Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 11,pp.355-361.

1996
Pergamon Copyright 0 1996 ElsevierScienceLtd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0883-2927/96$15.00+ 0.00

Impacts of mining on the environment; some local, regional and global

issues
Iain Thornton
Environmental Geochemistry Research, Centre for Environmental Technology, Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2BP, U.K.

Abstract-The mining, processing and utilisation of metals dates back to Roman times and earlier with
extensive developments in many parts of the world by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Many
mineral&d areas are no longer worked leaving a legacy of dereliction and contaminated land and drainage.
This paper discusses the sources and dispersion of metals from mining and smelting activities, factors
influencing their pathways into the foodchain and potential impacts on plant, animal and human health. The
importance of mineral and chemical forms of metals in soils is discussed in relation to their bioavailabihty.
Reference is made to research in the U.K., Greece and Brazil. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

INTRODUCTION defined fugitive emissions, and from the storage and

The general area of environmental geochemistry
encompasses the many factors that influence the
sources, dispersion and distribution of elements in
the environment, their pathways into soils, foodstuffs
and water supplies and their influence on plant,
animal and human health (Thornton, 1993a). It is
now recognised that the mining of metalliferous
mineral deposits and associated smelting and metal
processing activities has lead to perturbations in the
cycling of metals in the surface environment. Con-
tamination arising from such activities is a global or
world-wide problem; understanding the processes that
control the behaviour and impacts of this will provide
a major challenge to the environmental geochemist for
the next decade or more.
Man’s first use of metals for the manufacture of
simple tools, weapons and ornaments dates back to
the Bronze Age, and during the period of the Roman
Empire mining of Fe, Au, Ag, Sn, Cu and Pb was
active. The expansion of the manufacturing industry
during the Industrial Revolution brought about an
increasing need for metals which has continued into
the 20th Century. Their use in the manufacturing and
other industries is now a normal part of industrial life.
Metals are now mined in the majority of the countries
of the world and primary production of many
continues to rise (see Table 1). The production of Pb
provides a useful example. In 1990, 155 mines in 35
countries produced 3.3 million tonnes. However
recycling plays an increasingly important role. Of the
total world production in 1990 which exceeded 5.6
million tonnes in over 50 countries, over 41% was
derived from recycled materials.
By the very nature of the large quantities of
materials handled, mining and smelting activities
give rise to some degree of contamination of soil, air
and water. This may result from controlled emissions,
subject to the regulatory process, from less well
transport of metal-rich materials. The question we
have to ask today is to what degree is the impact of this
contamination acceptable or unacceptable in terms of
sustainable agriculture and food production, the
quality of surface and ground waters used for potable
supplies and for irrigation, and possible adverse
effects on human health. Other concerns are possible
damage to natural ecosystems, including soil degrada-
tion and damage to wildlife and native flora.
In this context, it is important to remember that
metals are ubiquitous in the environment, being
present usually in small amounts in rocks and soils,
air, water and food. Some geological materials,
including marine black shales and basic igneous
rocks, often contain large amounts of metals and are
associated with what has recently been described as
“natural contamination”. Although many metals
have an essential role as nutrients for plants, animals
and man, some if present in sufficient quantities and in
certain forms may also be toxic. Copper and Zn
provide clear examples, both being essential micro-
nutrients and both being toxic to plants and animals in
high concentrations.
This paper focusses on some local and regional
studies undertaken at Imperial College into the
environmental impacts of mining. These concern the
metals Pb, Cd, and Hg, and the metalloid As, their
pathways in the soil-plant-animal system and impli-
cations to health. The results of these investigations
are extrapolated into the broader global picture,
drawing attention to gaps in present day knowledge
and identifying research priorities for the future.
GEOCHEMICAL MAPS
Geochemical maps and atlases provide both sys-
tematic baseline information on the natural distribu-
tion of metals and data showing the extent and degree

355
356 I. Thornton

Table 1. Changes in the primary production of metals (lo3 tonnes/a)

