its

Causes of biodiversity loss in coastal

slow. ecosystems
rapid

Els E. Martens *
n by
Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, Po. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Summary

rised Although far less publicised than loss of biodiversity on land, the loss of marine
also genetic, species and ecosystem diversity is a global crisis in its own right. The coastal
~vent strip (the shallow water, the intertidal area and the immediately adjacent land) is
ay be the most vulnerable as well as the most abused marine zone. Coastal ecosystems
lities are not only an important source for essential products for mankind, including
foods, medicine, raw materials and recreational facilities, but also provide ecologi­
1yof cal services that directly benefit the coastal zone.
) the Loss of biodiversity in coastal ecosystems has both direct and indirect causes. The
direct mechanisms involved include habitat loss and fragmentation, physical
alteration, over-exploitation, pollution, introduction of alien species and global
esto­
;and climate change. The root causes that drive these proximate threats lie in the high
rate of human population growth, the unsustainable use of natural resources,
economic policies that fail to value the environment and its resources, insufficient
scientific knowledge, and weak legal and institutional systems.
The ever-growing exploitation of the coast and its resources is a reflection of the
.&
steady population increase, especially in coastal zones. Habitats are changed or lost
, et by accelerating urbanisation, development of tourist facilities, industrial installa­
e­ tions and mariculture. Land-based and upstream activities alter sedimentation and
:0. freshwater input in downstream estuaries and coastal biotopes. Contaminants from
sewage disposal and agricultural runoff are rapidly increasing and areas of eutro­
phication and chemical pollution are expanding. Careless disposal of plastic wastes
not only causes a litter problem but also widespread mortality of marine species.
Exploitation ofliving marine resources may damage habitats and alter food webs,
while mariculture generates its qwn pollution and may upset ecological balances
u by the introduction ofalien species. Global atmospheric changes, which may result
in altered rainfall patterns and rising sea-level, have become a matter of growing
concern.

Ie

* Present address: Kenya Wildlife Service - Netherlands Wetlands Conservation Programme,

ns P.O. Box 82144, Mombasa, Kenya
10.

69
 Causes of biodiversity loss in coastal ecosystems

Biodiversity in marine ecosystems

Although fewer marine than land species have been described, marine ecosystems
are far more diverse than terrestrial ones. Of the 33 extant animal phyla, only 11
occur on land while 32 are found in the seas. The coastal and marine biotopes
host nearly the entire extant diversity of basic animal body plans, and also contain
far greater diversity in body size, from whales to picoplankton, than is found on
land. Further, filter feeders create extra levels in aquatic food chains, which tend
to be more complex than terrestrial ones (Margulis & Schwartz 1988,
WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992).
Marine biological diversity is for most groups considerably higher in tropical
regions than in cooler waters. Within the tropics, many taxa reach the highest
species diversity in the Indo-West Pacific. Tropical, marine ecosystems also have a
high diversity in functions benefitting people (Dugan 1990, Hamilton & Snedaker
1984, Martens 1992, Saenger et al. 1983, Salm & Clark 1984). The coastal strip is
the most vulnerable and the most abused marine zone.
Several aspects of marine systems complicate the task of conservation. First, coastal
waters and their organisms extend beyond and move between national boundaries.
Second, coastal ecosystems are at the receiving end of drainage from land, and
most wastes eventually concentrate there. Third, reproduction ofmarine organisms
can be very variable in space and time. Fourth, some species require more than
one habitat during development and are threatened by activities in anyone of
them (Dugan 1990, Salm & Clark 1984).
Marine conservation has only become an issue of global concern within the last
20 years (WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992). Although a relationship between human
population increase and environmental change has long been recognised, attempts
have only recently been made to assess the cumulative impacts of development in
the coastal zone by recording their physical, chemical and biological consequences.
Damages that would be readily observed on land are seldom noticed; wastes just
seem to disappear. Also, there is no tradition of managing marine areas for
conservation as on land. Often pollution of coastal systems originates in the open
seas outside the jurisdiction of states. Because the ocean has been an 'open-access
resource', competitive exploitation has been the norm. This led to regional and
international conventions that impose a framework and laws (e.g. UNEP's Re-
gional Seas Programme and the Convention on the Law of the Sea).
Using resources in the coastal zone requires integrated management (including
both land and water components) and protection of some natural areas, so that the
zone may yield the greatest benefit to present generations without losing its
potential to meet future needs. Preserving genetic diversity is a matter of both
ethics and economic survival. Genetic diversity is needed to sustain and improve
agricultural and fisheries production, to keep future options open, to guard against
harmful environmental change, and to secure the raw material for scientific and
industrial innovation (Salm & Clark 1984).

