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BSHF -101 EM

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Note: All questions are compulsory. Marks are indicated against each question.
DCQ: Answer any two in about 500 words each.

2 . Are the Fundamental Rights are basic to our Constitution? Discuss.

SOLUTION . people in democratic countries enjoy certain rights, which are protected by judicial system of the
country concerned. Their violation, even by the State, is not allowed by the courts. India respects the rights of the
people, which are listed in our Constitution, under the heading “Fundamental Rights”. In lesson, a mention has
been made of the Fundamental Rights as one of the salient features of the Constitution. In this lesson, we will
discuss in detail various Fundamental Rights which are incorporated in chapter III of the Constitution. Importance
Of Fundamental Rights The rights, which are enshrined in the Constitution, are called ‘Fundamental Rights’.
These rights ensure the fullest physical, mental and moral development of every citizen. They include those basic
freedoms and conditions which alone can make life worth living. Fundamental Rights generate a feeling of
security amongst the minorities in the country. They establish the framework of ‘democratic legitimacy’ for the
rule of the majority. No democracy can function in the absence of basic rights such as freedom of speech and
expression. Fundamental Rights provide standards of conduct, citizenship, justice and fair play. They serve as a
check on the government. Various social, religious, economic and political problems in our country make
Fundamental Rights important. In our Constitution, Fundamental Rights are enumerated in Part III from Article 14
to 32. These rights are justiciable. Our Constitution does not permit the legislature and the executive to curb
these rights either by law or by an executive order. The Supreme Court or the High Courts can set aside any law
that is found to be infringing or abridging the Fundamental Rights. You will read about it in detail in the lesson on
‘Judiciary’. Some of the Fundamental Rights are also enjoyed by foreigners, for example, the Right to Equality
before Law and Right to Freedom of Religion are enjoyed by both i.e. citizens as well as foreigners. The
Fundamental Rights though justifiable are not absolute.

The Constitution empowers the government to impose certain restrictions on the enjoyment of our rights in the
interest of public good. Seven Fundamental Rights were enshrined in the Constitution of India. However the Right

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to Property was removed from the list of Fundamental Rights by the 44th Amendment Act of the Constitution in
the year 1976. Since then, it has been made a legal right. There are now six Fundamental Rights.
The Fundamental Rights are:
1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
6. Right to Constitutional Remedy

Recently by the 86th Amendment Act, the Right to Education has been included in the list of Fundamental Rights
as part of the Right to Freedom by adding Article 21(A). Fundamental Rights have been incorporated in part III of
our Constitution from article 14- 32. These rights protect and safeguard the dignity and status of the citizens.
These rights are justiciable i.e. are enforceable by the court of law. At present there are six Fundamental Rights.
Recently by an Amendment Act of the Constitution, Right to Education has been added. These Rights are not
absolute, reasonable restrictions can be imposed on these rights in the interest of peace, national defence,
morality, common good and good relations with other countries. The first right that comes under Fundamental
Rights is the Right to Equality.

Under the Constitution, all are equal before law and the state cannot discriminate between citizens on the basis
of religion, race, sex, place of birth or any of them. Untouchability has been abolished and made an offence
punishable by law. The state has been forbidden from conferring honorary titles on citizens that create social
disparities. Right to Freedom has been granted for the all round development of the body, mind and spirit of all
the citizens. It provides six freedoms to citizens. This Right helps protection of life and personal liberty. It also
protects the individual from arbitrary arrest and detention. Our Constitutions prohibits traffic in human beings
and forced labour. Employment of children below the age of fourteen years in mines, factories and hazardous
jobs is banned. India is a multi religious country. Our Constitution neither promotes nor interferes in their
religious affairs. India believes in secularism. Every religious community is free to establish, maintain and run its
own religious institutions. Every citizen has been granted freedom to profess and propagate his/her religion.

