MINOR PROJECT REPORT

ON

Low-cost defluoridation of water using broken bricks

Submitted To

Department Of Civil Engineering.

VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, BURLA

Submitted By

ANUSHA PUROHIT

Under The Guidance Of

Dr. Rakesh Roshan Dash

Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, BURLA

NOVEMBER, 2015
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, BURLA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that minor project report on “Low-cost defluoridation of water

using broken bricks” submitted by Pragnya Parimita(12010017), Subrat

Kumar Sahoo(12011422), Om Prakash Dehury(12011040) of 7th semester
CIVIL ENGINEERING, Veer Surendra Sai University Of Technology for the year
2015-2016 has done under my supervision & guidance.

In my opinion, the report fulfils the requirements of the regulations relating to the nature &
standard of work for bachelor of technology degree.

Dr. Rakesh Roshan Dash

Associate professor

Department of Civil Engineering

VSSUT, Burla,Odisha
 ACKNOWLDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest gratitude and admiration to Dr. Rakesh
Roshan Dash, Prof. (Dr.) A.N. Nayak, Head of the Department and Faculties of Civil
Engineering Department and Environmental Engineering Laboratory for their help and
patience throughout this project. Their excellent guidance and support made our working
and learning experience a very special one. This project report would not have been
completed without their constant inspiration and encouragement.
An assemblage of this nature could never have been attempted without inspiration
from the works of others whose details are mentioned in references section.

Pragnya Parimita (12010017)

Subrat Kumar Sahoo (12011422)

Om Prakash Dehury (12011040)

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
 Water is one of an essential commodity for the survival of all forms of lives on the
earth. The population explosion and rapid industrial growth demands huge quantity of
fresh water to meet various requirements. Of the total quantity of water (1.38x109km3)
available on the earth, 3% only is the fresh water. Of this 3% of fresh water, 1.74% is in
glacier form, 1.7% as ground water and the rest in the other forms. Very small quantity of
water (i.e. 0.0132% of total water) only is available in the rivers and lakes and most of
these water sources are getting polluted due to waste disposal and human activities.

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and
revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers
and wells). Sureface water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by
chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances. Adverse alteration of
water quality presently produces large scale illness and deaths, accounting for
approximately 50 million deaths per year worldwide, most of these deaths occurring in
Africa and Asia. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness
every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half
a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of
water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with
pollution problems.

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum

of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and
discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be
naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the
key in determining what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High
concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic
flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant
matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and
anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts
plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. Many of the chemical substances
are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal
hosts. Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical
conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the
concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the
primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication,
subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe
reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently,

groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily
classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are
susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water
bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or
ongoing release of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a
surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can
contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume. Importantly, groundwater can also
be contaminated by naturally occurring sources. Soil and geologic formations containing
high levels of heavy metals can leach those metals into groundwater. This can be
aggravated by over-pumping wells, particularly for agriculture. This is the case in much of
Bangladesh, where groundwater contains high levels of naturally occurring arsenic.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General

2.1.1 Water quality parameters

Bureau of Indian Standards and Indian Council for Medical Research have given
Desirable limit and Maximum permissible limits for different (i) Physical Parameter (ii)
Chemical Parameters and (iii) Biological Parameters some of which are given in Table-1.

2.2 Water Treatment Processes

Water may be treated differently in different communities depending on the quality

of the water which enters the plant. Groundwater is water located underground and
typically requires less treatment than water from lakes, rivers, and streams. A conventional
treatment plant is shown in Fig.1.

2.2.1. Screening

It is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). It

removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and clogging
of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Fine screens are used to remove
material that may cause operation & maintenance problems in downstream processes,
particularly in systems that lack primary treatment. Typical opening sizes for fine screens
are 3 to 10mm. With advances in screening technology, fine screens with openings of less
than 3mm are now utilized to reduce suspended solids to levels near those achieved by
primary clarification.

