Transfer Function 1

Control Systems (Transfer Function)
Transfer Function
Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Differentiate between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems.

 Represent a Control System in terms of its Transfer Function.
 Find the Transfer Function of a system from its Block Diagram Representation.
 Evaluate the Transfer Function from the Signal Flow Graph Representation.
 Analyse the effect of Feedback on System in terms of Sensitivity of the system.
Introduction
Control Systems are those systems which are used to control the value of any physical
variable like heating and air conditioning systems regulate the temperature and humidity of
our homes. All around us we are surrounded by Control Systems as we can regard each
system as a control system like the dial of a fan regulates the speed of the fan and volume
dial of an audio system regulates the audio volume.
The basic Control System can be described by the simple block diagram.
The controlled variable is the output of system and actuating signal is the input. As for an
example, in the steering control of an automobile, the direction of two front wheel may be
regarded as the controlled variable & position of the steering wheel as the actuating signal.
Open -Loop Control System
 For an automatic control system, we need to feed the output variable back & compare it
with the command variable. It gives us an estimate of how much the controlled variable is
deviating from the desired value and it will help take corrective action to make the controlled
variable equal to desired value.
 When a system does not have a feedback structure it is called an open-loop system
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Example: An electrical washing machine is an example of open-loop system, because

amount of wash time is entirely determined by judgement & estimation of human operator.
An automatic washing machine should have means of checking of clothes continuously and
turning itself off when desired degree of clean lines is reached.
Open-loop system can be representated by the following block diagram :
Closed-loop Control System
 In order for more accurate control, the controlled signal c(t) must be fed back and
compared with reference input.
 An actuating signal proportional to difference of input and output must be sent through
the system to correct the error.
 A system with one or more feedback paths like that is called as a closed loop system.
Example: Suppose objective of human being is to reach for a book on a desk. The brain as a
controller sends out a signal to the arm to perform the task.The eyes are a sensing device
which feeds back continuously the position of hand to the brain & distance between hand &
book is error which becomes zero as hand reaches the object. If eyes are blind folded and
person is asked to reach for an object, he may miss it by a wide margin as feedback loop is
broken.
 Closed loop system can be representated by the following block diagram

Definitions
 Controlled Variable : The quantity or condition that is measured & controlled. Normally
it is output of the system.
 Actuating signal or manipulated Variable: The manipulated variable is the quantity or

condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of controlled variable.
 Plant: A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts
functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. As for an
example motor can be considered as plant.
 Disturbance: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system. If the disturbance is generated within the system it is called as internal
while an external disturbance is generated outside a system.
Transfer Function
 For a control system, there exist an input which is termed as excitation and produces an
output called as response of the system. This cause & effect relationship is best illustrated by
means of a transfer function.
 Transfer function is ratio of Laplace Transform of response to Laplace Transform of

excitation, assuming all initial conditions are zero.
 If we express in terms of Laplace Transform
C(s)
G(s)  Transfer Function 
R(s)
The arrow indicates direction of control action that is by application of excitation, response
of the system is controlled.

Poles & Zeroes
 The transfer function of a linear control system can be expressed in rational form as:
k  s  s1  s  s2  ......  s  sn 
G(s) 
 s  s  s  s  ......  s  s 
a b m
Where k is gain of Transfer function
 If in the transfer function we put s  sa ,sb .......,sm the value of transfer function becomes
infinity & thus these are called as poles of transfer function.
 If in transfer function we put s  s1 ,s2 .......,sn , the value of transfer function is zero & these
are called as zeroes of transfer function.
 If poles or zeroes are complex then they always appear in complex conjugate pair and if 2
poles or 2 zeroes coincide that pole or zero is called as multiple pole or multiple zero.
 If pole or zero is single at any location then it is called as simple pole or simple zero.
 The number of times a pole or zero is repeated is called as its multiplicity or order.
 If n > m, then transfer function goes to infinity as s  , so we conclude that a pole of

transfer function exist at s  of order (n-m).
 If n < m, then transfer function goes to zero as s  , so we conclude that a zero of

transfer function exist at s  of order (m-n).
 Therefore, for a rational transfer function, total number of poles is equal to total number
of zeroes
G(s) 
 s  2
s  1 s2  9 
The transfer function has one zero at s  2 , 3 poles at s  1 , s  3i . But since number
of poles must be equal to number of zeroes so there are 2 zeroes at s  