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Cultural and Educational rights provide the right to conserve our culture. Educational institutions maintained by
the state on getting financial aid from the state cannot refuse MODULE – 2 Notes 67 Fundamental Rights Aspects
of the Constitution of India admission to children on the grounds of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
The minorities have been given the right to establish and manage institutions of their own for the preservation
and propagation of their language and culture. While giving financial aid to any institution, the state will not
discriminate on the basis of religion or language. Lastly the Constitution guarantees enjoyment of Fundamental
Rights by citizens under the Right to Constitutional Remedies. The Supreme Court and High Courts have been
given powers to issue orders, directions and writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights . Dr. B.R Ambedkar
has rightly called the writs as the “ Soul of the part III of the Constitution”

4. What do you understand by the term 'human security'? Discuss.

SOLUTION. Human security refers to the security of people and communities, as opposed to the security of
states. It recognizes that there are many different dimensions to feeling safe, ranging from freedom from fear,
freedom from want and freedom to live in dignity. A people-centred approach to security has implications for
how we do and understand conflict assessment, programme planning, implementation and evaluation of peace
building initiatives. It addresses sustainable peace by recognising the social, economic and political grievances
that are often at the root of violent conflict and societal violence. It challenges us to consider participative ways
of doing and evaluating our work. The human security approach is not only centred on people as objects of
interventions, but also as providers of security in their own right. The concept of human security represents a
powerful, but controversial, attempt by sections of the academic and policy community to redefine and broaden
the meaning of security. Traditionally, security meant protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
states from external military threats. This was the essence of the concept of ‘national security’, which dominated
security analysis and policy-making during the cold war period. In the 1970s and 1980s, academic literature on
security, responding to the Middle East oil crisis and the growing awareness of worldwide environmental
degradation, began to think of security in broader, non-military terms. Yet, the state remained the object of
security, or the entity that is to be protected. The concept of human security challenges the state-centric notion
of security by focusing on the individual as the main referent object of security. Human security is about security
for the people, rather than of states or governments. As such, it has generated much debate.

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Critics wonder whether such an approach would widen the boundaries of security studies too much, and whether
‘securitizing’ the individual is the best way to address the challenges facing the international community from the
forces of globalization. On the other side, advocates of human security find the concept to be an important step
forward in highlighting the dangers to human safety and survival posed by poverty, disease, environmental
stress, human rights abuses, as well as armed conflict. These disagreements notwithstanding, the concept of
human security captures a growing realization that, in an era of rapid globalization, it must encompass a broader
range of concerns and challenges than simply defending the state from external military attack. Critics of the
concept argue that its vagueness undermines its effectiveness, that it has become little more than a vehicle for
activists wishing to promote certain causes, and that it does not help the research community understand what
security means or help decision makers to formulate good policies. Alternatively, other scholars have argued that
the concept of human security should be broadened to encompass military security: 'In other words, if this thing
called ‘human security’ has the concept of ‘the human’ embedded at the heart of it, then let us address the
question of the human condition directly. Thus understood, human security would no longer be the vague
amorphous add-on to harder edged areas of security such as military security or state security The emergence of
the human security discourse was the product of a convergence of factors at the end of the Cold War. These
challenged the dominance of the neorealist paradigm’s focus on states, “mutually assured destruction” and
military security and briefly enabled a broader concept of security to emerge. The increasingly rapid pace of
globalisation; the failure of liberal state building through the instruments of the Washington Consensus; the
reduced threat of nuclear war between the superpowers, the exponential rise in the spread and consolidation of
democratisation and international human rights norms opened a space in which both ‘development’ and
concepts of ‘security’ could be reconsidered. At the same time the increasing number of internal violent conflicts
in Africa, Asia and Europe (Balkans) resulted in concepts of national and international security failing to reflect
the challenges of the post Cold War security environment while the failure of neoliberal development models to
generate growth particularly in Africa, or to deal with the consequences of complex new threats (such as HIV and
climate change) reinforce the sense that international institutions and states were not organised to address such
problems in an integrated way.

MCQ: Answer any four questions in about 250 words each.

