Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Environmental health impacts of dispersed mineralisation in South Africa

T.C. Davies ⇑, H.R. Mundalamo
Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The crust of South Africa has undergone various episodes and styles of mineralisation, dating as far back
Available online 31 August 2010 as the Archaean. The suite of minerals produced is diverse and includes metals, non-metals and industrial
minerals. Since the Pleistocene, substantial quantities of elements, both nutritional and toxic, that were
Keywords: involved in ore forming processes, have been remobilised and redistributed by surficial processes of
Dispersed mineralisation intense tropical weathering, leaching, eluviation, podsolisation and gleying; and more recently, by min-
Environmental diseases ing and related processes, as well as by other urban and industrial activities. As a result of this ‘‘disper-
South Africa
sion” it is not uncommon to find large tracts of the country containing anomalous trace element contents
or deficiencies in essential micro-nutrient elements. Through water and food crops, extremes in trace ele-
ment variation in soils are transmitted into the food chain, with often undesirable consequences for
human and animal health. But the known variations are not as yet adequately documented. Nor is there
sufficient knowledge on the implications of these variations for the health of the environment and its eco-
systems. Nutrient deficient soils may be the principal causative factor in the devastating endemic osteo-
arthritic disease that afflicts two-thirds of the women in Maputaland, for instance. The generally low Se
status of agricultural soils could represent an important co-factor in the relatively high diffusion rates of
HIV-AIDS in the country. The impact of geology on animal health also remains an area of critical concern
to both farmers and managers of the hugely important wildlife game reserves. This paper discusses a few
known relationships between trace element excess/deficiency stemming originally from mineralisation
processes, and the local and regional distribution of diseases in man and animals in South Africa. It is sub-
mitted that the challenge for future research in medical geology would lie in an organised effort aimed at
detecting, verifying and documenting such relationships. This would help greatly in broadening the diag-
nostic spectrum and therapy for a number of environmental diseases in the country.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1.1. Brief summary of economic geology

The occurrence and mining of widespread metallic, non-
metallic and industrial minerals in South Africa have enabled the
construction of a superb infrastructure and a vibrant economy.
The agricultural industry too, is a vital arm of the country’s econ-
omy, with between 80% and 85% of the country’s surface area de-
voted to agriculture, and some 1.5 million people dependent on
this production (Fuggle and Rabbie, 1992). The two industries of
mining and agriculture are not only complementary but inextrica-
bly linked, in a way that negative impacts arising from the
development of mining, may impinge on the development of agri-
culture. However, the troubling legacies of environmental degrada-
tion and declining public health, loom, partly as a result of over
100 years of mining and mineral processing. Severe pollution of
the country’s soil and water resources affect the food chain and
consequently the health of the population and surrounding
ecosystems.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: daviestheo@hotmail.com (T.C. Davies).
Dating back some 3.7 billion years, the geological history of
South Africa is extremely varied and economically very important.
A major geological feature is the Kaapvaal Craton (Fig. 1), which
underlies the northeastern part of the country. The Craton consists
largely of Archaean gneisses and granitoids, along with lesser
amounts of metamorphosed, volcanosedimentary rocks, the green-
stone belts. The greenstones host many Au, Sb, Cu–Zn, Fe, Hg,
asbestos, talc, magnesite and gemstone deposits.
The Bushveld Complex, the world’s largest known layered
intrusion, contains an ultrabasic to basic unit surrounding an acid
core of largely granitic rocks. The Merensky Reef, the best known
and most commonly exploited platiniferous horizon in the Com-
plex, contains Pt group metals as well as significant resources of
Co, Cu and Ni.
The alkaline (carbonatite) Phalaborwa Complex which has a
similar age to the Bushveld Complex hosts significant Cu
mineralisation.
The Karoo Supergroup covers about two-thirds of the surface
area of South Africa, and hosts the fluvio-deltaic sediments and

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doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.08.009
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666 653

Fig. 1. Simplified geology of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Source: Modified after Johnson et al., 2006.

coal deposits of the Ecca Group (Fig. 1). The coal deposits provide a due to deficiency in some micro-nutrient(s), such as is illustrated
massive export industry of mainly bituminous, thermal-grade coal in the link between Mseleni joint disease and the nutrient poor
with a relatively low S content. soils of Maputaland (see later section on ‘‘Endemic Osteoarthritis”).

1.3. Potential exposure pathways

1.2. Mineralisation and mining
Health hazards from trace elements are both dose and exposure
Sami and Druzynski (2003) have listed and described several related. In addition, risk is also affected by ingestion through vari-
mineralisation types, widely dispersed within the crust of South ous pathways, and by interaction between constituents (Fig. 3).
Africa. These include Pb–Zn deposits, volcanogenic massive sulp-
hides, Pt group element seams, pegmatite-uranium veins, coal
deposits, phosphates and hydrothermal terranes (Fig. 2). Many of
the ores contain large concentrations of potentially harmful ele-
ments such as As, Pb, Hg and U.
Developed around these mineralisation types was a natural
geochemical halo that has, since around Pleistocene times, been
modified by surficial processes, such as weathering, leaching, elu-
viation, podsolisation, gleying, and the like. In addition, imprints
with anthropogenic signatures on a more recent time scale, are ob-
served in many areas as a result of mining and related processes, as
well as by urbanisation. The net result is the entry of potentially
harmful elements and other toxicants into biotic systems (includ-
ing agricultural lands) and the food chain, through various path-
ways (Fig. 3). On the other hand, there are also areas of
(nutrient) element deficiencies brought about by processes identi-
cal to those given above.
The generally high acidity, together with the highly organic-rich
nature of tropical soils leads invariably to mobilisation (and loss) of
some important micro-nutrients, leading to deficiency. Soil nutri-
ent deficiency may also arise through the binding of nutrient trace
elements (metals) on organic matter, clay minerals or Fe and Mn Fig. 2. Some major mineral occurrences in South Africa (scale approx. as in Fig. 1).
oxides and hydroxides, making them non-available (an apparent Source: http://cnx.org/content/m22302/latest/graphics1.png (Accessed 29 June
deficiency). This leads to a wide range of environmental diseases 2010).
654 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666

Fig. 3. Health risk exposure pathways. Source: http://www.p2pays.org/ref/04/03336/terms.htm (Accessed 30 June 2010).

Three main pathways can be identified, by which elements de-
rived from natural processes of mineralisation, as well as from
mining and ore processing operations and associated activities,
can enter the human body:
1. Ingestion: (i) through consumption of food crops having anom-
alous concentrations of elements derived from agricultural soils
that were developed over mineralised bedrock; (ii) through
consumption of food crops from soils contaminated by leach-
ates, effluents and emissions from nearby mining sites, ore pro-
cessing plants, or other industrial operations, e.g., as in acid
mine drainage (AMD) or acid rain; and (iii) through deliberate
or inadvertent consumption of various forms of Earth materials
as in geophagic practices.
2. Inhalation of particulate matter and dust in the mining environ-
ment or from other industrial sites.
3. Direct dermal contact with ores and associated materials.
2. Health issues arising from dispersed mineralsation
Almost every one of the top ten leading underlying natural
causes of death in South Africa (Table 1) can arguably be linked
to some geo-environmental co-factor(s): tuberculosis (rank 1 in
2003 and 2004) to inhalation of silica dust; cerebro-vascular
disease (rank 3 in 2003) to heavy metal (Hg, Pb) exposure; heart
disease (rank 5 in 2003 and 2004) to insufficiency of Mg in drinking
water supplies; diabetes mellitus (rank 6 in 2003 and 2004) to hea-
vy metal exposure; chronic lower respiratory diseases (rank 7 in
2003) to geogenic dust; certain disorders involving the immune
system (rank 7 in 2004) to heavy metals and Se (HIV-AIDS), and
so on. A review of some of these correlations is given in subsequent
sections of this discourse.
Some environmental health effects due to excesses and
deficiencies of nutritional elements in agricultural systems of
South Africa have been documented; for example, Zn, P, K, Ca,
Mn (Abrahams, 2005; Ceruti et al., 1999, 2003); I (Jooste and
Zimmermann, 2008; Kalk, 1998; Kavishe, 1996); F (Louw et al.,
2002; Muller et al., 1998; Ncube and Schutte, 2005; Se (Burcher,
2004; Foster, 2003; Utiger, 1998); Fe (Joffe, 1964; Wapnick et al.,
1971); Fe, Zn and Mn (Cvitanich et al., 2009).
However, the health impacts of potentially harmful elements,
especially toxic heavy metals, such as Hg, Pb and Zn, stemming
from sulphide mineralisation, mining and ore processing or mine
waste disposal are generally less known, but are considered by
these authors (TCD and HRM) to be quite significant in determina-
tion of environmental disease ranking in the country (Table 1).