Most modern wastewater treatment plants will utilize a combination of coarse and
fine screening (i.e. upstream coarse screens providing protection to downstream fine
screens). Plants utilizing mechanically cleaned screens will normally have a standby
screen in place, which can be put into operation should the primary screening device be
removed from service for maintenance reasons, or in the event of mechanical failure.

Table 1: Drinking Water Standards

 Indian Council for Medical
BIS (IS 10500: 2012)
Research
Parameters(mg/L)
Max. permissible Max.
Desirable Desirable
Limits in the absence permissible
Limit Limit
of alternate source limits
pH 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation 7.0 – 8.5 6.5 – 9.2
Total dissolved solids 500 2000 500 1500-3000
Total hardness as CaCO3 300 600 300 600
Calcium as Ca 75 200 75 200
Magnesium as Mg 30 100 50 -
Chloride as Cl 250 1000 200 1000
Sulphates as SO4 200 400 200 400
Nitrate as NO3 45 100 20 100
Iron as Fe 0.3 1 0.1 1
Fluoride as F 1 1.5 1 1.5
Arsenic as As 0.05 0.05 - 0.05
Manganese as Mn 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5
Zinc as Zn 5 15 0.1 5
Copper as Cu 0.05 1.5 0.05 1.5
Chromium as Cr 0.05 0.05 - -
Lead as Pb 0.05 0.05 - 0.5
Mercury as Hg 0.001 0.001 - 0.001
Cadmium as Cd 0.01 0.01 - 0.01
Cyanide as CN 0.05 0.05 - 0.05
Minerals Oil 0.01 0.03 - -
Phenolic compounds 0.001 0.002 - -
Total Coliform MPN/100 ml 1 10
Residual free chlorine 0.2 -
Aluminium as A1 0.03 0.2
Boron as B 1 5
Selenium as Se 0.01 -
Pesticides Absent 0.001
 Fig.1: Conventional Treatment Plant

2.2.2. Coagulation

In water treatment, coagulation occurs when a coagulant is added to water to

"destabilize" colloidal suspensions. In a colloidal suspension, particles will settle very
slowly or not at all because the colloidal particles carry surface electrical charges that
mutually repel each other. A coagulant (typically a metallic salt) with the opposite charge
is added to the water to overcome the repulsive charge and "destabilize" the suspension.
For example, the colloidal particles are negatively charged and alum is added as a
coagulant to create positively charged ions. Once the repulsive charges have been
neutralized, the van derWaals force will cause the particles to cling together (agglomerate)
and form micro floc.
 Conversely, flocculation involves the addition of polymers that clump the small,
destabilized particles together into larger aggregates so that they can be more easily
separated from the water. Flocculation is a physical process and does not involve the
neutralization of charge. Coagulation may be used in conjunction with flocculation to
assist with water clarification.Coagulation is one of the cheapest process for treatment of
various organic effluents.

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other
chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc" which attract the
dirt particles. The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough
to sink to the bottom during sedimentation.

2.2.3. Sedimentation

After flocculation, the water and floc moves slowly through large basins known as
sedimentation or settling basins. The water moves very slowly through these basins due to
their large size. This allows the floc to settle to the bottom of the basin. The floc that falls
to the bottom of the basins is collected into a hopper by large rotating scrapers where it is
removed several times daily by the plant operators. Clear water above the floc layer
(referred to as treatment residuals) flows out of the sedimentation basin and to the filters.
Removal of particles in the sedimentation basin improves the operation of the filters that
comprises the next treatment process after sedimentation.

The sedimentation process removes many particles including clay and silt based
turbidity, natural organic matter, and other associated impurities. These impurities include
microbial contaminants, toxic metals, synthetic organic chemicals, iron, manganese and
humic substances. Humic substances come from soil are produced within natural water and
sediments by chemical and biological processes such as the decay of vegetation. Removal
of humic substances from drinking water is desirable since they form disinfection
byproducts when chlorine is added to the water. At high concentrations, disinfection by-
products such as trihalomethanes are a public health concern.