6. What do you understand by the term 'renaissance'. Discuss.

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SOLUTION Renaissance , (French: “Rebirth”) period in European civilization immediately following the Middle
Ages and conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and values.
The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution of the
Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy , the decline of the feudal system and the growth of
commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovations as paper, printing , the
mariner’s compass, and gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of
the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.
Origins And Rise Of Humanism
The term Middle Ages was coined by scholars in the 15th century to designate the interval between the downfall
of the Classical world of Greece and Rome and its rediscovery at the beginning of their own century, a revival in
which they felt they were participating. Indeed, the notion of a long period of cultural darkness had been
expressed by Petrarch even earlier. Events at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly beginning in the 12th
century, set in motion a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations that culminated in the
Renaissance. These included the increasing failure of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire to
provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and material life, the rise in importance
of city-states and national monarchies, the development of national languages, and the breakup of the old feudal
structures. Humanism had several significant features. First, it took human nature in all of its various
manifestations and achievements as its subject. Second, it stressed the unity and compatibility of the truth found
in all philosophical and theological schools and systems, a doctrine known as syncretism . Third, it emphasized
the dignity of man. From Italy the new humanist spirit and the Renaissance it engendered spread north to all
parts of Europe, aided by the invention of printing, which allowed literacy and the availability of Classical texts to
grow explosively. Artistic Developments And The Emergence Of Florence It was in art that the spirit of the
Renaissance achieved its sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of knowledge, valuable in its own
right and capable of providing man with images of God and his creations as well as with insights into man’s
position in the universe. In the hands of men such as Leonardo da Vinci it was even a science , a means for
exploring nature and a record of discoveries. Art was to be based on the observation of the visible world and
practiced according to mathematical principles of balance, harmony, and perspective , which were developed at
this time. In the works of painters such as Masaccio , the brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti , Fra Angelico ,
Sandro Botticelli , Perugino , Piero della Francesca ,

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Raphael , and Titian ; sculptors such as Giovanni Pisano , Donatello , Andrea del Verrocchio , Lorenzo Ghiberti ,
and Michelangelo ; and architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Filippo Brunelleschi , Andrea Palladio ,
Michelozzo , and Filarete , the dignity of man found expression in the arts.

In Italy the Renaissance proper was preceded by an important “proto-renaissance” in the late 13th and early
14th centuries, which drew inspiration from Franciscan radicalism. St. Francis of Assisi had rejected the formal
Scholasticism of the prevailing Christian theology and gone out among the poor praising the beauties and
spiritual value of nature. The great poet Dante lived at about the same time as Giotto, and his poetry shows a
similar concern with inward experience and the subtle shades and variations of human nature . Although his
Divine Comedy belongs to the Middle Ages in its plan and ideas, its subjective spirit and power of expression look
forward to the Renaissance. Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio also belong to this proto-renaissance period, both
through their extensive studies of Latin literature and through their writings in the vernacular . Unfortunately, the
terrible plague of 1348 and subsequent civil wars submerged both the revival of humanistic studies and the
growing interest in individualism and naturalism revealed in the works of Giotto and Dante. The spirit of the
Renaissance did not surface again until the 15th century.

7. What do you understand by the term 'social structure'?

SOLUTION . The word structure meant originally, the construction of building. Gradually, structure began to
imply inter-relations between the parts of any whole. It also began to be used in anatomical studies. The concept
of social structure became popular amongst the sociologists and social anthropologists, in the decade following
World War II. During that period it became so fashionable to use this term, that it came to be applied to “almost
any ordered arrangement of social phenomenon” (see Leach 1968 : 482). It is essential to look at the different
ways, in which sociologists and social anthropologists, have applied this concept. In this process you will learn
how it was understood by the structural-functionalists, the structuralists, and the Marxists – the three main
schools of sociological thought. But before proceeding to these three views of social structure, let us also look at
the difference between social structure and social organisation. We also briefly mention how some scholars used
the notion of social structure in terms of social groups and roles. Social structure is sometimes defined simply as
patterned social relations—those regular and repetitive aspects of the interactions between the members of a

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given social entity. Even on this descriptive level, the concept is highly abstract: it selects only certain elements
from ongoing social activities. The larger the social entity considered, the more abstract the concept tends to
be. For this reason, the social structure of a small group is generally more closely related to the daily activities of
its individual members than is the social structure of a larger society. In the study of larger social groups, the
problem of selection is acute: much depends on what is included as components of the social structure. Various
theories offer different solutions to this problem of determining the primary characteristics of a social group .
Fred Eggan, an American anthropologist, describes that the component or units of social structure, are around
the interpersonal relations which ‘become part of the social structure in the form of status positions’ occupied by
individuals. He was not the only one who has defined social structure in terms of social status and position
occupied by individuals in society. One of the major theories of social structure has been outlined by Nadal in his
book, The Theory of Social Structure (1969). He, too, has defined social structure in terms of the roles played by
the individual actors in society and their consequent social status. Nadel (1969 : 5) says : “We arrive at the
structure of a society through abstracting from the concrete population and its behaviour the pattern or network
(or “system”) of relationships obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another”.
His definition of roles is far more specific than the one given by most other sociologists.