Table 1
The ten leading underlying natural causes of death in South Africa in 2003 and 2004. Source: Statistics South Africa (SSA), 2006.

2003 2004
Cause of death* Rank Number Percent Rank Number Percent
Tuberculosis (A15 – A19) 1 67,609 12.2 1 69,689 12.3
Influenza and pneumonia (J10 – J18) 2 45,351 8.2 2 45,376 8.0
Cerebro-vascular disease (160 – 169) 3 27,445 5.0 4 25,006 4.4
Intestinal infectious Diseases (A00 – A09) 4 24,394 4.4 3 26,581 4.7
Other forms of heart disease (130 – 152) 5 23,996 4.3 5 23,753 4.2
Diabetes mellitus (E10 – E14) 6 16,761 3.0 6 16,980 3.0
Chronic lower respiratory diseases (J40 – J47) 7 16,130 2.9 8 15,333 2.8
Certain disorders involving the immune mechanism (D80 – D89) 8 15,109 2.7 7 16,052 2.7
Ischaemic heart disease (120 – 125) 9 13,324 2.4 ... ... ...
Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders-perinatal (P20 – P29) 10 12,756 2.3 10 13,271 2.3
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease (B20 – B24) ... ... ... 9 13,319 2.3
Other causes 289,950 52.4 302,200 53.3
All causes 552,825 100.0 567,488 100.0
*
Causes of death based on the Tenth Revision, International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (WHO, 1992).
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
Environmental exposure to heavy metal toxicity from mine
waste may be directly or indirectly linked to many maladies,
including headaches, anger, irritability, depression, and so on,
and can contribute to arthritis, asthma, chronic fatigue, diabetes,
fibromyalgia, heart disease, arterial sclerosis, multiple sclerosis,
Parkinson’s disease, ulcers, and many others (Chapman, 2008).
Five elements have been selected to illustrate the complex pat-
tern of element overload that can occur in humans and animals
when the food chain has been impacted upon by dispersed miner-
alisation or associated anthropogenic processes. A review is carried
out of health conditions that may be precipitated by systemic over-
load of U, Hg, Mn, Fe, F and elements in metal sulphide associa-
tions, and geophagic materials, through ingestion via any of the
pathways identified in Fig. 3.
3. Health issues arising from dispersion of some potentially
harmful elements
3.1. Uranium (U)
U is widely dispersed in the South African environment, with
radiometric highs occurring at several localities, regardless of
whether or not U concentrations in these lithologies reach ore
grade. The element’s geological occurrence in the country is well
documented. The variety of deposits is wide, genetically different,
and of differing ages (Appendix A, Table A1).
Radiometric surveys and scintillometer-assisted field traverses
over a number of radiometric highs near Springbok, Vaalputs
and Steenkampskraal underlain by granulite-facies ortho and
paragneisses, often give above-average contents of U and Th
(Albat, 1984; Robb, 1986; Andreoli et al., 1986; Raith et al.,
2003). Also, a number of areas in Limpopo Province (H. Mouri,
personal communication) and in the North-West Province (Kgabi
et al., 2009) have high background levels of the element.
Although its occurrence in groundwater has only been docu-
mented in limited case studies, desktop-level predictive model-
ling has identified a number of areas in the country, where
naturally elevated U concentrations may be expected in ground-
water (Coetzee et al., 2008).
The need for having such a comprehensive information on
South Africa’s U deposits has been considered crucial, because of
implementation of significant nuclear power programmes in the
country. However, the health impacts of radioactivity emanating
from natural occurrences as well as from radioactivity released
during mining, processing and related activities involving U, have
to date, been given very little attention.
As much as 85% of the radioactivity in the ore remains in the
tailings with a half-life of 80,000 years. Tailings are blown by the
wind and washed by rain into water systems. When mining com-
panies close down, there is a problem as to who will deal with the
waste. Tailings generate Rn gas that can travel up to thousands of
kilometers in a light breeze. As it drifts, it deposits radioactive by-
products on vegetation. It is transmitted to animals, fish and plants
miles away from the U mine.
Negative impacts from radioactivity include: air pollution from
radionuclide-contaminated dust, soil contamination, aquatic sedi-
ment contamination and bioaccumulation of radionuclides in eco-
systems; and the impact on human health includes lung cancer,
genetic mutations, and mental retardation at high levels.
South Africa’s U mines are situated amongst some of the best
producing agricultural lands in the country. The level of pollution
from U mining means that agricultural land cannot be used for
either crop cultivation or grazing. Uranium and other heavy metals
(pollution) remains in the ground and surrounding rivers for many
years.
655
3.2. Mercury (Hg)
Due to the chalcophilic nature of its associations, Hg is found in
higher abundances in intrusive magmatic rocks and locations of
subaerial and submarine volcanism. In South Africa, Hg occurs in
a number of deposit types, commonly as cinnabar (HgS) in metal
sulphide deposits, and in coals. It also occurs in placer deposits to-
gether with Au particles, as in the Witwatersrand. It is suggested
that the major source of the Hg in the Witwatersrand Au is the sur-
rounding sediments from which the element was mobilised and
subsequently amalgamated with Au as a result of metamorphism
(Oberthuer and Saager, 1986).
Current literature suggests that South Africa may be the second
highest emitter of Hg in the world, after China (Pacyna et al., 2006).
While geologically bound Hg is emitted to the atmosphere via nat-
ural processes, the major source of Hg emissions in South Africa is
thought to be anthropogenic. Coal combustion (e.g. in power gen-
eration and residential heating), large-scale and artisanal Au pro-
duction, waste incineration, base metal smelting, and cement
production are the most important anthropogenic sources of Hg
emissions to the environment (Pacyna et al., 2001). Of these
sources, coal combustion in power generation and residential heat-
ing represent possibly the most important contribution in the
country (Pacyna et al., 2001).
In South Africa, very little is known about Hg emissions from
natural (geogenic) sources, such as from rock, soil, vegetation
and water surfaces, due perhaps to difficulty in estimating natural
emissions and uncertainties in the natural emissions process. The
magnitude of their extent is therefore relatively poorly con-
strained, though considered to constitute an important part of
the atmospheric Hg input. Most studies on Hg pollution and its im-
pacts have been in reaction to emergency incidents. In South Africa
several Hg spills have occurred contaminating soils and rivers. The
effluent spill into the Mngcewni River in KwaZulu-Natal during the
late 1990’s is one example. This spill was as a result of the trans-
portation of foreign Hg waste (SAMAP, 2007). As a result of that
pollution, it was recommended that consumption of fish by local
communities be significantly reduced.
Although there have been many studies of Hg geochemistry in
the environment (e.g., its bioaccumulation in the aquatic food
chain), there is still a dearth of information regarding the bioacces-
sibility of the element in human receptors exposed to environmen-
tal Hg ingestion.
We do know, however, that the aquatic food chain can concen-
trate organic Hg compounds in fish and seafood, which, if eaten by
humans, can affect the central nervous system, impairing muscle,
vision, and cerebral function, leading to paralysis and sometimes
death (e.g., as in Minamata disease). Acute Hg poisoning causes a
range of disorders, including severe digestive-tract inflammation.
Chronic poisoning from inhalation or skin absorption causes oral
inflammation, extremity pain and tremor, weight loss and mental
changes.
3.3. Manganese (Mn)
South Africa currently accounts for about 80% of the world’s
identified Mn deposits. Extensive karsting of the dolomites in the
Griqualand West Supergroup (middle Proterozoic) in the Northern
Cape Province, near Kuruman, resulted in the formation and
accumulation of substantial Mn deposits which, along with the
vast deposits in the Kalahari Manganese Field to the north around
Hotazel, constitute the largest land-based repository of Mn on
Earth (Evans et al., 2001).
Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in soils, where it
occurs as oxides and hydroxides. The Mn content of soil and plants
in certain areas can be quite variable, as both the distribution and
656 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
availability of this element are markedly influenced by local soil
factors including drainage conditions and pH.
The concentration of Mn in the air is enhanced by mining and
other industrial activities and through burning of fossil fuels.
Manganese from human sources can also enter surface water,
groundwater and sewage. Through the application of Mn pesti-
cides, Mn will enter soils.
Manganese is an essential element for all species, including
humans; but when the recommended daily intake doses are ex-
ceeded, health problems (respiratory tract and neurological prob-
lems) can occur. Chronic Mn poisoning may result from
prolonged inhalation of dust and fume during mining and process-
ing of ores. Very small Mn particles may track up nerve fibres into
the brain. Manganese miners may also develop Mn toxicity from
exposure to much larger particles. The central nervous system is
the chief site of damage from the disease, which may result in per-
manent disability.
Symptoms of chronic Mn poisoning include obesity, glucose
intolerance, blood clotting, skin problems, lowered cholesterol lev-
els, skeletal disorders, birth defects, changes of hair colour and
neurological symptoms. When Mn uptake occurs through the skin
it can cause tremors and coordination failures.
Elsenbroek and Neser (2000) have described a specific form of
geophagy which may involve Mn, in young cattle and sheep in re-
stricted areas of the Barkley-West, Postmasburg and Vryburg Dis-
tricts of the Northern Cape- and North-West Provinces of South
Africa. It results in severe, subacute to chronic hepatitis and jaun-
dice, with a high mortality rate in untreated cases. An association
between the disease and high concentrations of Mn in soils was
shown since all affected farms are situated on outcrops of the
Reivilo Formation of the Campbell Rand Subgroup, which consists
mainly of manganiferous dolomite.
3.4. Iron (Fe): siderosis in the South African Bantu
Post-mortem examinations have shown that siderosis (Fe
overload) is a common finding in South African Bantu males in
Johannesburg (e.g., Joffe, 1964). The Fe accumulation and overload
in the Bantu population develops as a consequence of the presence
of large quantities of inorganic Fe in the diet (Wapnick et al., 1971).
The soils of Johannesburg are Fe-rich, and are thought to have been
formed by the metamorphism of ultrabasic rocks by the Johannes-
burg Dome (Anhaeusser, 1999), a granitic intrusion lying between
Johannesburg and Pretoria.
The deposition of Fe occurs mainly in the liver and reticulo-
endothelial system. Radiological investigations showed that a
marked increase in density of the liver and spleen may be observed
in Bantu patients with severe siderosis (Joffe, 1964). Liver autopsy
studies have demonstrated that these radiological changes are
undoubtedly due to the excessive Fe deposits in the liver and
spleen. Iron overload may also lead to tissue damage as a result