Year

Metal 1930 1950 1980 1985 1990

Al 120 1500 15,395 13,690 16,420

Cd 1.3 6 15 19 20
Cf 560 2270 11,248 11,630 12,850
CU 1611 2791 7984 8933 9458
Fe 80,180 1189,000 7‘18,070 714,800 842,710
Pb 1696 1752 3096 3558 3314
Mn 3491 5800 22,950 23,400 23,856
H8 3.8 4.9 7.1 6.8 5.1
Ni 22 144 744 744 949
Sn 179 172 198 158 211
V - 1.8 35 ? 33.8
Zn 1394 1985 6155 6849 7100

Source:
U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Metallgesellschaft.
American Bureau of Metal Statistics.

of regional contamination arising from man’s activ-
ities (Webb, 1964; Thornton, 1993a). In the context of
this paper, the prototype Wolfson Geochemical Atlas
of England and Wales (Webb et al., 1978) clearly
shows anonomalies for Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu and As in
mineralised areas within which mining and smelting
operations have resulted in extensive contamination
of the surface environment, as illustrated for As (Fig.
1). Geochemical maps continue to be compiled by the
British Goelogical Survey in Britain and by other
institutions in some 30 other countries (Plant et al.,
1989).
LEAD
The metal Pb is not essential to either plant or
animal life. If present in large amounts, in certain
mineral and chemical forms, it may be toxic and
indeed is a powerful neutrotoxin.
Some 4000 km* of agricultural and urban land in
Britain is contaminated with Pb to varying degrees,
mostly arising from historical mining and smelting
activities (Thornton, 1980). This includes an area of ca
250 km* in the old mining/smelting area of Derbyshire
in central England, where surface soils on farmland
and in local village gardens contain from several
hundred to several thousand ppm Pb, with around
l-3% Pb immediately adjacent to old workings
(Colboume and Thornton, 1978; Cotter-Howells and
Thornton, 1991).
Agricultural studies have shown uptake of Pb into
pasture herbage varies appreciably throughout the
year, though it is relatively low throughout the grazing
season of cattle. A marked seasonal rise in winter is a
possible hazard to grazing sheep. Blood Pb levels in
cattle, although showing considerable variation
between individual animals, broadly reflect the Pb
content of the soils on which the animals have grazed.
Faecal analysis has shown accidently ingested soil to
be the major source of Pb intake (Thornton and
Abrahams, 1983). Soil ingestion usually ranges from
l-15% of the dry matter intake ofcattle and may be as
large as 20 or 30% in sheep, which graze closer to the
ground. There would however seem to be little impact
on the composition of meat and dairy products, with
the exception of liver and kidney. However since offal
is normally a minor part of the diet, it is unlikely to
result in any significant increase in human uptake
(Alloway et al., 1988).
Concentrations of Pb in garden vegetables in
mining areas of Derbyshire were 2 to 4 times higher
than those studied in urban gardens with 13% of the
vegetables, in particular lettuce and spinach, exceed-
ing the current statutory limit of 1 pg/g fresh weight in
saleable food (Moir, 1992).
In inner city areas, the main route of Pb exposure to
young children, aged 6-36 months, arises from direct
ingestion of dust and soil by hand to mouth activity
(Davies et al., 1990). It has been estimated that a 2 a-
old child will ingest approximately 100 mg of dust per
day by this route. However, within the old mining
village of Winster in Derbyshire, children’s blood Pb
values were within a normal range even when Pb in
garden soils and housedust was highly elevated.
Analysis of individual particles of soil and dust by
scanning electron microscopy and X-ray analysis
showed the mineral pyromorphite [Pbs(PO&Cl] to
be a principle Pb-bearing constituent (Cotter-Howells
and Thornton, 1991). This Pb-phosphate mineral has
a very low solubility and its abundance almost
certainly contributes to the low bioavilability of Pb
in these soils, limiting the uptake of Pb by the child. In
this location, total concentrations of Pb in garden soils
 Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of arsenic in England and Wales.
ranged from 2400 to 22,800 pg/g (geometric mean
7140), while the mean blood value for ten l-8 a-old
children was 9.4 pg/lOO mL.
In contrast, a study of Pb and other heavy metals in
the town of Lavrion, 54 km to the SE of Athens, where
mining and smelting activities ranged from ancient to
recent times, showed markedly raised concentrations
of Pb in blood and deciduous teeth. Here, where the
median value for Pb in garden soil is 6400 pg/g and in
house dust 3200 pg/g, the mean blood value in 255
primary school children was 19.24 pg/lOO mL
compared with 5.14 in a control group (Stavrakis et
al., 1994). It is obvious that the bioavailability of Pb
and/or exposure routes to the young child is different
in this situation to that in Derbyshire.
CADMIUM
Cadmium is also a natural component of the
ecosystem and has a similar geochemical behaviour
to Zn. It is present as a constituent of several Zn
minerals particularly the sulphide, sphalerite, and the
carbonate, smithsonite. Where Zn mining has taken
place in the past, it is common for soils to be enriched
in both Zn and Cd, normally showing ratios between