10. Who are the Scheduled Tribes?

SOLUTION. SCHEDULED TRIBES India's Constitution, enacted on 26 January 1950, established compensatory
benefits for members of India's "scheduled tribes." For centuries, tribes in India had been called "aboriginals,"
"hill tribes," "forest tribes," "animists," "backward Hindus," "criminal tribes," "primitive tribes," "backward
tribes," and "depressed classes." They generally spoke their own languages, observed their own political and
cultural patterns, lived in isolated areas, and were regarded as economically and socially "backward." In the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Indian and European reformers called on the British government of
India to do something to improve the lot of India's most disadvantaged groups. The 1935 Government of India
Act announced that certain "degraded" groups in India would have special electoral representation in India's
forthcoming elections. In anticipation, in 1936 India's provincial governments prepared lists ("schedules") of local
groups meeting the "degraded" criteria. Castes considered to be "degraded" because they suffered ritual
disabilities (such as denial of admission to Hindu temples) were called scheduled castes (SCs). Tribes considered
to be "degraded" were referred to as "backward tribes." The 1941 census recorded 24.5 million tribals (about

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6.6% of India's population). In 1950, with the enactment of India's Constitution, these "backward tribes" were
referred to as scheduled tribes (STs) Scheduled Tribes after India's Independence India's Constitution called for
equality of status and opportunity for all citizens. In an effort to improve the socioeconomic conditions of the
scheduled castes and tribes, the government of India initiated a policy of affirmative action called "protective
discrimination" or "compensatory discrimination." Article 15(4) declared that the state could make "special
provision" for the advancement of SCs and STs. Articles 330 and 331 reserved seats in the national Parliament
and the state assemblies for members of SCs and STs. To address the guarantees in Article 16 of equal rights for
all Indian citizens, the Constitution stipulated that these reservations of legislative seats and government jo for
SCs and STs would end after ten years. Over subsequent decades, Parliament periodically amended the
Constitution to extend the SC and ST reservations another ten years. Stat governments introduced their own
"compensatory discrimination provisions for scholarships, admissions to colleges an professional schools, low-
interest loans, and other benefits. The recipients of these benefits were members of the groups name on the
government lists of SCs and STs. In 1960 the government of India published an all-India list of 405 SCs and 225
STs. In 1976 the government of India published an amended state-by-state list of 841 SCs and 510 STs, showing
that certain tribes were "scheduled" in some locations but not in neighboring locations, and certain tribes were
called by a variety of different names. When designations were unclear, India's Constitution assigned to
Parliament and the president the final decision regarding a group's "scheduled" or "nonscheduled" status.

According to the published lists, SCs made up about 17 percent of India's population, STs about 7.5 percent. The
Indian Constitution's fifth schedule, in conjunction with Article 244(1), provided for the administration and
control of scheduled areas and STs in parts of India other than Assam. The Constitution's sixth schedule, in
conjunction with Article 244(2), provided for the administration of autonomous tribal areas I Assam. The
president of India had the authority to declare which areas were or were not scheduled. In most cases, the
authority for administering the designated areas rested with the local governor (in consultation with advisory
councils) and the central government. The local governor could decide which legislative enactments in the
Republic of India applied to the scheduled are under the governor's control. In the most autonomous regions,
local councils were authorized to assign and collect taxes, regulate forms of shifting cultivation, manage
unreserved forests, deal with inheritance, marriage, and social customs, administer justice, and control money
lending and trading with non tribals. During the decades after independence, tribe-inhabited territories north,

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east, and south of Assam became states within the Republic of India. These included Nagaland (1963), Manipur
(1972), Meghalaya (1972), Arunachal Pradesh (1987), and Mizoram (1987).