of oxidative stress (Edison et al., 2008).
Iron is handled differently by the human body than all other
physiologically essential elements (Bullen and Walczyk, 2009). It
is the only element the human body cannot excrete in case of
excessive absorption. For humans, Fe is soluble at gastric pH but
insoluble at the neutral pH of the intestine, the primary site of
mammalian Fe absorption (Miret et al., 2003). As a result, the hu-
man body has evolved into a virtually closed system for Fe. Levels
of functional Fe for oxygen transport, oxygen storage, and cellular
function are maintained by intestinal regulation of Fe absorption in
concert with Fe deposition in, or release from, storage organs
(Bleackley et al., 2009).
Evidence has been obtained that the Fe overload plays an
important part in the development of ascorbic acid deficiency. It
has been shown that oxidation products of ascorbic acid are
excreted when the vitamin is injected, and it has been concluded
that accelerated oxidative catabolism due to the presence of large
deposits of ferric Fe contributes to the depletion of tissue ascorbic
acid (Seftel et al., 1966; Wapnick et al., 1968).
3.5. Fluorine (F)
Fluorine is the most electronegative of all known elements
(electronegativity 4.0; Pauling, 1960), and also the most reactive.
Since some F compounds in the Earth’s upper crust are soluble
in water, F is found in both surface waters and groundwater. In
surface freshwater, however, F concentrations are usually low
0.01 ppm to 0.3 ppm.
Fluoride enriched environments are those mainly linked with
the Precambrian basement areas (especially granite), areas affected
by recent volcanism and some sedimentary basins (Edmunds,
2008). For instance, significant fluorite (CaF2) mineralisation in
South Africa is hosted within the acid phase of the Bushveld Com-
plex. Fluorite also occurs in dolomite formations of the Transvaal
Supergroup, in the north of the country. In groundwater, the natu-
ral concentration of F depends on the geological, chemical and
physical characteristics of the aquifer, the porosity and acidity of
the soil and rocks, the temperature, the action of other chemical
elements, and the depth of wells. Because of the large number of
variables, the F concentrations in South Africa’s groundwater
can range from well under 1 ppm to more than 25 ppm (WHO,
1984).
The beneficial effects of F to human and animal health, as well
as to tocxicity produced as a result of excessive intake, have now
been well documented (e.g., Du Plessis, 1995; Davies, 2010). How-
ever, because of a general lack of accurate data on the current sta-
tus of F in South Africa’s groundwater and food resources, there is
still inadequate information on the local impacts of F on health
and the environment.
The awareness, though, of excess F consumption through
drinking water has been growing countrywide (McCaffrey and
Willis, 1993; Fayazi, 1994; Rudolph et al., 1995; Du Plessis, 1995;
WRC, 2001).
Fluoride enriched groundwaters in South Africa have been
mapped by Ncube and Schutte (2005); the most important occur-
rences are in Limpopo, Northern Cape, North-West and KwaZulu-
Natal Provinces. These provinces have a high population still living
in rural areas and prior to 1994 most villagers used groundwater
and surface water for drinking purposes. According to Ncube and
Schutte (2005), many sources of drinking water in these provinces
are in need of partial defluoridation to the optimum level of F
concentration safe for drinking water purposes. Very few areas
show any real deficiency in F with respect to the WHO (1992) rec-
ommended limits for drinking water, and F deficiency in ground-
waters is currently not considered to be a national problem.
3.6. Some metal sulphide associations
Massive sulphide ores are made up primarily of sulphide miner-
als. Some of the largest ore deposits are found in greenstone belts
of South Africa, e.g., the Murchison greenstone belt, and the
Barberton Mountain Land (Fig. 1). Massive sulphides have received
considerable attention throughout history, not only because they
are a major source of many metals (in particular Au, Pb, Zn, Cu,
Ag and Sb) critical in human technological development and vital
to modern industrial economy, but also because of the potential
they hold for preserving the record of the magmatic and hydro-
thermal processes that control the composition of the Earth’s crust,
oceans, and atmosphere.
The importance of massive sulphide mineralisation, how-
ever, stems from our interest in estimating the extent of the
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
environmental health problems that can occur in man and animals
as a result of exposure to associated metals via one or more of the
pathways illustrated in Fig. 3.
The subject of metal toxicity has engaged geochemists and phy-
sicians for decades. The best researched disorders due to metal tox-
icity are peripheral vascular disease, coronary vascular disease and
cerebral vascular disease, i.e., diminished circulation/perfusion to
the legs, the heart and the brain, respectively (Chapman, 2008).
Other studies have shown that exposure to toxic elements such
as Hg, Cd, Pb, As, Al, Ni and some other heavy metals can be linked
to the autoimmune process. The heavy metals induce autoantibod-
ies, which then create autoimmune diseases (Table 1). Mercury
causes neurotoxic effects in humans, which is particularly prob-
lematic in children and developing foetuses.
The epidemic of neurological disorders could be explained in
part by exposure to contaminants released into the environment
through mining and ore processing operations that involve heavy
metals (Chapman, 2008).
In addition, the biosphere catalyses a variety of biochemical
reactions that can transform metals. Microbiological weathering
contributes to the mobilisation of metals by releasing the elemen-
tal form trapped within minerals and by solubilising the metal via
oxidation-promoting complexation. Subsequent microbial desta-
bilisation of metal complexes coupled with bioprecipitation and
biomineralisation can immobilise metals.
Both alluvial and upland sites are often found to be contami-
nated with chalcophilic metals such as, Cu, Pb, Zn, (As) and Sn,
when these are released through mining and associated activities.
In other areas, pasture samples may reflect this contamination to
only a minor degree, perhaps, as a consequence of the low avail-
ability of the metal in the soil or regulatory processes limiting up-
take and translocation at the soil-root and root-shoot interfaces.
A Pb–Zn–Cu mine may create a complex set of occupational
exposures and it is difficult to separate individual mineral impacts
for all metals. Consequently, an understanding of geochemical pro-
cesses and conditions is important to decipher whether the pres-
ence of trace constituents in the host rock may lead to a risk of
their presence in surface environments of groundwater, soil and
food crops.
3.7. The role of geophagy in increasing toxic metal burden in
populations
The direct soil-animal pathway of mineral nutrients that com-
plements the soil–plant-animal route in agricultural systems is
very important. However, ingested soil can also be an important
source of potentially harmful elements in geochemically anoma-
lous areas represented by the widespread mineralised provinces
of South Africa. In other parts of Africa, where the subject has been
more extensively researched, reports abound of Pb poisoning and
other toxicities in children eating contaminated soil; blockage of
the large intestines, hyperkalemia (abnormally high levels of K in
the blood), P intoxication and dental injury have also been cited
(Tayie, 2004).
The literature on geophagy in South Africa is scant, but it is a to-
pic that deserves considerable interest, in view of the generally
heavy loading of toxic elements in soils over large areas of disperse
metalliferous mineralisation in the country, and the large number
of people who practise geophagy.
Ingested soil may increase the intake of metals by livestock on
polluted land, and sub-lethal effects could well affect both produc-
tion and the composition of animal tissue.
Healy (1967, 1968) has shown that appreciable amounts of soil
may be involuntarily ingested by both sheep and cattle. It was sug-
gested that soil could be an important source of trace elements in
the ruminant diet, particularly of those elements with a relatively
657
high soil: herbage ratio, such as Co. Under these conditions cattle
may possibly ingest up to ten times the amount of Cu and Pb
(and possibly As) in the form of soil compared with that in herbage.
Thus for those elements of low availability to the plant such as
Co and Cr, and on soils heavily contaminated with trace metals, the
soil-animal relationship may well over-ride or at any rate comple-
ment that of the soil–plant-animal system, though naturally we
need to investigate in detail those factors governing availability
and absorption within the animal before the importance of this
pathway can be fully assessed.
4. Health issues arising from the evolution of nutrient poor
environments
Separation, remobilisation and redistribution of elements by
surficial geogenic processes have created areas exhibiting defi-
ciency in some key nutritional elements, and excessive amounts
in others. Examples of public health conditions that may reflect
such nutrient poor environments in South Africa include iodine
deficiency disorders (IDD), F deficiency symptoms, Mseleni Joint
Disease (MJD), HIV-AIDS and an apparent Mg insufficiency that
has been implicated in ischaemic heart disease. A brief description
of these conditions follows.
4.1. Idione (I) deficiency disorders (IDD) in South Africa
The principal sources of I are volcanic emanations, sea spray,
formation waters and fluid inclusions (Fuge, 2007). The leaching
of I originally supplied by volcanic activity, from acid mineralised
soils, is also an important determinant of the element’s geograph-
ical distribution.
South Africa is bounded on its western, southern and eastern
sides by the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. So, with the pos-
sible exception of the central parts of the country and the lee sides
of highly mountainous regions, severe iodine deficiency should
hardly be expected in the country. The I contents of surface sedi-
ments from the South West African shelf, for instance, is high,
ranging from 96 to 1990 ppm (Price and Calvert, 1973).
However, South Africa, like most of the countries of Africa, still
suffered from a lack of I in the environment in many geographical
areas. In the past, this lack of I resulted in insufficient I in the food
chain and consequently, due to inadequate dietary intake, in IDD.
These disorders include thyroid function abnormalities, ende-
mic goiter, mental retardation, cretinism, reproductive failure,
and perinatal and infant mortality. The most damaging disorder
resulting from I deficiency is irreversible mental retardation occur-
ring during the critical period from the foetal stage until the third
month after birth (Jooste and Zimmermann, 2008). In South Africa,
the primary concern about I deficiency is the damage to the mental
development of children; severe I deficiency can cause the death of
a child.
Efforts to eliminate IDD in South Africa have been met with
remarkable progress and the goiter status of the population im-
proved, since the introduction of mandatory iodisation of table salt
in 1995 (Jooste and Zimmermann, 2008). However, some major
challenges still remain, not least of which is the presence in the