358 I. Thornton
100: 1 to 4OO:l. Mining at Shipham in SW England
within the period 1700-1850 has resulted in extremely
high concentrations of both Cd and Zn in soils,
ranging up to 600 pg/g Cd and 6% Zn (Thornton,
1988). Several agricultural and garden plants exhibit
symptoms of leaf chlorosis in spring due to Zn
toxicity. However, the Cd content of pasture grasses
rarely exceeded 3 pg/g DM. This has been ascribed to
a restricted uptake by roots, high concentrations of Ca
and Zn in the soils, and limited translocation from
root to shoot (Matthews, 1982). Although grazing
cattle had a low Cu status possibly induced by
elevated Zn and Cd intake, there was no measurable
increase in the Cd content of milk (Alloway et al.,
1988). A survey of over 300 houses in Shipham
showed 90% of the garden soils to range from 20-
200 pg/g Cd, though uptake into locally grown
vegetable crops was relatively low due to the specia-
tion of the metal in the soil and the high soil pH (7.5-
7.8) which reflected the calcareous nature of the parent
material. However Cd concentrations were elevated in
leafy vegetables, including cabbage, kale, spinach and
lettuce, being 50-60 times the normal value for
elsewhere in the U.K. Shipam potatoes had about 4
times the Cd concentrations normally found and these
comprised about 50% of the total home grown
vegetables consumed (Alloway et al., 1988).
Diary and duplicate diet studies showed Cd dietary
intakes to be higher than the average for the U.K.,
with some residents exceeding the Provisional Toler-
able Weekly Intake (PTWI) value of 0.4 mg per week
Cd. There were no overt effects on health and little or
no correlation was found between the biochemical
parameters measured, including Bz microglobulin and
either Cd in soil or Cd in diet (Strehlow and Barltrop,
1988). It has previously been argued that the large
amounts of Zn and Ca present in Shipham soils may
give some protection against possible adverse effects
of Cd, by competing for exchange sites on the root
surface and within the gastro-intestinal tract (Thorn-
ton, 1993a).
ARSENIC
Recent concern with possible adverse effects of As
exposure has arisen as a result of case-control studies
in Taiwan, in which high concentrations of As in
artesian well waters, ranging up to 600 fig/L, have
Table 2. Concentrations of As in garden soils and vegetables in mineralised areas of Cornwall, England
Total As in Lettuce Onion
soil olglg)
Range l&892 0.15-3.88 0.10-0.49
Geometric mean 322 0.85 0.20
No. of samples 32 28 23
been related to increased risks of skin and internal
cancers (Chen et al., 1985, 1992). This concern is
compounded by similar reports from India (Chakra-
borti and Saha, 1987), and has led to a reduction in the
Provisional Guideline Value for As in potable waters
from 50 to 10 ppb (World Health Organisation, 1993)
and a proposal to markedly reduce the permissible
level of As in drinking waters in the United States
(Shank-Givens, 1994). This worldwide concern has
refocussed attention on possible health effects of As
contamination from mining and smelting.
Arsenic, together with Cu and Sn, has been mined
and smelted in SW England for centuries. Over 700
km* of agricultural and urban land are contaminated,
ranging up to 2500 pg/g As in soils and up to 460 pg/g
in household dusts (Colboume et al., 1975; Abrahams
and Thornton, 1987). A normal range for As con-
centrations in agricultural soils in England and Wales
has been reported as 2-53 pg/g, with a median value of
10 fig/g (Archer and Hodgson, 1987). In the mining
area, As uptake into pasture herbage showed a
maximum concentration of 9.6 pg/g DM, possibly
reflecting some degree of soil contamination (Thor-
esby and Thornton, 1979). Large contamination of
herbage by soil particularly in spring was later
confirmed (Abrahams, 1983). Soil generally contrib-
uted around 50-80% of the total As ingested by cattle,
up to a maximum of 97% (Thornton and Abrahams,
1983; Abrahams and Thornton, 1994). Arsenic uptake
into barley grain was very small, not exceeding 0.4 pg/
g DM; As increased both in lettuce and strawberries
with soil content, peaking at 1.4 and 0.7 pg/g DM
respectively (Thoresby and Thornton, 1979).
In home gardens with soils ranging from 150 to 900
pg/g total As, concentrations in onion, beetroot,
carrot, pea and bean did not exceed 1 pg/g As fresh
wt., only exceeding this in lettuce (Xu and Thornton,
1985) (Table 2). It was concluded that in this
“geochemical hotspot” in Cornwall, plants were
acting as “geochemical barriers” in the environment
and were only making a small contribution to human
exposure (Xu and Thornton, 1985). Speciation and
bioavailability in these soils has yet to be determined.
Some attempts have been made to determine As
exposure of young children from dusts and soils.
Where housedusts ranged from 9-330 pg/g, it was
calculated that a young child could ingest as much as
42 pg per day (Johnson, 1983). It has been suggested
that a young child in this heavily contaminated
Beetroot Carrot Pea Bean
@g/g dry matter)
0.02-0.93 0.10-0.93 0.01-o. 11 0.02-0.09
0.17 0.21 0.04 0.04
23 19 19 7
 Mining on the environment; local, regional and global issues 359