2.2.4. Filtration

The filtration process involves some type of filter media, over which water flows.
This filter media blocks passage of contaminants through physical obstruction, chemical
adsorption, or a combination of both processes. Material construction of the filter media
varies widely, but the most effective medias are made from carbon or a combination of
carbon with other elements. Modern filtration technology allows water filters to remove
more and more contaminants through the chemical process of adsorption. In the adsorption
process, contaminants are encouraged to break their bond with water molecules and
chemically adhere to the filter media. Generally, water goes through several stages of
filtration to ensure that each filter media will remove the ultimate number of contaminants.
Water normally passes through a water filter at a relatively low speed, in order to ensure
adequate contact time with the filter media. Once the water has passed through the
required stages of filtration, it emerges as pure drinking water, free from contamination.

2.2.5. Disinfection

Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic

microorganisms. Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated, resulting in termination of
growth and reproduction. When microorganisms are not removed from drinking water,
drinking water usage will cause people to fall ill. Sterilization is a process related to
disinfection. However, during the sterilization process all present microorganisms are
killed, both harmful and harmless microorganisms.

Disinfection can be attained by means of physical or chemical disinfectants. The

agents also remove organic contaminants from water, which serve as nutrients or shelters
for microorganisms. Disinfectants should not only kill microorganisms. Disinfectants must
also have a residual effect, which means that they remain active in the water after
disinfection. A disinfectant should prevent pathogenic microorganisms from growing in
the plumbing after disinfection, causing the water to be recontaminated. For chemical
disinfection of water the following disinfectants can be used:

 Chlorine (Cl2)
 Chlorine-dioxide (ClO2)
 Hypo-chlorite (OCl-)
 Ozone (O3)
 Halogens: bromine(Br2),
 Iodine(I)
 Bromine chloride (BrCl)

2.2.6. Water Softening

Conventional water softening is most often based a process known as ion

exchange, utilizing a synthetic polymeric (plastic) material in the form of very small beads
called ion exchange resin. The resin is porous so that each bead has tremendous surface
area and the surface area is chemically constructed to contain billions of active or
"exchange sites". These sites have considerable affinity for metals in the water with
valences (i.e., charges of +2 and +3). Thus, when water containing calcium, magnesium
(the two major constituents of hard water), dissolved iron, copper or aluminum, the active
sites attract and "hold" these ions.

However, in order to do so, the sites must have a less tightly held ion to "exchange"
for the metal hardness ions. While the resin does not prefer ions with a single charge,
fortunately under conditions of high concentration and extended time of exposure, sodium
ions can be "forced" onto the active sites by slowly passing a concentrated solution of
sodium chloride (table salt) over the resin. Thus, a relatively inexpensive, readily
available, safe chemical can be used to "regenerate" the resin. Ion exchange resins are also
used to produce high purity Demineralized water but the resin and regeneration chemicals
are different.

2.2.7. Miscellaneous treatment of water

Aeration:

Aeration is a unit process in which air and water are brought into intimate contact.
Turbulence increases the aeration of flowing streams industrial processes, water flow is
usually directed countercurrent to atmospheric or forced-draft air flow. The contact time
and the ratio of air to water must be sufficient for effective removal of the unwanted gas.
Aeration as a water treatment practice is used for the following operations:

 carbon dioxide reduction (decarbonation)

 oxidation of iron and manganese found in many well waters (oxidation tower)

 ammonia and hydrogen sulfide reduction (stripping)

Aeration is also an effective method of bacteria control. Two general methods may be
used for the aeration of water. The most common in industrial use is the water-fall aerator.
Through the use of spray nozzles, the water is broken up into small droplets or a thin film
to enhance countercurrent air contact. In the air diffusion method of aeration, air is
diffused into a receiving vessel containing counter-current flowing water, creating very
small air bubbles. This ensures good air-water contact for "scrubbing" of undesirable gases
from the water.
Iron Removal :

Iron is one of the most abundant metals of the Earth's crust. It occurs naturally in
water in soluble form as the ferrous iron (bivalent iron in dissolved form Fe2+ or Fe(OH)+)
or complexed form like the ferric iron (trivalent iron: Fe3+ or precipitated as Fe(OH)3).The
occurrence of iron in water can also have an industrial origin; mining, iron and steel
industry, metals corrosion ,etc. In general, iron does not present a danger to human health
or the environment, but it brings unpleasantness of an aesthetic and organoleptic nature.
Indeed, iron gives a rust color to the water, which can stain linen, sanitary facilities or even
food industry products. Iron also gives a metallic taste to water, making it unpleasant for
consumption. It can also be at the origin of corrosion in drains sewers, due to the
development of microorganisms, the ferrobacteries.