South African diet of goitrogens; these are substances that
suppress the activity of iodine (e.g., kale, cabbage, radish and
broccoli) (see e.g., Davies, 2010).
4.2. Endemic osteoarthritis (Mseleni Joint Disease; MJD)
Unusually high incidences of dwarfism and endemic osteoar-
thritis, termed Mseleni Joint Disease (MJD), afflict up to 25% of
the local population of adults living on the sandy coastal plain of
658 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
Maputaland in South Africa (Ceruti et al. 1999). This rare disease (a
local arthritis) begins with stiffness and pain in the joints and pro-
gresses to varying degrees of disability, with some of the afflicted
requiring aid in walking and others without the ability to walk at
all.
The disease is typified by a combination of multiple epiphyseal
dysplasia, polyarticular osteoarthritis, and protrusion acetabuli,
with earlier stages of MJD displaying osteoarthritis, and advanced
cases typified by severe joint surface irregularity. Medical studies
have, until recently, been unable to determine conclusively the
aetiology of MJD or the dwarfism, but work at the University of
Cape Town (Ceruti et al. 2003) has indicated the possible role of
environmental factors; in particular, extremely variable concentra-
tions of available nutrient elements, as causative factors.
The sandy soils are known to be nutrient poor, suggesting the
possibility of the existence of isolated pockets of land, where defi-
ciencies (e.g., available soil Ca, K, P, Zn and Cu) may be acute. Plant
growth trials in the Mseleni area, using a subtractive element tech-
nique confirmed these deficiencies in maize (Zea mays) for P, K, Ca,
Mg, Cu and Zn (Ceruti et al. 2003).
4.3. Selenium and HIV-AIDS in South Africa
Naturally occurring Se is another trace element of concern in
the South African geological environment; however, little is known
about its occurrence. Selenium is a metalloid element belonging to
Group 16 (more traditionally Group VI), period 4, of the periodic
table of elements, along with O, S, Te and Po. Being a chalcogen
(ore-former) it is unsurprising to know that in South Africa, it is
present in higher than background concentrations in metal
Fig. 4. Health benefits of selenium. Source: www.laucke.com.au/health/Selenium (Accessed 28 June 2010).
sulphide mineralised areas. However, the Se content of overlying
soils, and hence the crops grown on them, is determined not only
by the geology of the parent rocks, but also by a number of bio-
physio-chemical parameters.
Selenium is an integral part of a number of enzymes (Fig. 4). It
supports the body’s immune system by protecting against the ef-
fects of free radicals.
Some research has indicated a geographical link between re-
gions of Se-deficient soils and peak incidences of HIV-AIDS infec-
tion. For example, the epicentre of the HIV-AIDS pandemic is in
southern Africa, where soils are thought to be depleted of Se
(Foster, 2003; Burcher, 2004; Davies et al., 2010). The country of
Senegal in West Africa, on the other hand, has maintained one of
the lowest HIV-AIDS prevalence levels on the continent, with HIV
prevalence stable at just under 1% of the adult population since
1997 (USAID, 2004).
What might explain this geographical distribution of HIV? Why
has the diffusion of HIV-1 virtually halted in Senegal, a country
with such a high level of promiscuity, while the virus has been
rapidly spreading in countries in southern Africa?
Although few studies have dealt with the role of adequate Se
nutrition and HIV-AIDS diffusion rates, a logical and thoroughly
scientific explanation for this geographical anomaly could be that
of the Se co-factor (deficiency); viz., that HIV-1 needs a co-factor
to infect and subsequently cause the immune system collapse
associated with AIDS. Senegal is essentially a desiccated Creta-
ceous and Early Eocene sea. As a result, calcium phosphate, mined
for use in fertilisers, is the country’s principal mineral product.
This is derived from Se-enriched phosphorites (Gulbrandsen,
1966).
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
4.4. Magnesium content of drinking water and ischaemic heart disease
(IHD) in South Africa
Since the publication of articles by Kobayashi (1957) and Sch-
roeder (1960a,b, 1969) numerous epidemiologists throughout the
world have studied the inverse (protective) association between
drinking water hardness and cardiovascular disease mortality.
Lower cardiovascular death rates were found in populations,
where the water supply contained relatively high levels of water
hardness or Mg and Ca, compared to populations in areas with
low levels.
In South Africa, Leary et al. (1983) and Leary (1985) have
found that the incidence of death from IHD and acute cardiac
arrhythmias is increased in some regions, where Mg levels are re-
duced in soil and water. Derry et al. (1990) have shown that a sig-
nificant negative correlation exists between cardiovascular
disease mortality for the South African urban white population
and total water hardness (equivalent calcium carbonate mg/l).
These authors (Derry et al. (1990)) also showed that negative cor-
relations exist with the hardness-associated factors, K, SO24 , Cl
and Mn.
Magnesium mineralisation in South Africa occurs chiefly in the
form of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) in the Mpumalanga and
Limpopo provinces. Major occurrences are as veins and stock-
works, and as an alteration products of ultramafic rocks, serpenti-
nite and other Mg-rich rock types.
The dynamics of Mg geochemistry in the surficial environment,
and the element’s uptake by food crops, are determined by parent
rock type as well as by biogeochemical factors operating in South
Africa’s humid tropical environment. As such, even in areas ini-
tially having relatively high levels of Mg in the soil from minerali-
sation, the element can easily be washed out of light soils in wet
season, or, excessive K fertilizer usage can also cause Mg to become
unavailable to the growing plant.
Magnesium plays important roles in the structure and function
of the human body. It is involved in more than 300 essential
metabolic reactions, including energy production, synthesis of
essential molecules, cell signalling and cell migration (Spencer
et al., 1994).
Few studies though, have considered potential confounders in
the correlation with IHD, and it is difficult to determine whether
the observations are due to minerals that make up water hardness,
other water quality parameters associated with hardness, or other
exposures, risk factors and characteristics that are associated with
hardness.
5. Geogenic dust
Worries about South African population exposed to particulate
matter (PM) in ambient air, especially in cities, continue to grow.
Most dust of concern originate from geogenic sources or from
industrial processes. Dust arising from contaminated land, some
mineral tips, and some natural soils may contain significant con-
centrations of potentially harmful elements. Particles may be inor-
ganic, organic or even include micro-organisms. They may include
toxic, corrosive or radioactive materials and pathogens.
Several economic mineral deposits in South Africa are hosted in
silicate rocks, or are highly enriched in silica. Examples are: (i) the
Witwatersrand Au-U-FeS2 deposits; (ii) major sand deposits occur-
ring in the Western Cape, Mpumalanga and Gauteng regions; (iii)
gold quartz vein deposits in the Barberton greenstone belt (iv)
vermiculite (hydrated aluminium silicate), (Mg, Fe+2, Al)3(Al,
Si)4O10(OH)2
4H2O) at Phalaborwa in the Limpopo Province, the
world’s largest resource of high-grade vermiculite, and (iv) The
Witkop silica deposit, a greenstone-hosted quartz vein.
659
5.1. Three interrelated epidemics: silicosis, tuberculosis (TB) and HIV
infection
From a geochemical standpoint, Si is a component of a variety of
Earth materials, including silicate-hosted ores, silica sands, diato-
mite and asbestos, all of which, except asbestos, are currently
mined and processed in South Africa.
Respirable (<5 l in diameter) particles of silica are produced
when crystalline silica-containing rock, ore or soil is mined, pro-
cessed or used (quarrying, drilling, sand blasting, milling, and so
on). The dust from mining and processing and handling of these
materials can cause serious and fatal illness, not only in those with
heavy occupational exposure, but also in people who live near the
industrial site or even simply in the same household with an ex-
posed worker. The illnesses include a nodular pulmonary fibrosis
(silicosis) which may be chronic, accelerated or acute, progressive
pulmonary fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, lung
cancer and an increased risk of tuberculosis (Hnizdo and Murray,
1998).
A nested case-control study for lung cancer performed on a co-
hort of 2260 South African gold miners in whom an association be-
tween exposure to silica dust and risk of lung cancer was
previously reported (Hnizdo et al., 1997), found that the risk of
lung cancer was associated with tobacco smoking, cumulative dust
exposure, duration of underground mining and silicosis.
Many reasons can be advanced for the high levels of silicosis in
gold miners. The silica (quartz) is freshly fractured by drilling,
blasting and moving rock, and the particles are probably very
small (Phillips, 2007) and largely uncontaminated by associated
clays: all factors thought to increase the fibrogenicity of silica
(Health and Safety Executive, 2002). Deep-level mining in con-
stantly changing workplaces introduces difficulties for dust
control.
Vast quantities of dusts are also emitted in the limestone and
dolomite industries, such as in the exploitation of vast thicknesses
of carbonate sediments at the base of the Transvaal Supergroup.
It has been known for some time that silicosis increases the risk
of TB, and increased rates of the disease have been found in South
African gold miners with pneumoconiosis (Cowie, 1994) and,
importantly in those exposed to silica without silicosis (Hnizdo
and Murray, 1998). HIV is also a strong risk factor for TB.
Tuberculosis acquired in the mines has the potential to fuel TB
transmission in home regions through oscillatory migration (Rees
et al., 2009). Once TB was introduced onto the gold mines it
spreads rapidly to communities through the migrant labour
system.
The South African gold mining industry employs a labour force
of several hundred thousand miners. Most gold mining is done on
the Witwatersrand reefs at depths of up to 3500 m. The (Witwa-
tersrand) reefs consist of quartz-pebble conglomerates composed
of a coarse fraction of waterworn pebbles set in a finer grained ma-
trix. The rock is composed of quartz (70–90%), silicates (10–30%),
pyrite (1–4%) and heavy minerals (2–4%) which include grains of
Au and U-bearing minerals.
Because so many people work in agriculture, and because silica
exposure and silicosis are associated with serious diseases such as
TB, particularly in those immunological compromised by the HIV
virus, silica exposure in agriculture is potentially very important.
Many studies (e.g., Swanepoel et al., 2009) have indicated that
quartz exposure in agriculture might be a risk to farm workers in
South Africa, but generally no systematic data are available on
the magnitude of the risk. Although exposure to quartz during agri-
cultural activities has been found to be variable, exposure can ex-
tend throughout the growing season. The duration of specific
activities varies due to many factors, and lifetime exposure to
quartz may be considerable.
660 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666