Singularity Functions
 These are those functions that have reversible differentiation & integration property that
is if we first differentiate the function and then integrate it we must obtain the same function
again.
 Suppose we consider a function whose value is constant and we differentiate it then we

would obtain 0 and if we integrate it again then we will obtain 0 as the integration so we do
not get back the original value. Hence constant function does not count as Singularity
Function.
 The following singularity functions are commonly used in time domain analysis :
1. Step Signal
r(t)  Au(t)
1 , t  0
Where r(t)  
0 , t  0
A
R(s) 
s
2. Ramp Signal
 At , t  0
r(t)  
0 , t  0
A
R(s) 
s2
3. Parabolic Signal
 At2
 ,t  0
r(t)   2
0 ,t  0

A
R(s) 
s3

4. Impulse Signal
 ,t  0
r(t)  
0 ,t  0
R(s)  1

 (t)dt  1

Response of Control System

C(s)
 Transfer function,
G(s) 
R(s)
C(s)  G(s).R(s)
 If impulse input is applied, then r(t)  (t)

Laplace Transform of excitation, R(s)=1
 The response of the system to the impulse input is termed as Impulse Response
C(s)  G(s)
which means that Laplace transform of impulse response is Transfer Function.
 The relation between responses of the system to singularity function is same as the
relation between singularity function themselves.
d
dt
Parabolic Response  Ramp response
d
dt
Ramp Response  Step response
d
dt
Step Response  Impulse reponse
Solved Examples
 
Problem: If impulse response C(t)  1  e t  2e3t u(t) . Find the transfer function ?
1
Solution: C(s)  
1

2

 
s2  4s  3  s2  3s  2s2  2s 4s  9s  3
 3
2
s  s  1   s  3 
s s2  4s  3  s  4s2  3s

Advantages
 It goes simple mathematical algebraic equation.

 It gives poles & zeroes of system directly.
 Stability can be determined easily from the knowledge of the poles of the system.
 The output for any input can be determined easily just by multiplying the input by
Transfer Function of the system.
Disadvantages
 Transfer Function is only applicable for LTI Systems.

 It does not consider initial conditions.
 Internal states of system cannot be determined.
 Applicable for single input single output system.
 Controllability & observability of the system cannot be determined.
Block Diagram
A control system is composed of many sub-systems and each sub-system can be

represented in terms of its Transfer Function as building blocks of the system. These blocks
are interconnected in a certain manner to work together and complete the system.
As for an example we can consider an automobile as consisting of several sub-systems like

accelerator, steering wheel, wheels, brakes etc. When we represent the system as
interconnection of these blocks it results in Block Diagram representation of the system.
 Open loop control system
There is no feedback from the output C(s) to the input R(s) so it is an Open Loop Control
System.
C(s)
Transfer function  G(s)
R(s)

 Closed loop control system
If there is a feedback from the output to the input terminal then the system is termed as
Closed Loop Control System.
The different signals in a closed loop control system are termed as:
R(s)  Reference input
C(s)  Output signal or controlled variable
B(s)  Feedback signal
E(s)  Actuating signal
C(s)
G(s)   Forward path transfer function
E(s)
H(s)  Transfer function of feedback system
B(s)
G(s)H(s)   Loop transfer function
E(s)
C(s)
T(s)   Closed – loop transfer function
R(s)
C(s)  G(s).E(s)
E(s)  R(s)  B(s)  R(s)  H(s)C(s) ………….(1)
C(s)
E(s)  ………………………………………….(2)
G(s)
From (1) & (2)

C(s)  1 
 R(s)  H(s)C(s) => R(s)  C(s) H(s)  
G(s)  G(s) 
C(s) G(s)
 T(s) 
R(s) 1  G(s)H(s)