Manganese Removal:

As for iron, the origin of manganese, in water, is at the same time natural
(dissolution of the reduced form Mn2+) and industrial (mining, the iron and steel industry,
etc.). The same goes for its removal from water. Manganese does not present a danger to
human health, nor for the environment but it is unpleasant. In fact, the water gets a black
color and a metallic taste. Similar to iron, the manganese removal by physical-chemical
way , can be carried out by the oxidation of Mn2+ in Mn4+, which precipitates then in
manganese dioxide (MnO2). The precipitation is then separated from water by filtration on
sand.

The only difference (with the iron), is in the reagent used. Indeed, oxidation by
oxygen is in many cases not sufficient for manganese at neutral pH. Stronger oxidants can
be used in complement such as chlorine dioxide (ClO2), chlorine (Cl2), potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) or ozone (O3).

2.3 Low Cost Technique

2.3.1 Types of Low Cost Water Filter Technologies

The cheapest and the most easily available filter material is cloth. Fabric material
such as linen, cotton, polyester and other fabrics are typically used by villagers for filtering
water. These clothes are folded into layers to be placed on top of a water pot and water is
poured into it to strain out dust and other contaminants. This filter is very cheap but not
that effective in removing micro-organisms and chemical contaminants of below 2 microns
size. To solve this problem, water can be boiled after filtering.

The Water Cone (Fig. 2) is a simple desalination method to get pure water from
brackish water. In the purifying process, water is evaporated to remove salt and then
recollected by condensation. Sunlight is the energy source for evaporation. This will
produce more than 2 liters of water per day. The cone material is ultra-violet ray (UV)
resistant and is made up of non-toxic polycarbonate plastic. Life span of this cone would
be 5-7 years. This instrument costs around INR1500.

Biosand water filter (Fig. 3) is just a plain cement box that contains gravel, sand
and a biofilm layer aligned to filter water. The biofilm acts as a filter for microorganisms.
Terracotta filters are commonly used in Jharkhand state in India. It consists of river sand,
red clay and wood saw dust mixture sintered at high temperature so that the plate or disk is
made into porous arrangement to act as a filter. The cost will be around 300-500 INR.

The life straw filter (Fig. 4) is similar to cloth filter, but it has four different layers
of filters. The first one filters dirt and sediments, while the second level is a halogen-based
filter, which removes bacteria. At the third level, viruses and parasites are removed and
finally an activated carbon-based filter is positioned filter out traces of chemicals and to
enhance the taste and smell of water. The instrument costs around INR180-300. It can
filter up to 700 liters of water.

Fig. 2 Water cone filter

Fig. 3: Biosand Water Filter

Fig. 4: Life Straw Water Filter

Fig. 5: Bamboo charcoal water filter

 Bamboo charcoal has charred bamboo, gravel and natural absorbents as filtering
layers (Fig. 5). This can filter up to 30 litres of water per hour. Duckweeds are small
angiosperm plants, which can be grown in small ponds to clean up the waste particles from
the water. This can be implemented in rural areas where water is taken from ponds for
daily usage.

Copper pot (Fig. 6) was used by ancient Indians for water purification purpose. It is
mentioned in Ayurveda that storing water in copper pot kills pathogens and purifies the
water. Roots and barks of Indian gooseberry, seeds of Strychnos potatorum tree help in
sedimentation of dissolved contents in the water.

Other treatment techniques used in the field as well as by different researchers are
given in Table 2.

