO ASSIGN IP ADDRESS TO WINDOW 2008
3.3.2 MAC ADDRESSING
3.4 NETWORKING MEDIA
3.4.1 ETHERNET CABLING
3.4.1.1 STRAIGHT CABLE
3.4.1.2 CROSSOVER CABLE
3.4.1.3 ROLLED CABLE
3.5 DNS SERVER
3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM
3.5.2 DNS ZONE
3.6 SUBNETTING
3.6.1 ADVANTAGES OF SUBNETTING
3.6.2 TYPES OF SUBNETTING
4 CONCLUSION
 Objective of Training

For a number of years, it has become the fashion as well as need to develop your skills in
technical exploration and ingrains in you as a habit. This habit becomes your lifelong ally in
the race to stay on top of the situation. In the ever-changing industry, the ability to explore
and assimilate new knowledge is vital. Therefore, for making us up to date, confident, self-
reliant, potential power to cope with the problems creatively and introducing us to the live,
real practical scenario of the programming world and also bringing many interesting
experiences in its wake which aims at imparting quality technical knowledge and education
and innate talent with experiences, the college organized a project centric curriculum in the
form of 4 month industrial training which was really progressive to achieve the desired
excellence in implementation of learning and self-confidence.
 1. INTRODUCTION

Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of

electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range.
All the organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to
perform their day to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data ,
share folders and files with other users connected in a network. Computer
Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking
processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
3. Networking

3.1 Introduction to Networking

Networking is a practice of linking of two or more computing devices such as PCs, printers, faxes etc., with
each other Connection between two devices is through physical media or logical media to share information,
data and resources. Networks are made with the hardware and software.

Cable/me dia
Fig 1: computer network

3.1.1 Models of Networking

Model means the connectivity of two computers. We have many types of networking models.
1.Client – Server Model
2.Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)
3.Domain Model

1.Client –Server Model

In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share the resources of server, but
a server cannot share the resources on clients.On the point of view of administrator it’s very easy to control the
network because we combine with the server also at security point of view. It is very useful because it uses
user level security in which users have to remember only one password to share the resources.

2.Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)

In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we cannot manage centralization,
administration secutity. In Peer to Perr networking client use operating system like Window 98, Window XP,
Window 2000, Window Vista.

3.Domain Model
It is a mixture of client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can share their resources as peer-to-peer
but with the permission of the server as in client server model therefore it is commonly used model because in
this security is more as we can put restriction on both server and clients.

Difference between Workgroup & Domain

Workgroup Domain
1.It is a peer to peer networking model. 1..It is a server based networking model.
2.There is no client and no server. All the 2.There is a centralized dedicated server computer called
computers are in equal status. domain controller which controls all other computers called
clients.
3.This model is recommended for large networks.
3.This model is recommended for small
networks, upto 10 computers. 4.There is centralized administration and each PC can be
administrated and managed from the server.
4.There is no centralized administrated
separatrly. 5.In this model high grade OS like WIN 2000/2008 Server
can be used.
5.In this model, low grade OS like 2000/XP
professional, WIN 98 etc. can be used.
6.Users accounts are created in each PC and are 6.Users accounts are created on the server side and are
called as Local Users. called Domain Users.

3.1.2 Categories of network

Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the network. Computer network are
divided into four categories includes: Local Area Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN),
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN).

3.1.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a computer network that is used to connect computers and work station to share data and resources
such as printers or faxes. LAN is restricted to a small area such as home, office or college. Devices used in
LAN are HUB and switch. Media for LAN is UTP cables.
Figure 1.2 shows how all work stations, server and printer are interconnected with the help of the network
device.
Fig 2: Local Area Network

Types of LAN used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring and Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classification. In LANs, data can be transferred
using techniques like token passing. As per techniques

Fig 3: LAN classification Advantages of LAN

a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure.
b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results in fast work.
Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.

3.1.2.2 Campus Area Network (CAN)

Campus Area Network is a computer network made up of two or more LANs within a limited area. It can
cover many buildings in an area. The main feature of CAN is that all of the computers which are connected
together have some relationship to each other e.g. different buildings in a campus can be connected using
different CAN. It will help to interconnect academic departments, library and computer laboratories. CAN is
larger than LAN but smaller than WAN

Fig 4: Campus Area Network

Devices used in CAN are : HUB, Switch, Layer-3 switch, Access Point .And the media used for CAN is
Unshielded twisted pair of cables and Fiber Optics Cable.