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
When a control system is represented as connection of multiple blocks then we need to

simplify that block diagram in order to find the transfer function of the system.
The following elements are generally present in a block diagram:
1. Combining blocks in series
2. Combining blocks in parallel

3. Shifting the summing element after the block
4. Shifting the summing element before the block
5. Shifting take off point after the block
6. Shifting take off point before the block

7. Transfer function of closed loop feedback system
8. Unity Feedback System

If the gain or Transfer Function of feedback path is 1, it is termed as unity feedback.
9. Interchanging summing elements
10. Shifting take off point after summing element

11. Shifting take off point before summing element
Solved Examples
Problem: Determine the ratio C/R & C/D for the system whose block diagram is shown
below?
Solution:

Consider D=0
C G1G3G4  G2G3G4

R 1  G3H2  G1G3G4H1 G2G 3 G4H1
Consider R=0
C

1  G3H2  G4
D 1  G3H2  G1G3G4H1 G2G 3 G4H1
Problem: An LTI system with input as r (t) =α u(t) produce response c (t) = (1 - e-2t )u(t) is
1 1
cascaded with another system whose response is c (t) = 4e-tu(t) for input r (t) = βδ(t)
2 2
When these two system are connected in cascade the overall transfer function is
1 then the value of  is _______
G (s)G (s) =
1 2 (s +1)(s + 2)

Solution:
1 1 
C (s)  - 
1 = G (s) =  s s+2 
R (s) 1 1
1 α
s
2 1 
G (s) = 
1 α  s+2 
4
C2 (s) 4
= G2 (s) = s +1 =
R 2 (s) β β(s +1)
The overall transfer function of cascade configuration is
2  1  4  8
    =
α  s+2   β(s+1)  αβ(s+1)(s+2)
1 8 1
By comparing with G1G2 = => =
(s+1)(s+2) αβ(s+1)(s+2) (s+1)(s+2)
αβ = 8
Problem: The overall transfer function of a closed loop system with the following block
diagram representation is

Solution:
Y G1G3G4 G6
 G7  G8 
X (1  G1G2 )(1  G4 G5 )
Y  G7  G8 1  G1G2  G 4 G5  G1G2G4G5   G1G3G4G6


X 1  G1G2  G4G5  G1G2G4G5
Signal Flow Graph
It is a graphical representation of control system in which node representing each of systems

variable are connected by direct branches. The branches are directed in the direction of
signal flow and gain of each branch is same as transfer function of the block connected
between those nodes. An example is shown below:
Block Diagram
Signal Flow Graph

Terminology
1) Node
It represents a system variable & is equal to sum of all incoming signal at the node.
Nodes can be classified into the following categories:
 Input node or source node
It is a node having only outgoing branches.
 Output node or sink node
It is a node having only incoming branches.
 Mixed or Chain node
It is a node having both incoming & outgoing branches.
2) Path
It is the traversal of the connected branches in the direction of the branch arrow such that
no node is traversed more than once.
Paths can be classified into following categories:
 Forward Path
It is path from input node to output node.
 Loop
It is path which originates & terminates at the same node.
 Self loop
The loop which originates and terminates at the same node without passing through
any other node is termed as Self Loop.
Self Loop defined at input node is not valid. Self loop defined at output node is valid.
3) Non – Touching loops
Two or more loops are said to be non – touching if they do not have any common node.

Mason’s Gain Formula
 Pk k P   P   ................  P 
 1 1 2 2 k k
The overall gain of a control system. 
 