Fig. 6: Copper pot

Table 2: Different low cost water purification technology

Technology Water flow Lifespan Cost Maintenance

Activated Carbon NA Variable High Monthly

Biosand Filter 60 liters / hr Indefinite Medium Sporadic
Ceramic Filter 1 liters / hr 6-12 months Low Monthly
Chemical – Iodine 2 drops/ liter Variable Low None
& Chlorine
Cloth filter NA Variable Low Monthly
Moringa seeds 1 seed/ 1 liter Variable Low Daily
Sand Filter 8 liters / hr Variable High Weekly
UV Radiation – 50-60 liters / hr 12 months High Monthly
Lamps
UV Radiation – 1 liter / 6 hrs Indefinite Low Daily
SODIS
2.3.2 Low Cost Filtering Material

Different low cost materials used in the field as well as by different researchers as filtering
materials are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Different low cost filtering materials

Materials Impurities Removed Process

AloeVera Bacteria,Virus,Fungi
CaCl2 Phosphate, Oily substances, Heavy Ion exchange
metals, Inorganic compounds,
Fluorides
Fish Bone Charcoal Fluoride, Copper, Zinc, Arsenic, Adsorption
(Tricalcium Phosphate) Lead, Cadmium
Red Mud Phosphorous Adsorption
Fly Ash Fluoride Adsorption
Synthetic Zeolite Chromium, Nickel, Zinc, Copper, Ion exchange
Cadmium
Neem bark powder Dye Adsorption
Activated alumina Arsenite, Arsenate Kinetic adsorption

2.4 Reviews of Different Authors on Water Treatment Techniques:

Literature review of the work done by researchers in the area of low cost water
purification technology and material are reviewed and are given below:

Tikki (2014) studied that the major source of fluoride in ground water is the
leaching of fluoride from the rock minerals of the earth’s crust. Presence of fluoride in low
concentration (<1.5 mg/l) is beneficial to the people for the calcification of dental enamel
and maintenance of healthy bones. On the other side, its presence in higher concentration
become a monster and can cause dental, skeletal fluorosis and also non-skeletal problems.
In his paper he presented the information on fluoride, sources of its occurrence, its effects
on human & animal health and various control methods for the removal/reduction.

Agrawal and Bhalwar(2009) studied that improving the microbiological quality of

household water by point-of-use treatment reduces diarrhea and other waterborne diseases.
The most promising and accessible of the technologies for household water treatment are
filtration with ceramic filters, chlorination with storage in an improvised vessel, solar
disinfection in clear bottles by the combined action of UV radiation and heat, thermal
disinfection (pasteurization) in opaque vessels with sunlight from solar cookers or
reflectors and combination systems employing chemical coagulation-flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination. However each of these technologies have
limitations and effectiveness can be increased by use of two or more treatment systems in
succession for improved treatment and the creation of multiple barriers. In particular those
treatments that provide no residual disinfectant, such as boiling, solar treatment, UV
disinfection with lamps and filtration could be followed by chlorination to provide a
multibarrier approach. Water purifiers based on multiple interventions such as
filtration/ultra filtration/ activated carbon adsorption / UV rays disinfection are available in
the market which can be used to purify the water at point of use. Water purifiers based on
single interventions like candle filters, resins filters or ultraviolet lamp can be used in most
places being supplied water after purification. Troops on operational move can purify
water by fabric/resins filtration and chlorine disinfection or by flocculent-disinfectant.

Water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans and is
essential to the survival of all known organisms. Over large parts of the world, humans
have inadequate access to drinking water and use water contaminated with disease vectors,
pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking such water or
using it in food preparation leads to widespread, acute and chronic illnesses and is a major
cause of death and misery in many countries. The UN estimates that over 2.0 billion
people have limited access to safe water and nearly 800 million people lack even the most
basic supply of clean water. The main issue is the affordability of water purifying systems.
Many people rely on boiling water or bottled water, which can be expensive. Therefore,
technologies that are cost effective, sustainable, ease of operation/maintenance and the
treatment processes with locally available materials are required. In this article, some
unique low-cost sustainable technologies available/or in-use, i.e. natural filtration,
riverbank filtration, biosand filtration, membrane filtration, solar water disinfection
technique, biologically degradable materials such as moringa powder, scallop powder
treatment, and biosand pitcher treatments have been discussed (Zaman et al. 2014).