(OH)2] and actinolite [Ca2(Fe, Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2] all belong to the

amphibole group, while chrysotile [(Mg6(Si4O10)(OH)8] is a
serpentine.
Rich deposits of three commercial asbestiform minerals make
South Africa unique, and this country produced most of the world’s
supply of crocidolite (blue) and amosite (brown) asbestos and a
smaller proportion of chrysotile (white) asbestos throughout the
20th century. Most amphibole asbestos was mined as crocidolite
(Fig. 6) and amosite from Precambrian banded ironstones in South
Africa. The last mine closed in 2002 and left in its wake what pos-
sibly is ‘‘South Africa’s largest public health disaster” (Braun and
Kisting, 2006). Asbestos dumps are still scattered all over the min-
ing areas, with up to 82 in the Northern Cape.
As a consequence of particularly exploitative social conditions,
former workers and residents of mining regions suffered – and
continue to suffer – from a serious, yet still largely undocumented
burden of asbestos-related disease. This epidemic has been invisi-
ble both internationally and inside South Africa (Braun and Kisting,
2006).
Blue and brown asbestos not only can induce asbestosis at low-
Fig. 5. High resolution images of advanced coal worker’s pneumoconiosis with
parenchymal nodules, calcifications, and progressive and massive fibrosis. er concentrations than white asbestos, but they are highly carcin-
Advanced-stage silicosis is indistinguishable from this condition. Source: Jedynak ogenic. These minerals were exploited largely in the past century
et al. (2009) www.emedicine.medscape.com/article/361778-overview (Accessed 04 in industrial applications because of their versatile and unique
October 2010). properties. Applications include their use in insulation, pipe lag-
ging, roofing and brake linings. In South Africa today, asbestos is
mainly used for building materials and pipes. These include sheets
5.2. Coal worker’s pneumoconiosis (CWP)
for roofing, walls and ceilings, gutters, chimneys, pipes, sewerage
pipes and water pipes. But usage is, thankfully, decreasing rapidly.
South Africa ranks among the three largest coal exploiting
Unlike other minerals, asbestos is milled dry, thereby creating
countries in the world (Naidoo et al., 2005). The coal industry also
clouds of dust. The host ore, banded ironstone, is particularly abra-
represents the second largest mining sector in South Africa, after
sive, which meant that as production levels rose, so too did dust
gold, providing 77% of the country’s energy needs, and with sales
emissions. The risks posed extend far beyond the workplace to
contributing 16% of export revenue in 2003.
those who lived in adjacent communities.
Coal is found in South Africa in several coal fields located mainly
The number of contemporary sources of environmental expo-
in KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Limpopo and the Free State, with
sure include unrehabilitated or partially rehabilitated dumps, dried
lesser amounts in Gauteng, the North-West Province and Eastern
riverbeds, roads, transport spillage, deteriorated housing materials,
Cape (Fig. 2; Jeffrey, 2005).
factory emissions, and a variety of manufactured products (South
About 46.5% of South African coal mining is conducted under-
African Department of Labour, 2000). The unrehabilitated dumps
ground and about 53.5% is produced by opencast methods (Jeffrey,
that dot the landscape throughout rural provinces are of particular
2005). Whatever method is applied in mining and processing, a
concern to communities. Thus, exposure to asbestos through both
number of adverse environmental effects are produced, not the
work and the contaminated environment was – and is – continu-
least of which is the dust nuisance.
ous, intense and largely undocumented. Despite the lack of firm
Coal worker’s pneumoconiosis or Black Lung Disease can be de-
fined as the accumulation of coal dust in the lungs and the tissues’
reaction to its presence.
It is caused by long exposure to coal dust. Huang et al. (2004)
have shown that the incidence of CWP is a function of the pyrite
content of the coal. The disease is a common affliction of coal min-
ers and others who work with coal, similar to both silicosis from
inhaling silica dust, and to the long term effects of tobacco smok-
ing. Inhaled coal dust progressively builds up in the lungs and is
unable to be removed by the body; this leads to inflammation,
fibrosis, and in the worst case, necrosis (Fig. 5).
Data exist on dose response relationships between CWP and
respiratory dust exposure, and relationships between pneumoco-
niosis and both lung function deterioration and respiratory symp-
toms for three bituminous coal mines in Mpumalanga (e.g., Naidoo
et al., 2004). The presence of pneumoconiosis is associated with
serious health effects, including deterioration in lung function.