Where P = Gain of
k
k th forward path
 = 1 – [sum of loop gain of all individual loops] + [sum of gain of product of two non –
touching loops] – [sum of gain of product of three non – touching loops] + …………..
 = it is that value of "  " obtained by removing all loops touching k

th
forward path.
k
Solved Examples
Problem:
Y Y
For the given Signal Flow Graph, compute 5 ? and 5  ?
Y Y
1 2
Solution: Forward path P  G G G G , P  G G

1 1 2 3 4 2 1 5
To find 
Individual loops L  G H , L  G H , L  H , L  G G G H , L  G H
1 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 2 3 4 1 5 5 1
Non – Touching loops (2) L'  L L  G H G H , L'  L L  G H H

1 1 2 2 2 4 4 2 1 3 2 2 3

  1  G H  G H H  G G H G  G H  G H G H G H H
2 2 4 4 3 2 3 1 4 5 1 2 2 4 4 2 2 3   
   1
1 2

G G G G G G
 1 2 3 4 1 5
Y P  P 
Gain = 5  1 1 2 2
Y  
1
The input node must be same while calculating any Transfer Function so we can calculate
Y
5 as follows
Y
2
Y Y Y
5  5 1
Y Y Y
2 2 1
Y
To compute 2 Y
1
Forward path = G
1
 is same as above [independent of forward path]
 4 4 3 
  1   G H  H   1  G H  H
1 4 4 3 
Y P  G 1  H  G H 
2  1 1  1 3 4 4
Y  
1
Y Y Y G G G G
5  5 1  2 3 4 5
Y Y Y 1 H  G H
2 2 1 3 4 4
Problem: The overall transfer function of the signal flow graph shown in the figure below is:

Solution: Apply mason’s gain formula
Forward path= G1G2G3G4 and G1G6G7G3G4H4
Loop gain= G1H1 , G3H2 , G1G2H3 , G7G8H4 , G2G5G8H4
Gain product of Two non-touching loop = G1G3H1H2
G1G2G3G4  G1G6 G7 G3G4H4

T(s) =
1  G1H1  G3H2  G1G2H3  G7G8H4  G2G5G8H4  G1G3H1H2
Problem: Transfer function of the SFG shown below is
Solution: Apply mason’s gain formula

Forward path
1 1 1
P1  , P  , P 
s 2 s 3 s2
Loop gain,
2 1 1
L1   ; L2   ; L3  
s s s
Product of Two non-touching loop gain
2 1 2
PL1  2 ; PL 2  2 ; PL3  2
s s s

Product of three non-touching loop

2
PL1   3
s
 2 1 1   2 1 2   2  s3  4s2  5s  2
 1        2  2 + 2    3  
 s s s s s s   s  s3
1 3 2  1 2 1 1 2
1   2   1   2   2 1  
s s s  s s s  s  s 2s2  6s  5
 T.F  
s3  4s2  5s  2 s3  4s2  5s  2
s3
Effect of feedback in a Control System
 Control variable accurately follow the desired value.
 Effect on the controlled variable of external disturbance other than that associated with
feedback sensor are greatly reduced.
 Effect of variation in control & process parameters on system performance is reduce to

acceptable levels. These variations occur due to aging, wear & environmental changes etc
 Feedback is control system greatly improves the speed of response compared to

response/speed capability of plants/components comprising the system.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity in a control system signifies the effect of change in certain parameter of the
system on the system’s performance. The change in system parameter may be due to
environmental factors like Temperature, Humidity etc. and also due to ageing, wear and tear
etc.
Since we want the system performance to be consistent even with ageing of the system so
the sensitivity of the response to system’s parameters should be low.
Sensitivity of T with respect to G is represented as:
S T : It is ratio of percentage change in T to the percentage change in G.

G

T = Transfer Function
G = Forward path gain
T T LnT G T
ST   
G G G LnG T G
Open Loop System
C
T G
R
T
1
G
T G G
ST    1  1
G G T G
Hence, in open loop system S T  1

G
This implies that whatever the change in G is reflected as the same change in T.
Closed loop system
C G
T 
R 1  GH
T 1  GH  1  GH 1
 
G 1  GH2 1  GH2
T G 1 G
1
ST     1  GH 
G G T
1  GH G
2 1  GH
SGT closed loop  SGT open loop

So, closed loop system is done less sensitive to parameters variation as compared to open –
loop system.