environment may well have an As intake approaching
or even exceeding the WHO PTDI for inorganic As of
2 pg/kg body weight (World Health Organisation,
1983). However there are as yet no proven health
effects associated with As in the local populations,
though there is a need for careful assessment of
exposure and for epidemiological studies (Thornton,
1993b). A recent pilot study has shown a small and
non-significant increase in the prevelance of bladder
cancer for residents in “high-As” areas of Devon and
Cornwall, where stream sediment concentrations were
above or equal to 100 pg/g As, in comparison with
areas of lower concentration (Leonardi, 1994).
MERCURY
Mercury is a natural constituent of the ecosystem
though is not essential to plant or animal life. The
general population is mainly exposed to Hg through
the diet with the dominant source being CH3 Hg in
fish.
Mercury has been used in the mining of Au for
countless years to form an amalgam aiding the
separation of Au from other mineral phases. The
present day Au rush in Amazonia has led to losses of
Hg in the region of 1000 tonnes in Brazil alone over
the last 10 or more years. Approximately 2 g of Hg are
used for each gram of Au reclaimed, of which some
50% then passes into the river in the suspended slurry
effluent. Studies by Brazilian research workers have
clearly shown severe Hg contamination of river
sediments and waters downstream from Au mining
activities in the Maderia river basin (Lacerda et al.,
1990; Malm et al., 1990; Pfeiffer et al., 1989; Nriagu et
al., 1992). There is also evidence of Hg contamination
in carniverous fish that are then consumed by riverine
populations (Lacerda et al., 1990; Cleary et al., 1994).
Elevated human exposure to inorganic Hg in Au
miners and traders results from burning the Au/Hg
amalgam (Cleary and Thornton, 1993).
A pilot study undertaken in 1991 by a joint
European/Brazilian research team, with funding
from the European Commission, investigated Hg
levels in river sediments and waters, in fish and in
blood and urine of Au miners and traders and in a
local fish-eating community in the valley of the river
Tapajos. Environmental samples again showed Hg
contamination, with several samples of floor dust
taken from Au-trading houses, sometimes exceeding
1% Hg with visible Hg in dusts at 2 locations (Cleary
et al., 1994). Mercury levels in fish from 3 locations
averaged 0.84,0.47,0.30 mg/kg fresh weight, ranging
up to 2.6 mg/kg Hg (Table 3). Twenty-one of 52 fish
samples exceeded the European Community Quality
Standard of 0.3 mg/kg Hg for a basket of fish
(Thornton et al., 1991).
The data presented in Table 3, partly reported
previously (Cleary et al., 1994; Thornton et al.,
1994), demonstrate excessive Hg exposure in a
significant number of the population resulting both
from fish consumption and from burning amalgam. It
could be expected that this exposure will lead to
adverse health effects, including erethism, mercurial
tremor, protinuria or contact dermatitus. Current
work, again funded by the European Commission,
includes an evaluation of the health impact of this
exposure in both Au miners and traders inhaling
inorganic Hg vapour and in communities consuming
Hg contaminated fish and thus exposure to organic
Hg (Thornton et al., 1994).
Similar Au-mining activities by the informal sector,
using Hg in the mining process, are taking place within
the Amazonian regions of Guyana, Venezuela, Ecua-
dor, Bolivia and Colombia. The problem is obviously
a regional one needing coordinated efforts by local
Governmental and State organisations.
GLOBAL ASPECTS
The mining and smelting of metals is a worldwide
activity and indeed may be regarded as “global” -
defined by the U.K. Inter-Agency Committee on