5.3. The asbestos legacy in South Africa

Asbestos is the general industrial term encompassing six
different natural fibrous silicates. Amosite [grunerite, (Fe, Mg)7

Si8O22(OH)2], crocidolite [riebeckite, Na2(Fe, Mg)3Fe2Si8O22(OH)2],
tremolite [Ca2Mg5Si8O22OH2], anthophyllite [(Mg, Fe)7Si8O22-
Fig. 6. Partial vein of grayish-blue crocidolite from South Africa with matrix host
rock attached at bottom; shown as it might appear in its natural state. Source:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/asbestos_pix/3225484511/ (Accessed 18 August,
2010). (For interpretation of color in this figure legend the reader is referred to
see the web version of this article.)
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
data, most would agree that exposure to asbestos is a serious dis-
ease burden for exposed communities.
Health hazards from breathing asbestos dust include asbestosis,
a lung scarring disease, and various forms of cancer (including lung
cancer and mesothelioma of the pleura and peristonium). These
diseases usually arise decades after the onset of asbestos exposure.
Asbestosis is caused when a person breathes in the invisible, very
fine asbestos fibres, which are suspended in the air. These lodge
mainly in the lower parts of the lungs and cause inflammation.
As the inflammation heals, it leaves a scar tissue so that the deli-
cate tissues of the lungs begin to lose their elasticity. As this scar-
ring process continues, the lungs lose their ability to deliver
enough O2 to the blood. In advanced disease the person has diffi-
culty in breathing and performing daily tasks. Many patients may
experience years of poor quality life and disability. They may die
of shortness of breath or heart failure due to the increased strain
on the heart.
Mesothelioma, a signal tumour for asbestos exposure, occurs
among workers’ family members from dust on the worker’s
clothes. People who are exposed to asbestos and smoke as well,
greatly increase their chances of developing lung cancer. Many
cases of asbestosis were mis-diagnosed as heart disease by inexpe-
rienced doctors who do not expect asbestosis, or do not appreciate
the role of geological materials in disease causation.
Each of the asbestos-related diseases has a long and highly var-
iable period between initial exposure to asbestos and the develop-
ment of disease. Latency for asbestosis is approximately 15 years,
depending on the level of exposure, for lung cancer, approximately
20 years, and for mesothelioma between 20 and 50 years (Gibbons,
2000).
The asbestos mining industry is no longer in operation. How-
ever, the scale of environmental contamination and the wide-
spread use of manufactured products will continue to have a
devastating impact on the health of South Africans.
6. Further impacts of mining on the water environment
The potential impacts of mining on the water environment can
be: through the act of mining itself; seepage of contaminated
water from mine residue deposits (waste rock dumps and tailings
dams) resulting from mineral processing/beneficiation; dewater-
ing of active mining operations; and rewatering (flooding) of de-
funct/closed mine voids, and discharge of mine water (ERMITE
Consortium, 2004).
In South Africa acid deposition occurs to an extent that deserves
urgent attention by our scientists and law-makers. Acid rain is
mainly caused by the release of SO2 and nitrogen oxides (NOx) dur-
ing fossil fuel (coal) combustion. When these gases are discharged
into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen and other
gases already present there to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4), ammo-
nium nitrate (NH4NO3) and nitric acid (HNO3). These acids then
disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back
to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.
6.1. Acid mine drainage (AMD)
A major environmental problem is uncontrolled discharge of
contaminated water (or decant) from abandoned mines in South
Africa. AMD is the single most important impact on the water envi-
ronment due to mining. It is responsible for costly environmental
and social impacts and is the most difficult mine waste problem
to address.
An often cited example of AMD is that occurring on the West
Rand in Gauteng Province. It started to decant from defunct
661
(closed) flooded underground mine workings in August, 2002 (ER-
MITE Consortium, 2004).
Acid mine drainage, flowing out from (usually abandoned)
metal mines or coal mines in South Africa, is characterized by
low pH (high acidity); high salinity levels; elevated concentrations
of SO24 , Fe, Al and Mn; raised levels of toxic heavy metals, such as
Cd, Co, Cu, Mo and Zn, and possibly contain radionuclides.
Acid mine drainage is the single most important concern from
mining activities. Its effects are numerous, and includes the
following:
 The acidic water dissolves salts, mobilises metals from mine
workings and residue deposits.
 AMD is associated with surface and groundwater pollution.
 AMD is associated with degradation of soil quality.
 AMD is associated with degradation of aquatic habitats.
 AMD allows heavy metals to seep into the environment.
However, it is thought that the threat of AMD to the environment
is not solved in the short to long term, and is likely to persist for
centuries to come.
6.2. Acid rain
Quite considerable concerns in South Africa, as in the rest of the
world, centre around greenhouse gas emissions. Continued com-
bustion of coal as a foundation of our national energy security is
starting to have a detrimental effect on our national food security.
Most greenhouse gases are derivatives of carbon and much is
said about carbon in the context of global climate change. How-
ever, some consider SO2 to be far more important to the immediate
future of the South African economy than carbon will ever be (Tur-
ton, 2010). While South Africa’s coal has a relatively low S content
there is considerable concern about the potential environmental
and economic impact of acid rain.
Sulphur is relevant in South Africa in two important ways: (i)
Atmospheric sulphur, in the form of SO2, combines with moisture
in clouds and falls to the Earth as acid rain; (ii) Aquatic S, in the
form of sulphate salt, combines with water in underground mine
voids and produces H2SO4, which manifests as AMD (Turton,
2010). Yet, we have no reliable public-domain data on the total
deposition of S at national level.
The principal cause of acid rain is S and N compounds from hu-
man sources, such as, in the case of South Africa, electricity gener-
ation (coal-power plants). But, factories, motor vehicles and
livestock production also contribute gases that produce acid rain.
Combustion of fuels creates SO2 and NOx, which are converted to
H2SO4 and HNO3 respectively.
Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests,
freshwaters, and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well
as causing damage to buildings and having direct impacts on hu-
man health. Fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed
from the same gases as rain (SO2 and NOx), have been shown to
cause illness and premature deaths such as from cancer and other
diseases.
Acid rain can also damage buildings and historical monuments,
especially those made of rocks such as limestone and marble, that
contain large amounts of CaCO3. Acids in the rain react with the
calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then
flakes off. Acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and
art because of its ability to corrode certain materials. As acid lands
on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts
with minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate
and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern build-
ings, cars, tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and be-
low ground.
662 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
Fig. 7. The Olifants River draining Mpumelanga is collapsing, specifically because of
acid rain. Source: Turton, 2010.
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid
rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH
and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured
(changed in shape so that they no longer function) by the acid.
The hydronium ions of rain also mobilise toxins such as Al, and
leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as Mg.
Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations
such as Ca and Mg are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sen-
sitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum).
Both dry and wet deposition also runs off of forests, roads and
flows into lakes, rivers and streams (Fig. 7). As this acidic liquid
flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted, but over time, acids
can accrue and lower the overall pH of the body.
Acid deposition also causes clay soils to release Al and Mg, fur-
ther lowering the pH in some areas. If the pH of a lake drops below
4.8, its plants and animals risk death.
7. Addressing the issues
During the past few decades, public health scholars, practitio-
ners and activists have argued convincingly that more broadly con-
textualised notions of disease causality – in which social, political,
and economic conditions are integrated with biological knowledge
– would provide more effective guides for developing disease pre-
vention strategies (Braun and Kisting 2006). To these conditions,
one could also add the geo-environmental.
Detailed theoretical and experimental studies of ore deposit for-
mation, have provided us with a good understanding of how ore
elements are transported and dispersed, and of the mechanisms
that may cause their deposition in hypogene and supergene envi-
ronments. It is therefore now relatively easy to establish natural
geochemical background variability in terms of provenance, pro-
cess and past; and by linking hazard potential to the physical
and chemical transformation due to weathering, leaching, eluvia-
tion and other soil formation processes. Geoscientists are now bet-
ter able to decipher the reasons for extreme variability in element
concentrations (deficiencies/excesses) and the environmental
health conditions associated with exposure pathways. This type
of knowledge would continue to enhance the potential to identify
covariant relations between hazard indicators and disease, and to
resolve potential causal factors.
It is important to monitor heavy metal concentrations in crop
fields near abandoned mine sites to indicate the status of heavy
metal contamination and assess environmental quality of agricul-
tural soils. The use of metal accumulator plants for rehabilitation
at such sites is also gaining acceptance.
7.1. Uranium
Radioactivity maps of rocks, soils and groundwater are urgently
needed for South Africa, to be used as a basis for informing the
development of policy recommendations regarding groundwater
development and housing construction in areas, where elevated
U concentrations are predicted.
In its U mining policy, South Africa is facing a potential human
crisis, as well as an environmental one, because nuclear energy is
seen as ‘‘clean energy”. It is essential that miners wear protective
clothing at all times and are afforded monthly health checks; ade-
quate medical aid cover and regular checks of their DNA. It is nec-
essary to urge government to take steps in ensuring that pertinent
EIA processes be conducted around the power station sites.
Despite the many possible sources of Rn within the country, and
potential health hazards, there is a problem of data availability and
hence the need for direct quantification of Rn concentrations and
exposure.
7.2. Curbing mercury emissions
Although several studies have been devoted to estimating
anthropogenic Hg emissions in South Africa, little is known about
Hg emissions from natural sources. Continuous efforts are required
to quantify these fluxes, since they constitute an important part of
the atmospheric Hg input.
In South Africa, control devices installed in coal-fired power
plants to minimise polluting emissions (Hg, SO2, NOx) include fab-
ric filters, electrostatic precipitators and flue-gas conditioning sys-
tems or scrubbers. Since the control devices reduce Hg emissions
to the atmosphere to varying degrees, their associated Hg reduc-
tion factors also differ.
Research into Hg stable isotope biogeochemistry is rapidly
providing new insight into the behavior of Hg. With the recent
discovery that Hg can exhibit both mass-dependent (MDF) and
mass-independent fractionation (MIF) (range of >60 parts per
thousand for both) (Bergquist and Blum, 2009), Hg isotopes are
providing a valuable new tool for tracing this important toxin
through the environment. Mass-dependent fractionation alone,
which occurs during redox transformations, biological cycling,
and volatilization of Hg, can be exploited to increase under-
standing of the processes that control Hg distribution and bioaccu-
mulation. The addition of MIF signatures greatly increases the
usefulness of Hg isotopes because MIF provides unique fingerprint
of specific chemical pathways, such as photochemical reduction
((Bergquist and Blum, 2009).
7.3. Iron absorption and siderosis
Although a definite relationship between Bantu siderosis and
osteoporosis of bone with vertebral collapse is as yet unproven,
it is suggested that radiological findings in siderosis patients be
careful re-assessed. Further radiological observations (Joffe, 1964)