11. What are the functions of the family? Briefly discuss.

SOLUTION The importance of family is closely related to the various functions which it performs towards society.
Through functions of family may differ with cultures, yet they can be broadly divided into two main categories:
Basic or Universal Functions This class of functions includes those functions that are essential and common in all
cultures and societies. These are further classified into two types:
(a) Biological Functions:

These functions are performed by the family since its very

formation. These include:
(i) Satisfaction of sexual desires:

Sexual desires are basic human instincts. It is an important function performed by the family. But every society
has social control over an individual's sex desires in its own traditions.
(ii) Reproduction:

It is yet another important biological function which is essential for the survival of the human beings. Though this
function is possible outside the family also but then it does not have social approval. The reproductive function
depends upon the relation between husband and wife through the marriage bonds and bears social approval. It
also provides stable nature to family.
(iii) Nurture of children:
Since time immemorial family has provided a security to children and environment for their growth. This function
of family has been tried out to be performed by other social institutions at many places, but the results are not
fully satisfactory.

(b) Psychological Functions:

This is also a very important universal function of family. The feelings of love, affection, respect, cooperation
faith, etc., play a very crucial role in the development and mental status of each member of family. These feelings
make family bonds more stronger.
(i) Psychological security:

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This is the first psychological function that a family performs. This aspect is very significant especially for younger
and immature members of the family. They feel secured and get solace in home from the outside world. The
psychological security provided by family gives them confidence to face adversities of the world. It develops their
total personality- mental as well as physical.

(ii) Affection:

Another important aspect of psychological functions of family is affection. The sentiment of love and affection
makes a family member to feel that he is wanted in the world and is an important entity as others are. This
affects the personality he develops. The people, who are denied such feelings by the family, generally develop
criminal tendencies or unbalanced personalities. Some functions of the family are traditional functions. These
depend upon culture and traditions of family. Since different societies differ in their culture and tradition, their
traditional functions also vary.

Traditional Functions
These are the functions of family which are linked to particular community or cultural. They vary according to
different cultures.
(a) Physical Functions:

These functions refer to care of each and care of the weaker

members of the family.
(i) Physical care:
It is the duty of the family to take physical care of the weaker
members of the family like children, ladies, old people and the
disabled.
(ii) Provision of shelter:

The family provides a home or shelter for its members so that they feel secure in it and are able carry out their
day-to-day work.
(iii) Provision of food and clothing:

Family provides nutritious and balanced food for its members. On this depends the health and growth of its
members. In the similar manner, clothing requirement of each member is also fulfilled by the family. Purchasing,
stitching, leaning, ironing, storage, etc., are the various aspects of clothing requirements of family. Both these
needs can be partially looked after for particular period or exigency by other agencies like hotels, lodges, etc., in
case of food requirements and laundry and washer man in case of clothing requirements. But still, the
responsibility for both these requirements, i.e., food and clothing is fulfilled by the
family.

(b) Economic Functions:

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In addition to biological, psychological and physical functions, the family also fulfills the economic requirements
of the family.
These are:
(i) Labour division:

A family comprises of members of all ages, genders and capabilities according to which they work. Male
members are considered to be the earning members who work outside whereas the females have to look after
the household duties.

(ii) Determination of inheritance:

The family has its own money and property. The head of the family runs and controls the family. The inheritance
is handed over to the next senior members according to the system prevalent in the particular family. In the
modern families, inheritance is the right of both daughters and sons.

(iii) Productive unit:

Family is the center of productive activities as well as being a consumer unit. The traditional work of the family
continues from one generation to the next. Today however, this trend is not followed much.

(iv) Management of income:

The family has to manage the total requirements of food, clothing, shelter, health and education of all members
of the family within the family income. In the modern times, all the members of the family try to contribute
towards the total family income.

(c) Social Functions:

Family is the basic entity of the society. Though it may be big or small, it is very important to a society because of
various functions it performs. The social functions performed by the
family are:

(i) Determining social status:

Each family holds a definite place in the society. The social status of the family determines the living standard,
socializing standard and marriage standard of the family. The status of the family generally runs from generation
to generations. The family members, functioning as a unit constantly strive to work accordingly in the society to
maintain and improve the status.
(ii) Socialization:

A newborn child is not a social being. But by living in the society (interacting through family), learns and
understands the rules of the society according to which one has to speak, eat, behave and move around. All this
shapes the personality of the individual.