Wijesundara (2004):A low cost domestic defluoridator has been developed by the
National Water Supply & Drainage Board of Sri Lanka to remove excess fluoride in
drinking water to avoid endemic Fluorosis. Broken pieces of freshly burnt bricks are used
as filter media in these units. A kinetic model for fluoride uptake in the filter with broken
bricks as defluoridating agent is considered and the model parameters are estimated using
experimental data. Data concerning the uptake of fluoride on broken brick pieces are
obtained from water in batch in the defluoridator. The reaction rate parameter, k, and the
capacity parameter fm are estimated and the model fits the collected data satisfactorily. fm
is estimated to 0.10 mg/g and k which is a function of initial concentration varies between
0.001 and 0.0005 L/ (mg.ho.5) for low and high initial concentration. Broken bricks could
be used as filter media for concentration of fluoride in raw water around 2 mg/1.

2.5 Deflouridation

One of the environmental health issues connected with geogenic processes is

excess fluoride in groundwater. Its ingestion through drinking water and food products
leads to dental and skeletal fluorosis. Geographical belt of high fluoride content in
groundwater extends from Syria through Jordan to Kenya and another belt stretches from
Turkey to China. Endemic fluorosis has been reported in most of the regions of Africa and
Asia with high levels of fluoride in water. Approximately, 100 million people worldwide
are thought to have been suffering from fluorosis. Natural concentrations of fluoride in
water as high as 2800 ppm (Lake Nakuru, in Rift valley in Kenya) have been reported.

India is one among the 23 nations in the world, where the fluoride contaminated
groundwater is creating the health problems. Fluorosis was first detected in early 1930s in
four states of India. The most seriously affected states in India are Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The highest
concentration observed to date in India is 48 mg/l in Rewari District of Haryana. Zonal
distribution of fluoride in India is given in Table 4 and fluoride contaminated area is given
in Table 5.

Table 4: Zonal distribution of fluoride

S.N. Zone Name of the states Fluoride contaminated

hydrograph stations
(in%)
1 East Odisha,West Bengal,Bihar,Jharkhand,Sikkim 19.51
2 South Andhra Pradesh, 18.53
Kerala,Tamilnadu,Karnataka,Goa
3 West Rajastan,Gujurat,Maharastra 32.19
4 Central Madhya Pradesh,Chahatishgarh 5.85
5 North Jammu & Kasmir, Himachal
Pradesh,Punjab,,Harayana,Delhi,Uttar 22.92
Pradesh,Uttarnchal
6 North Arunachal Pradesh,
East Assam,Nagaland,Manipur,Mizoram, Tripura 0.97

Most of the rural population depends on the ground water sources for drinking
purposes which generally contain underground deposits such as salts and minerals. One
such is the fluoride which causes an adverse impact on human as well as animal health if
fluoride concentration is higher. Consumption of water having excess fluoride over a
prolonged period leads to a chronic ailment known as fluorosis. 62 million people are
affected by various degrees of fluorosis in India alone. Out of these; 6 million are affected
with a dental, skeletal and non-skeletal form of fluorosis and associated health problems.