Table 3. Total Hg concentrations -geometric means and ranges (number of samples)

Category CUIU CUIU JACAREACANGA ITAITUBA CREPORI

Sediment (ppm) 1.1 (28) 0.34 (13) 0.28 (7) 0.97 (49)
0.21-3.93 0.16-0.90 0.05-0.62 0. I l-20.9
Filtered water 3.6 (7) 3.1 (13) 2.9 (10) 2.9 (7)
(pegL-‘) N.D.-5.89 1.9-4.22 1.22-5.11 2.0-3.56
Dust @pm) 31.0(15) 11.0(7) 150(11) 210 (16)
5-l 554 2-228 l-121,600 7-12,855
Fish (ppm fresh weight) 0.58 (5) 0.47 (17) 0.30 (30) No samples
0.334.72 0.01-2.58 0.01-1.47 taken
Human samples
Blood (j&L) 13.14 (25) 80.85 (25) 28.67 (28) 28.59 (28)
2.1-25.8 9.9-254.4 2.5-108.3 1.1-144.0
Urine (jig/L) 21.1 (25) 15.33(25) 3 1.35(28) 82.66 (28)
1.6-102.2 2.5-108.3 1.8-99.0 0.7-843.0
360 I. Thaimton
Global Environmental Research to include matters of
a local or regional nature that are repeated with
sufficiant frequency to give them global significance.
In addition to the studies outlined above, which are
based mainly on experience in the U.K., there are well
documented case histories involving contamination of
the food chain in Canada, United States, Korea,
China and Australia. Investigations into environmen-
tal impact have to date been largely limited to those in
the industrialised wealthy countries of the west in
which the nutritional status of the population is more
than adequate. Priority in the future should be given
to the investigation of possible impacts through the
food chain to populations in developing countries
where nutrition is often poor and where environ-
mental considerations usually take second place to
economic growth.
There is also a need for a greater research effort to
increase our understanding of the mineral and
chemical forms of metals in soils and plant materials
and the influence of these on pathways leading to
human exposure through the consumption of food
and water. It is appreciated that processes influencing
these forms will vary greatly under different climatic
conditions.
While both government and industry now place the
environmental impact of mining and smelting as a
matter of priority, there is still a long way to go before
the extent of global impacts are realised and the effects
on food and water quality, human exposure and
health effects are fully evaluated. A multi-disciplinery
approach to these problems is essential, in which the
environmental geochemist will work with engineers,
agricultural and medical scientists and others to
minimise future pollution and its impacts and to
decide on the necessity and appropriate methods for
remediation.
Editorial handling: Dr Ron Fuge.
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