Sensitivity with respect to H
T T H T
ST  
H H H T H
T G2

H 1  GH2
G2 H 1  GH GH

ST   
H
1  GH2 G 1  GH
If GH ≫ 1
ST  1
H
This implies that effect of variation in H is not reduced even in a closed loop system so
change in feedback parameter is undesirable.
 Feedback path contains measuring devices which are low power and these device are
more prone to external environmental effect & because of high sensitivity towards feedback
gain the output of the system can change to undesirable level therefore feedback path must
be provided with a shielding.
 Forward path devices are high devices & therefore they are lesser sensitive towards
external changes so shielding is not important for forward path component & devices.
 Feedback always introduce a possibility of instability for any input & thus for an open
loop system, closed loop system can be stable or unstable.
Effect of disturbance (noise) signals
C C C
N R
C : Response due to noise input

N
C : Response due to applied input

R

G G
C  1 2 R
R 1G G H
1 2
G
C  2 N
N 1G G H
1 2
To minimize C , we need to increase G so effect of noise can be reduce by increasing the

N 1
gain of path (forward) earlier to noise.
Regenerative feedback
 Till now, we have considered only negative or degenerative feedback & now we all
consider regenerate feedback.
 In regenerate feedback, output is feedback to input with a positive sign.
C s G s
Transfer Function is given by 
R s 1  G s  H s 
Due to positive in feedback, the denominate may go to zero when

GH = 1
So there are chances of instability.
 But positive feedback increases the overall gain of the system.
Solved Examples
Problem: As shown in the figure below, find out the approximate overall system gain.

1000 1000 G
Solution: TF    100  ………………………….(1)
9 10 1  GH
1  1000 
1000
TF 1 G
  TF  …………………………………………………………(2)
G (1  GH)2
(1  GH)2
G
 10% or 0.1
G
From equation (1) & (2)
TF G 1 1
   10  %  1%
TF G (1  GH) 9
1  1000 
1000
Overall system gain= 100  1%
Problem: A feedback control system is shown below
G 400
Solution: T  
1  GH 21
G
 10%  0.1
G
T G 1
SGT   
T G 1  GH
T 1
  0.1  100  0.476%
T 21

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Control Systems (Transfer Function)

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Differentiate between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems.

Open -Loop Control System

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Example: An electrical washing machine is an example of open-loop system, because

Closed-loop Control System

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 Actuating signal or manipulated Variable: The manipulated variable is the quantity or

 Transfer function is ratio of Laplace Transform of response to Laplace Transform of

 If we express in terms of Laplace Transform

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Poles & Zeroes

Where k is gain of Transfer function

 If n > m, then transfer function goes to infinity as s  , so we conclude that a pole of

 If n < m, then transfer function goes to zero as s  , so we conclude that a zero of

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 Suppose we consider a function whose value is constant and we differentiate it then we

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Response of Control System

 If impulse input is applied, then r(t)  (t)

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 6 www.kreatryx.com

 It goes simple mathematical algebraic equation.

 Transfer Function is only applicable for LTI Systems.

A control system is composed of many sub-systems and each sub-system can be

As for an example we can consider an automobile as consisting of several sub-systems like

 Open loop control system

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 Closed loop control system

R(s)  Reference input

C(s)  Output signal or controlled variable

B(s)  Feedback signal

E(s)  Actuating signal

H(s)  Transfer function of feedback system

From (1) & (2)

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Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

When a control system is represented as connection of multiple blocks then we need to

The following elements are generally present in a block diagram:

1. Combining blocks in series

2. Combining blocks in parallel

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3. Shifting the summing element after the block

4. Shifting the summing element before the block

5. Shifting take off point after the block

6. Shifting take off point before the block

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7. Transfer function of closed loop feedback system

8. Unity Feedback System

9. Interchanging summing elements

10. Shifting take off point after summing element

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11. Shifting take off point before summing element

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The overall transfer function of cascade configuration is

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Y  G7  G8 1  G1G2  G 4 G5  G1G2G4G5   G1G3G4G6

Signal Flow Graph

It is a graphical representation of control system in which node representing each of systems

Signal Flow Graph

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3) Non – Touching loops

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