71
Conservation of biodiversity in Africa

Human activities have dramatically increased the intensity, pace and kind of
environmental changes that lead to habitat loss and pose severe adaptive challenges
to marine organisms. Response to these changes includes drastic declines of many , ough fewe~
fisheries and extinction of several species. The loss of species and ecosystems ir filr more di~
t
obscures equally important threats to genetic diversity, which is essential for species cur on land 1
survival in a changing environment. ,1st nearly the!
greater divel
d. Further, 6:
I ntrod uction be more c
The coastal waters of many African countries contain some of the world's richest I1IUCN/U
ecosystems characterised by coral reefs, seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, ine biologil
estuaries and floodplain swamps. Because of the economic benefits that can be :ions than in
derived from them, the coastal zones teem with human settlement. Without doubt, des diversity
the greatest risk for marine ecosystems is their proximity to such high concentra­ i. diversity in
tions of humans. 4, Martens 1
The tremendous increase in the human population and the intense activities to most vulner:
meet economic needs have placed an immense pressure on natural resources, and ral aspects 0
have led to their misuse or abuse. Anthropogenic destruction of resources, frag­ .,crs and their
mentation and change ofhabitats, release ofpollutants, introduction ofalien species ond, coastal
and climate change are now more rapid, intensive and widespread than natural .·st
I:

wastes ever.
changes (Dugan 1990, WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992). Although it has often been 1 be very vari

assumed that marine organisms are more resistant to extinction than terrestrial p
habitat duri
ones, this assumption only reflects a shorter history of intensive exploitation and ~m (Dugan 1S
our relative ignorance of the marine realm. ine conserve
The coastal zones of most nations are subjected to increasing pressures manifested "'Years (WRI!
by a variety of human activities, notably urbanisation, industrialisation, fishing, ulation incre
coastal aquaculture, mining, waste disposal, oil drilling, shipping traffic and tourism , only recent
(Bryceson 1990, Dugan 1990, Martens 1992, Portmann et al. 1989, Saenger et al. f=oastal zone 1
1983, UNEP 1982a-c, 1984a,c, UNESCO 1981, 1986). This mix of water-based ages that we
and land-based economic activities has put considerable stress on those coastal pt to disappe
resources that are the very basis of their viability. The fast pace of technological lServation as c
development and economic activity has not allowed for the evolution of appro­ outside the j
priate attitudes and structures to minimise the exploitation that poses a threat to )urce', compe
marine biodiversity. On the other hand, the information necessary for proper ernational COJ
resource management has remained inadequate and competing human uses have mal Seas Progl
I
often remained unrelated and unplanned. Also, the majority of the population ling resources
subsisting in coastal systems are the rural poor, and any change will affect them :h land and wa
first (Dugan 1990, WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992). e may yield
This paper gives an overview of the main causes of biodiversity loss in African ential to mee
coastal ecosystems. ics and econo
icultural and f
ful environr
ustrial innoval
IJ'