in these patients have suggested that the 3rd and/or 4th lumbar
vertebral bodies would provide the most suitable material for
any pathological study which may be undertaken to investigate
the possibility of a direct relationship between vertebral siderosis
and osteoporosis.
Tools to reveal impairments of iron absorption regulatory sys-
tems are needed to help identify individuals or population groups
at risk of becoming iron deficient or overloaded.
7.4. Addressing fluoride imbalance
In South Africa, F content can vary greatly in wells in the same
area, depending on the geological structure of the aquifer and the
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
depth at which water is drawn. In cases of low-fluoride groundwa-
ter, deepening tubewells or sinking new wells in another site may
solve the problem. The fact that F is unevenly distributed in
groundwater, both vertically and horizontally, means that every
well has to be tested individually for F in areas endemic for
fluorosis.
Fluoride poisoning can be prevented or minimized by using
alternative water sources (e.g., surface water, rainwater, and low-
fluoride water), by removing excessive F from drinking water,
and by improving the nutritional status of populations at risk.
There are basically two approaches for treating water supplies
to remove excess F , namely, flocculation (e.g., the Nalgonda tech-
nique, which utilizes a coagulant such as alum (hydrated Al salts)
to flocculate F ions in the water); and adsorption, which involves
filtering the water down through a column packed with a strong
adsorbent, such as activated alumina (Al2O3), activated charcoal
or ion exchange resins. Both these techniques are suitable for both
community and household use.
7.5. Eliminating iodine deficiency disorders (IDD)
The success achieved in the national iodisation programme sup-
ports and strengthens the continuation of the fight against IDD in
South Africa. The challenge now is for producers and health offi-
cials to eliminate factors precluding a coverage of 90% adequately
iodised salt in the country (such as possible iodine loss during
transport and storage) in order to sustain the successes achieved
until now. Reducing the intake of goitrogenic substances in the
South African diet should also be targeted, if ever a foolproof solu-
tion is contemplated. Effecting these measures requires continued
advocacy, resource mobilisation, as well as mentoring and
evaluation.
7.6. Cardiovascular disease and hardness of drinking water
Research on verifying the link between cardiovascular disease
in South African urban whites and the hardness of drinking water
is a big challenge for the country’s environmental epidemiologists.
Future, prospective, multivariate studies are required to elucidate
whether Mg scarcity in a geological environment is a major coro-
nary risk factor. They may need to review the role of ecological
variables as confounding factors in carefully designed case-control
studies and cohort studies. The role played by inorganic elements
(mainly As and Pb) and above all the role of Mg content of drinking
water and its possible cardioprotective effects would need to be
established. It would be impossible to understand these environ-
mental findings without large intervention studies performed in
well-controlled public health programmes.
7.7. Silica dust, silicosis and tuberculosis
Though South Africa’s environmental statutes now require dust
control management systems to be put in place on mines and other
locations, where dust is a problem, controlling fugitive dust emis-
sions remains one of the most intractable problems of the South
African mining industry.
Monitoring of the levels and compositions of dust emissions is
now undertaken by many mining institutions in South Africa, but
these activities are often challenging because of the practical diffi-
culties in securing sufficient representative samples from different
levels within the atmosphere and weather systems.
The dispersal of dust clouds can be monitored, to some extent,
by remote sensing, but it is not generally possible, at present, to
investigate the three dimensional structure and variations within
dust clouds to any great extent.
663
Dust suppression has involved expensive equipment and com-
plicated systems, such as extraction fans, bag houses, electrostatic
precipitators, as well as advanced high-pressure water fog systems
known as DryMist, which is considered to be one of the most effec-
tive dust control management systems in the market.
7.8. The asbestos legacy: the complete story is yet untold
The asbestos mining industry is no longer in operation. How-
ever, the scale of environmental contamination and the wide-
spread use of manufactured products will continue to have a
devastating impact on the health of South Africans.
In South Africa today, asbestos is mainly used for building mate-
rials and pipes. These include sheets for roofing, walls and ceilings,
gutters, chimney, sewerage pipes and water pipes. But usage is,
thankfully, decreasing rapidly.
7.9. Nullifying acid mine drainage
Whilst AMD threatens the scarce water resources of South Afri-
ca, and as a result also human health and food security in mining
areas, it also presents an opportunity to provide usable water
through appropriate treatment technologies.
It is, and will continue to be of paramount importance to ex-
plore more efficiently, extract sulphur-bearing ores with minimal
impact on local ecosystems and water supplies, and ensure the
application of adequate containment and acid-neutralisation
measures.
7.10. Reducing the threat of acid rain
Because of the environmental problems brought about by acid
rain, especially the adverse effects of air pollution on human
health, a number of steps are being taken to reduce S and N emis-
sions. However, we do not yet have high-confidence data on which
to base management decisions. For example, we need to generate
geographic information system maps so that we can understand
the connection between specific soil types and plumes of atmo-
spheric pollution downwind of major points of coal combustion.
Most notably, the South African Government is now requiring
energy producers to clean smoke stacks by using scrubbers which
trap pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere, and
the installation of catalytic converters in cars to reduce their emis-
sions. Additionally, alternative energy sources are gaining more
prominence today and funding is being given to the restoration
of ecosystems damaged by acid rain.
7.11. Rehabilitating mine sites
In cases, where past extraction processes have impacted the
environment, it is necessary to base remediation measures on re-
search-based studies that evaluate the reactivity of the minerals
in question with the fluids that they are now in contact with,
and the likely reaction products.
In South Africa, in addition to chemical components comprising
the natural geochemical halo (over mineralisation) trace element
content of soils and plants may be considerably enhanced by con-
tamination from past and present-day metalliferous mining as well
as from other urban and industrial sources. It is therefore impor-
tant to understand the parameters which control the balance be-
tween retention and mobility of contaminants in soils. Therefore,
a risk assessment approach should be requirement for all tailings
dams and reclaimed sites to identify those sites which need reha-
bilitation and to define the type and extent of remedial measures
required.
664 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666
In potential crop lands with high PHE values due to mineralisa-
tion, mining or urbanisation, initial rehabilitation requirements
could consist of soil management measures such as liming and
the addition of organic material and fertilisers to minimise the con-
taminant migration from the topsoil into the subsoil and ground-
water as well as to provide suitable conditions for vegetation
growth and future land use. Removal of remaining tailings and
excavation of those portions of the soil which are excessively con-
taminated will be necessary.
Tailings dams which pose a high risk to the environment would
require a well-engineered soil and vegetation cover to limit rainfall
infiltration into the impoundment, and thus to reduce the oxida-
tion of sulphide-bearing minerals such as pyrite. Long-term moni-
toring is an absolute prerequisite to ensure the success of
rehabilitation, and therefore the safe use of land and water.
7.12. Applications of metal hyperaccumulator plants
Metal hyperaccumulator plants are in the focus of research in
recent decades due mainly to their applicability in phytoremedia-
tion techniques; but there are also many other potential applica-
tions for these plants. They are applicable in detecting soil
pollution and phytoremediation (of cultivated land in the vicinity
of metal pollution sites); extraction of metal ions from contami-
nated waters; phytomining from large naturally metalliferous
areas; detecting subsurface mineralisation in residual and trans-
ported overburden (geobotany/biogeochemistry) and detecting
geophagic materials unfit for consumption.
In South Africa, the practical importance of heavy metal toler-
ance has been recognised in the regeneration of mine-devastated
environments. Entensive studies have been carried out during
the past decades on the vegetation of mineralised soils. Attention
has also been given to establishing metal-tolerant plants on mine
dumps in South Africa (Reilly and Reilly, 1973). Metal hyperaccu-
mulators are characterized by the ability to accumulate very high
concentrations of certain elements from the soil in which they
grow, far in excess of normal physiological requirements (if any),
and far in excess of the levels found in the majority of other species
tolerant of metalliferous soils.
Selection of a variety of perennial grasses, shrubs, and trees for
revegetation of mine tailings is important for phytostabilisation.
Berkheya coddii Roessler (Asteraceae) (Fig. 8), an endemic herba-
ceous and perennial nickel-accumulating plant grows on Ni-
enriched ultramafic soils in South Africa. This plant is perceived
Fig. 8. The nickel hyperaccumulator Berkheya coddii native to South Africa. Source:
Anderson and Meech, 2002.
as a promising species for phytoremediation and phytomining
due to its large biomass production and high nickel content.
B. coddii, is presently cultivated commercially by Rustenberg
Metals Refiners and has been tested for phytoremediation of Cd,
Ni, Zn and Pb from industrial tailings and waste water effluents
at disposal sites.
The ladder brake or Chinese brake fern Pteris vittata, common in
South Africa, has numerous characteristics that make it suitable for
phytoremediation of As contaminated soil and water (such as by
AMD).
8. Conclusion
1. Significant exposure to PHE occurs among populations that
subsist on crop lands influenced by distinctive geochemical
haloes above widely dispersed bedrock mineralisation in
South Africa.
2. A combination of a number of surficial processes has brought
about reconstitution of minerals, as well as remobilisation and
redistribution of both PHE and nutritional elements, leading
to the evolution of large (cultivable) areas of element deficiency
and excess; this has brought about a number of undesirable
public health conditions mainly relating to excessive or insuffi-
cient quantities of certain key nutritional elements entering the
food chain.
3. Later anthropogenic dispersion from mining, ore processing and
urbanisation, has superimposed on primary and secondary dis-
persion haloes, a further imprint that is characterized largely by
the evolution of landscapes with areas of extreme variations in
element concentrations.
4. Evidence continues to accumulate that many diseases in
South Africans may be related to the trace metal status of
the environment in which they live, an environment shaped
largely by the geochemical dispersion processes described in
1–3 above.
5. It is submitted that better collaboration between medical prac-
titioners and geoscientists should be encouraged to enhance the
accuracy of diagnoses and therapy for these diseases.
6. Diseases such as arthritis (rheumatoid arthritis), osteoarthritis,
gout and fibromyalgia syndrome are all thought to be influ-
enced by nutritional intake. Elimination of certain foods,
increasing other nutrients through food supplementation, as
well as making changes to lifestyle choices, can play an enor-
mous role in the symptom management and even alleviation
of some of these disorders.
7. The legacies of historic mining sites will remain problematic
for many years to come due to the magnitude of the associ-
ated problems. Fortunately, recent advances in technology
now permit application of remediation techniques (such as
phytostabilisation) with proven effectiveness in pollution
control.
8. Phytostabilisation of mine tailings is a promising remedial
technology but requires further research to identify factors
affecting its long-term success by expanding knowledge of suit-
able plant species and mine tailings chemistry in ongoing field
trials.
9. The introduction of best practice techniques in mining, milling
and mineral processing should be made mandatory in order to
achieve sustainability in the maintenance of environmental
integrity.
Appendix A. Appendix
See Table A1.
 T.C. Davies, H.R. Mundalamo / Journal of African Earth Sciences 58 (2010) 652–666 665