Table 5: Fluoride Contaminated Area of India

State Affected Areas

Andhra Pradesh Adilabad,Anantapura,Chitoor,Kadapada,East
Godaveri,Guntur,Srikakulam
Assam Karbi Anagaon,Nagaon
Bihar Daltonganj,Gaya,Rohtas,Gopalganj
Chhatishgarh Raipur,Rajnandgaon
Gujurat Ahemadabad,Amveli,Anand,Bharuch,Bhavnagar,Patun
Harayana Rewari,Faridabad,Karnal,Sirsa
Jammu & Doda
Kasmir
Jharkhand Palamu,Giridh,Paschim Singhbhum
Karnatak Dharwad,Gadag
Kerala Palaghat,Allepey,Ernakulum
MadhyaPradesh Shrivapuri,Jhabua,Mandla,DinadariSconi
Maharastra Chandapur,Nagpur,Akola,Sholapur
Odisha Puri,Khurda,Nuapada,Bargarh,Kalahandi,Jajpur,Bolangir,Dhenkanal,
Deogarh,Boudh,Jharsuguda,Phullabani,Kendrapada,Anugul,Nayagarh,
Balasore,Ganjam,Keojhar,Mayurbhanj
Punjab Mansa, Bhatinda,Muktasar,Moga,Amritsar,Patiala,Ropar
Rajasthan Ajmer,Alwar,Dungarpur
Tamil Nadu Salem,Erode,Dharampuri
Uttar Pradesh Urimano,Agra,Meerut,Mathura
West Bengal Birbhum,Purulia,Bankura
Delhi Kanjhawala,Najafgarh,Aliapur

The positive side is about 96% of fluoride in the human body is found in bones and
teeth. Fluorine is essential for the normal mineralization of bones and formation of dental
enamel. On the negative side, prolonged ingestion of fluoride through drinking water in
excess of the daily requirement is associated with dental and skeletal fluorosis.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the standard prescribed for
fluoride ion concentration in drinking water is 1.0 mg/l whereas by Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) it is 1.0mg/l. Fluoride in smaller dose (0.8-1.0mg/l) helps to prevent
dental caries particularly in the children below 8 years of age. Fluoride in higher
concentration causes dental fluorosis (1.5 -2.0mg/l) and skeletal fluorosis (>3.0mg/l).
 Fluorides in drinking water must neither be totally absent nor should exceed an
optimum value of about 1 mg/l. To ensure this, fluorides are added to water found
deficient in fluoride concentrations, under a process known as Fluoridation. The deficiency
of fluoride may result in dental carries in children. It has thus been believed that during the
formation of permanent teeth in children, scarcity of fluoride in consumed water, may lead
to formation of weaker tooth enamel leading to early tooth decay. Fluoride also proves
beneficial to older people in reducing hardening of arteries ;and as fluoride stimulates bone
formation , it is helpful in the treatment of osteoporosis. It is done by addition of fluoride
compounds to the water.e.g. Sodium fluoride(NaF), Sodium Silico fluoride(Na2SiF6)
,hydro-fluorosilicic acid(H2SiF6),etc.

When, however, the fluoride concentration in a given water exceeds the limiting
value of 1 to 1.5 mg/l,the fluorides are removed from water under a process known as
Defluoridation . Fluoride mainly enters human body through drinking water . 96-99% of it
combines with bones ,since fluoride has affinity for calcium phosphate in the bones.
Excess intake of fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis and non-skeletal
fluorosis. Dental fluorosis is characterized by discoloured , blackened, mottled, or chalky
white teeth. Skeletal fluorosis leads to severe and permanent bone and joint deformations.
Non-skeletal fluorosis leads to gastro-intestinal problems (abdominal pain, diarrhoea,
constipation etc) and neurological disorders(nervousness, excessive thirst, tendency to
urinate frequently etc) .Fluoride can damage a foetus ,and adversely affect the IQ of
children.

Defluoridation is the process of removal of fluoride ion from water or wastewater.

This can be possible in two ways: (i) Blending the existing water supply with the water
containing low concentration of fluoride (or) (ii) treating the fluoride contained water in
two ways;

(a) Centralized treatment method - This method is best suited in developed nations where
cost is not a factor. Usually defluoridation process is carried out on a large scale along with
other treatment processes at the water works.

(b) Decentralized method (i.e. at the community, village or household level) - This option
suits where group of villages/houses are scattered especially in rural areas. Various simple
treatment methods available are followed at village or household level. The advantage of
these methods is the treatment cost is lower since water required for drinking and cooking
only treated. The major drawback of these methods is generation of huge quantity of
sludge .

Defluoridation techniques can be broadly classified in to four categories;

Adsorption technique (by using activated alumina, bone char, mud pot, bricks, natural
adsorbent), Ion-exchange technique, Precipitation technique (Nalgonda technique; addition
of Aluminium salts, lime and bleaching powder), and Other techniques, which include
electro chemical defluoridation and Reverse Osmosis.