3.1.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is the interconnection of networks in a city. MAN is not owned by a single organization. It act as a high
speed network to allow sharing resources with in a city. MAN can also be formed by connecting remote LANs
through telephone lines or radio links.
MAN supports data and voice transmission. The best example of MAN is cable T.V network.

3.1.2.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN covers a wide geographical area which include multiple computers or LANs. It connects
computer networks through public networks like, telephone system, microwave, satellite link or leased line.
Most of the WANs use leased lines for internet access as they provide faster data transfer. WAN helps an
organization to establish network between all its departments and offices located in the same or different cities.
It also enables communication between the organization and rest world.
Devices used in WAN is only Router.

3.2 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model

OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network. OSI provides following
advantages: -
1. Development of new technology will be faster.
2. Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
3. Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.

3.2.1 Description of Different Layers

Application Layer
Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates user interface between
application software and protocol stack.

Presentation Layer
This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs other function like
compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.

Session Layer
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications. Due to this layer
multiple application software can be executed at the same time.

Transport Layer
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less communication.
Transport layer also performs other functions like
1.Error checking
2. Flow Control
Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
Sequencing
3.Positive Acknowledgement
4.Response

Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path determination. Each networking device has a
physical address that is MAC address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of addressing is used to simplify
implementation of large network. Some examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and ARP etc. to perform the path
determination for different routing protocol. Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining
quality of service, fragmentation and protocol identification.
Data Link Layer
The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers
1.Logical Link Control
2.Media Access Control
(a) Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the NIC to delivered data to destination.
Some examples of Logical Link Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 Wi-Fi.
(b) Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and establish the identity with the help
of MAC address. Some examples of Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.

Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this layer deals with the standard defined for
media and signals. This layer may also perform modulation and demodulation as required.

3.3 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses

It is also called as logical addresses. IP is a 32 bit long and it is divided into 4 octets and dot (.) is used to
separate one octet from another. It is represented in the form of decimals. There are two versions of IP
addresses:

- IPv4

- IPv6
Table 2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 IPv6

1.It is 32 bit long. 1.It is 128 bit long.

2.It is divided into 4 octets.
3.Ipv4 performs broadcasting, multicasting
and unicasting.
4.IPv4 is divided into 5 classes:
A to E.
5.IPv4 is in decimal form.
2.It is divided into 16 octets.
3.IPv6 doesn’t support broadcasting, it
performs multicasting and unicasting.
4.Ipv6 doesn’t support classes.
5.IPv6 is in hexadecimal form.

3.3.1 IP Classes Address

IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely Class A, Class
 B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP defines Class D for experimental purpose. TCP /IP address contains
two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network address and host address as shown in figure
3.1

NETWORK HOST ADDRESS

ADDRESS
0 bits 31 bits

Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16-bit network ID and 16-bit of
host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network ID and 8-bit of host ID.
Address Classes
Table 3: Address Classes `

Addres Starting Range of First Mask Value Valid Hosts

s Bits Octet
Class (first-byte)

Class A 0 1to 127 255.0.0.0 256*256*256-2=

16,777,214

Class B 10 128 to 191 255.255.0.0 256*256-2=65,534

Class C 110 192 to 223 255.255.255.0 256-2

Class D 1110 224 to 239 Reserved for multicasting

Class E 1111 240 to 255 Reserved for research and development

3.3.1.1 How to Assign IP Address to Computer
An IP address assigned to a computer may either be permanent address or address that is assigned to a
computer on a time lease or for temporary basis. Hence, the address granted to computers is divided into two
categories Dynamic IP addresses and Static addresses.
Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary connectivity to the network or non-
permanent devices such as portable computer. The most common protocol used for assigning Dynamic IP
address is DHCP also called Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the
computer on lease basis.

Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in the network remains for a
longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific
device for longer time e.g. Server.