Table A1
List of uranium deposits in South Africa (as of March, 2009). Source. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, 2009).

Deposit name Deposit type Status Resource range (t U)

Beaufort west Sandstone–Tabular Unknown 10,000–25,000
Beisa Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Unknown Unknown
Blyvooruitzicht Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Development Unknown
Buffelsfontein Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Development 5000–10,000
Chemwes–stilfontein Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant Unknown
Cooke-section (randfontein mine) Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Unknown 50,000–100,000
Denny dalton Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 5000–10,000
Dreifontein mine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant Unknown
East rand (tailing project) Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 5000–10,000
Ezulwini Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Development 50,000–100,000
Free state geduld mine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 5000–10,000
Harmony Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant Unknown
Hartebeestfontein Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Operating 5,000–10,000
Henkries Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 1000–2500
Klerksdorp Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Unknown Unknown
Loraine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant Unknown
Mudug province Unknown Unknown 2500–5000
Old randfontein section Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 50,000–100,000
Phalabora Intrusive Closed 2500–5000
President Brand mine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Operating 2500–5000
President steyn Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Operating 5000–10,000
Rietkuil dominion Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Exploration 25,000–50,000
Ryst kuil Sandstone-Basal Channel Exploration 10,000–25,000
St. Helena (beisa section) Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 10,000–25,000
Vaal reefs mines Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Operating 50,000–100,000
Vaal river area Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Operating 50,000–100,000
Western area mine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Closed Unknown
Western deep levels mine Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Dormant 10,000–25,000
Western holdings Quartz-pebble conglomerate Unknown Unknown
Western rand goldfields mines (uranium section) Quartz-pebble Conglomerate Development Unknown

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