Different researchers have used low cost adsorption techniques by using mud pot,
bricks, natural adsobent for Defluoridation (Renuka and Puspanjali 2013; Wijesundara
2004). Use of broken bricks as filter media has been used in different water supply
schemes. Removal of pathogens, SS and turbidity by use of broken and crushed bricks is
encouraging (Devi et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012). So it is decided to assess the broken
bricks of different sizes as filter media as well as adsorbent material for defluoridation for
the present study.
3. OBJECTIVE & SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study is to determine the suitability of broken bricks as

adsorbent as well as filter media for low cost domestic defluoridator. This will be achieved
by determining the following model parameters related to the broken bricks: (i) Capacity
parameter for fluoride in broken brick pieces (ii) Reaction rate parameter. With the above
mentioned objectives, the following study plan is made:
 Preparation of filter media
 To study the adsorption kinetics, the sorption capacity and removal efficiency of
fluoride in presence of important physicochemical and other influential parameters in
batch experiments.
 To find the adsorption edge and optimum pH for the highest removal.
 To investigate the performance of filter in removal of fluoride from water through
column studies.
 To investigate the effect of media size, flow rate/ detention period and head loss on the
efficiency of the filtration system through column studies.

4. WORK DONE SO FAR

 Collection of literature on different low cost water treatment technology

 Collection of literature on low cost defluoridation technology
 Fabrication of columns for column studies

5. METHODOLOGY & WORK TO BE DONE

5.1 Batch Contact System Adsorption Studies

5.1.1 Optimization of Operational Variables

- Effect of adsorbent dose on defluoridation

- Effect of contact time on defluoridation

- Effect of pH on defluoridation

- Effect of initial concentration on defluoridation

5.1.2 Modeling of Adsorption Isotherms and its Studies

5.2 Batch Adsorption & Filtration Column Studies

- Effect of contact time on defluoridation

- Effect of initial concentration on defluoridation

- Effect of media size on defluoridation

- Effect of depth on defluoridation

5.3 Continuous Flow Column Studies

- Effect of media size on defluoridation

- Effect of depth on defluoridation

- Effect of flow rate on defluoridation

- Effect of head loss on defluoridation

6. REFERENCES

1. Agrawal VK , Bhalwar R (2009) Household Water Purification: Low-Cost

Interventions MJAFI 2009; 65: 260-263
2. Devi, R., Alemayehu, E., Singh V., Kumar A., Mengistie E. (2008). Removal of
fluoride, arsenic and coliform bacteria by modified homemade filter media from
drinking water. Bioresource Technology. 99(7). 2269-2274
3. Henry Michael, Maley Siri, Mehta Khanjan(2013)Designing a Low-Cost Ceramic
Water Filter 8, No. 1, pp. 62-77 , ISSN 1555-9033.
4. Indian Standard drinking water-specification (second revision), IS10500:2012, Indian
Standard Institution.
5. Renuka piddennavar, Pushpanjali krishnappa(2013). Review on Defluoridation
Techniques of Water Ijes, 2, 86-94, Issn: 2319 – 1813 Isbn: 2319 – 1805.
6. Tikki Arif Mohammed, Fluoride Removal from Water (2014) International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 5, Issue 1, ISSN 2229-5518.
7. Wang, Z., Liu, C.X., Li, P.Y., Dong, J., Liu, L., Zhu, G.F. (2012). Study on
phosphorus removal capability of constructed wetlands filled with broken bricks.
Huan Jing Ke Xue. 33(12). 4373-79
8. Wijesundara T (2004) Low-cost defluoridation of water using broken bricks, 30th
WEDC International Conference, Vientiane, 521-525.
9. Zaman Sharmin, Yeasmin Sabina, Inatsu Yasuhiro, Ananchaipattana Chiraporn, Bari
Latiful Mohammad (2014) Low-Cost Sustainable Technologies for the Production of
Clean Drinking Water Journal of Environmental Protection , 5, 42-53.