3.3.1.2 How to Configure IP Address in window 7

 Right click on My Network Places- properties
 Right click on working LAN card- properties
 Select internet protocol (TCP/IP) -properties
 Tick on- Use the following IP addresses - now fill the IP address e.g 10.0.0.1
 Tick on –Use the following DNS server address
 Fill the preferred DNS server – 10.0.0.1
 Ok
 Close
Now check the connectivity of computer with itself with command
Start-run-cmd-ping 10.0.0.1

3.3.2 MAC Addressing

MAC address is a hardware address that is embedded in the NIC card. It is also known as hardware address or
physical address. Every NIC card has a unique MAC address assigned by IEEE.
Mac address is used to identify the nodes at lower levels of OSI model. The MAC address operates at the data
link layer of the OSI model.
MAC address is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit address). It is made up of numbers from 0-9 or a letter
from A-F. MAC address can be written in any one of the formats:

► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS ► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

T o identify the MAC address in window:

  Click Start →Run
 Enter cmd in the Open text book
 Type ipconfig /all
 Press Enter

The 12 digit MAC address will be shown as say 00:11:11:EA:8D:F6

3.4 NETWORKING MEDIA

To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media.
1.Coaxial Cable
2.Fiber optic cable
3.Twisted Pair of Cables
4.Micro- wave Satellite

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube shaped copper braid outer
copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is
basically of two types:

(i) Base Band Cable (RG – 59)

(ii) Broad Band Cable (RG – 58)

We used Base Band signal cable in Networking of Computers, It is so called because it carries single
frequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 Ω. Where as Broad Band Cables carries multiple
frequencies. Connector used for Coaxial cable is BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-
62 coaxial cable. It has an impedance of 93 Ω and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater
distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation factor.

Fiber Optical Cable propagation factor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure transmission media.
Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of glass, one for the inner core and the other
for the outer layer. Here signal is transmitted in the form of light. Different varieties of fiber optics is used
depending on the size of the network. Single mode fiber optics is used for networks spanning longer distance.
Fiber Optics has lower

Twisted Pair Cable

There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI (Electro Magnetic Induction).these cables
are easy to terminate. However they have a slightly higher value of attenuation value and hence have limited
distance covering capacity. Connector used for Twisted Pair of Cable is (Registered Jack) RJ-45 and RJ-11.
There are two types of twisted pair of cables:
 STP (Shielded Twisted Pair):
In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped over the inner cover which holds copper
in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal from external noise.

 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra protection from noise.
There are different categories of UTP cables:
Categories of UTP Cables
Category and Speed of UTP cables

Category Speed

CAT-1 56 Kbps
CAT-2 4 Mbps
CAT-3 10 Mbps
CAT-4 16-20 Mbps
CAT-5 100 Mbps
CAT-6 1Gbps
CAT-7 1Gbps

3.4.1 Ethernet Cabling

There are three types of Ethernet cables:
• Straight cable
• Crossover cable
• Rolled cable

3.4.1.1 Straight cable

It is used when we have to connect
• PC TO Switch
 • PC to Hub
• Hub to Router
• Switch to Route
Colour Coding for straight Cable

568A 568B

(one end) (other end) (one end) (other end)

Green/white Green/white Orange/white Orange/white

Green Green Orange Orange
Orange/white Blue Orange/white Blue Green/white Green/white
Blue/white Blue/white Blue Blue
Orange Orange Blue/white Blue/white
Brown/white Brown/white Green Green
Brown Brown Brown/white Brown/white
Brown Brown

3.4.1.2 Crossover Cable

It is used when we have to connect:
• PC to PC
• Hub to Hub
• Switch to switch
• Router to Router
• PC to Router
• Hub to Switch
Colour Coding for Crossover cable

(one end) (other end)

Orange/white Green/white
Orange Green
Green/white Orange/white
Blue Blue
Blue/white Blue/white
Green Green
Brown/white Brown/white
Brown Brown

3.4.1.3 Rollover Cable

Rollover cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together, but
Rollover cable can be used to connect a host to a router console serial communication (com) port.

NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover cables are not used for
data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables
Colour Coding for Rollover Cable

568A 568B

(one end) (other end) (one end) (other end)

Green/white Brown Orange/white Brown

Green Brown/white Orange Brown/white
Orange/white Orange Green/white Green
Blue Blue/white Blue Blue/white
Blue/white Blue Blue/white Blue
Orange Orange/white Green Green/white
Brown/white Green Brown/white Orange
Brown Green/white Brown Orange/white

3.5 DNS SERVER

DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology for managing the names of
websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows you to type names into your web browser like
computer networking, about computer and allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet.
DNS is the resolution mechanism used by Window Server 2008 clients to find other computers and services
running on those computers for computers in a window 2008 network infrastructure to talk to one another, one
of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not communicate globally but communicate
locally, but if domain name is added along with it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use
for name reservation i.e. to convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of
DNS is to resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only user friendly name
and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC address DNS is use to solve this problem
because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (fully qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address
to host name .

3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM

1. Host name
2. Domain name
3. FQDN
4. Namespace
5. DNS server

HOST NAME
Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic Input/ output system)
name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can use the transport services of TCP/ IP when
used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is 16- byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the
network.
DOMAIN NAME
Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the location without having to
remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or gmail.com
FQDN
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the parent name space in
hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of namespace are visualize as in fig below this
hierarchy is visualized─ the root level namespace, top─ level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet
today. Left most portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an IP
address.
Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN
FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identify host id and location of a computer as
in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1 with IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2 nd floor in the
organization center. The FQDN for this is
Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com
But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use “c name” technique as:
Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1
Domain Namespace
DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an organized, hierarchical division
of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily locate the network services and resources. The
domain namespace include the root domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these
domain in a hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure of root domain.
There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There
is one root domain, which acts as the starting point of the fully qualified domain names. This root domain is
designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2 shows the tree structure or domain namespace.

Fig 7: Tree structure or Domain Namespace

DNS server
Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to convert host name
FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To store the name-to-IP-addresses mappings so
crucial to network communication, name server uses zone files.
3.8 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into smaller parts or smaller
networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie
instead of having a single huge network for an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge
network. Subnetting allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id. This process borrows bits from
the host id field. In this process, the network size does not shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in
order to include sub-networks within the network.

3.8.1 Advantages of Subnetting

• Size of the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage.
• Reduce network traffic.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Reduce the wastage of IP address.

Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifying a sub network. A subnet mask
when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit network address. This binary address gives the first
address in the subnet block specified in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used for subnet.Each class has a default
subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the network address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B
consists of 16 1s in network address field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the
network address field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted-decimal is

shown in the table

To Calculate the Subnet Mask

1. Identify the class of address assigned. For this example the class of
IP address is Class B.
2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert
it to binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0
and the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16
1s in class B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for
host id.
4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next
no. that is power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra
1s in the network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field.
5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s
are of additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-
20=12. which defines whole address.
6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
and in decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask

Decimal Binary

0 00000000
10000000
128 192 224 11000000
240 248 252 11100000
254 11110000
255 11111000
11111100
11111110
11111111

3.8.2 Types of Subnetting

• Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)
• Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

Steps of Subnetting for FLSM For IP address 192.168.10.0 (Class C) Step 1:

• Identify the total no. of subnets 2^n = no.of subnets
• Where n are the no.s and borrowed bytes from host ID portion. Let we are
given that we have to make 4 subnets. Therefore 2^n =4 i.e n=2

Step 2:
• To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.
• 2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID
2^6-2=62 Step 3:
• Calculate the subnet mask and range
• Subnet mask for n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie
255.255.255.192
• range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
• Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
 Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address

Subnetwork Valid Host Broadcast Address

192.168.10.0 192.168.10.1
192.168.10.63 192.168.10.63

192.168.10.64 192.168.10.65 to 192.168.10.127

192.168.10.126 to
192.168.10.128 to 192.168.10.191
192.168.10.129 to
192.168.10.192 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.255

192.168.10.193
192.168.10.254

VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The network having more no of
hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host comes at last and for each network the subnet is
assigned separately. As in the scenario given:

Fig 19: variable subnet mask

 CONCLUSION

The topic NETWORKING has been studied with all its components. Also, its use has
been studied and it was clear that we use EIGRP protocols in Northern Railway and in
Rest of Zones we use OSPF.