(iii) Social control:

Each person has to behave in society according to some social rules and regulations which are taught to him by
the family.

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(iv) Perpetuation of human of human achievements from one generation to other generation:
The elder members of family teach the younger generation about the social values, traditions, customs and moral
values of their particular family. The achievements of the family are also passed on from senior member to other
members of the family.
(v) Helpful in selection of life partner:

The family in our society performs the duty of setting their children in marriage. This is done according to the
social status of the family and is facilitated by the amount of socialization of family does. On the other hand, in
the western culture, the process of choosing life partners is done by children themselves.
This trend is being adopted gradually in our country also.
(d) Religious Functions:

Every family follows the rituals of a particular religion. The family teaches the child about God, the faith, its
teaching, etc.
(e) Political Functions:

The political functions of a family are important in smaller societies where the head of the family has the power
to take decisions on behalf of other members regarding social, religious
and political matters.
(f) Cultural Functions:

The culture of the society is kept alive due to the family. The family teaches its younger members regarding the
lifestyle, traditions, moral values and social values which the family follows. Family, thus, inculcates and transfers
the culture from one generation to next.

(g) Educational Functions:

Family is said to be the first school which a child attends. Children are like wet cement; whatever falls upon them
leaves an impression. The family inculcates preschool education in the child and provides a proper environment
for the child's education. Both of these play very important role in achieving the future success of an individual as
a member of society.

(h) Recreational Functions:

The family provides relaxation through recreation to its members. The personal interaction between various
members of a family, mutual jokes and playful activities of children serve as recreation for other members of the
family.

SCQ: Write short notes on any two in about 100 words each:
(i) The Iron Age
SOLUTION. The Iron Age was a period in human history that followed the Bronze and Stone Ages. During the Iron
Age, people across much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making tools and weapons from iron and

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steel. The Iron Age started between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C., depending on the region. For some societies,
including Ancient Greece, the start of the Iron Age was accompanied by a period of cultural decline. The Iron Age
began around 1200 B.C. in the Mediterranean region and Near East with the collapse of several prominent
Bronze Age civilizations, including the Mycenaean civilization in Greece and the Hittite Empire in Turkey. Ancient
cities including Troy and Gaza were destroyed, trade routes were lost and literacy declined throughout the
region.

The cause for the collapse of these Bronze Age kingdoms remains unclear. Archaeological evidence suggests a
succession of severe droughts in the eastern Mediterranean region over a 150-year period from 1250 to 1100
B.C. likely figured prominently in the collapse. Earthquakes, famine, socio political unrest and invasion by
nomadic tribes may also have played a role
(iii) Social Change
SOLUTION
Definition of Social Change
Ginsberg (By social change I understand a change in the social structure). Kingsley Doris "By social change is
meant only such alterations as occur in social organization i.e. the structure & functions of society". Merrill &
Elbridge "Social change means, that large no. of persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which
they or their immediate fore-fathers engaged in some time before." Gillin & Gillin "Social changes are variations
from the accepted mode of life, whether due to alteration in geographical condition, in cultural equipment,
composition of the population. Or ideologies & whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the
group." Jones ' "Social change is a term used to describe variations in or modification of any aspect of social
process, social patterns, social interaction or social organization." M.D.Jenson – Describes –Social change as
"modification in ways of doing & thinking of people."
Characteristics of Social change
1. Social change is universal or it is an essential law.
2. Change with diff. in speed & form simple society … change was slower.
3. Change is unpredictable in general Revol is a process of social change. What speed & in
what form the change takes place is not easily predictable.
4. Social change is change in community
5. Social change generally changes in direction.
There are 3 patterns of social change.
1. linear failure change generally leads to progress (change for good) can't cycle –car – train –plane
2. Fluctuating change – the change may be upward & downward. The demographic change is such also
economic change,
3. Cyclical change – the change is in a cycle. Fashion, sometimes also in economical aspect (Karl marx gave
this idea. He says earlier there was no private property & we may go back to it)

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