70
Conse",ation oj biodiversity in Africa

Threats to marine biodiversity declines and ca

Martens 1992, 1
The ways that humans threaten marine biodiversity can be grouped into proximate
threats and root causes; the former are driven by the latter. Concerns may differ Over-exploitatic
from region to region, reflecting local situations and priorities. returns but also
trophic relationsl
Proximate threats involving multif
species frequent!
The main types of human activities that damage marine organisms and ecosystems food webs and ~
are: over-exploitation, physical alterations and habitat loss, pollution, introduction
of alien species, and global climate change (Dugan 1990, UNEP 1982c). Physical altera
Because organisl
Over-exploitation each place are Cl
Coastal ecosystems are an important source ofessential products for mankind, such conditions are al
as foods, medicines, raw materials and recreational facilities (Dugan 1990, Martens the biological co
1992, Saenger et ai, 1983, Salm & Clark 1984, UNEP 1982a-c, 1984b,c, 1985a, cleared to make
1989). The ever-growing exploitation of coastal resources is a reflection of the agriculture (Dug
population increase, the most important root cause for biodiversity loss. Tourist Not only does SI
populations, generally concentrated in few areas, increase the local exploitation but many comme
for specific crustaceans such as lobsters, crabs and prawns (Schood & Visser 1991). grounds (Salm II
In theory, virtually any marine organism, even the slowest-maturing or least fecund benthic commur
species, could be exploited sustainably as long as no more are taken than reproduction by the trawling
can replace. However, today's exploiters are numerous and their technologies powerful. sediment (Salvat
Current fishing activities exceed sustainable yields on a large number of traditional Upstream defore
fishing grounds, especially in coastal areas and on continental shelves (Sanders et ai, load in runoff. Tl
1990). Most commercially valuable marine populations are now over-exploited. threatens coastal
Because most methods used to catch targeted fish and shellfish are unselective, large their feeding or r
numbers of invertebrates, fishes, sea turtles and marine mammals are caught and then turbidity reducin
discarded. Dynamite fishing and poisoning are unselective and kill large numbers of occurred, longer­
vertebrates that are then not harvested (IUCN 1990, Salvat 1987). substrate, with COl
ecosystems that f
Marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles and many invertebrate species are also
reefs, are especial
threatened by direct exploitation. Marine mammals and sea turtles are long-lived,
decreases the dive
slow-reproducing organisms whose attractive products make them extremely
which leads to a
vulnerable to over-exploitation. Nesting turtles on the beaches are defenseless and
sustain (Blom 19~
more readily captured than at sea, while their eggs are easy to collect. Many seabird
hand, reduction in
species are colonial nesters, making them vulnerable to large-scale egg collection
and hunting (IUCN 1990, Salm & Clark 1984, Wells 1988). due to modificati
coastal ecosystem
Many marine organisms, including corals, sponges, molluscs, echinoderms, puffer shrink and fish pc
and trigger fishes, and turtles, are collected widely for curios or jewellery (IUCN ~he constant or fn
1990, Martens 1992, Wells 1988). The over-fishing ofshallow inshore populations iiiversity. Dams d
can have serious local effects on these species and their habitats. !Valuable coastal h:
Other over-exploited marine products are stony corals for building material and ''the Senegal and N
mangroves for fuelwood and timber (IUCN, 1990, Hamilton & Snedaker 1984, I, at their deltas and 1
Martens 1992, Salm & Clark 1984). These activities have contributed to species . in fish catch (Dug.

72
 Causes of biodiversity loss in coastal ecosystems

declines and caused structural damage to the habitats (Dugan 1990, ]accarini &
Martens 1992, Martosubroto & Naamin 1977).
X:lmate
, differ Over-exploitation not only reduces specific populations and causes lower economic
returns but also causes genetic changes in the exploited populations and alters the
trophic relationships among species. Marine organisms are part ofintricate food webs,
involving multiple trophic levels at several spatial and temporal scales. Removal of
species frequently leads to losses of other species and to changes in communities,
fstems food webs and key species (Beddington 1984, McClanahan & Muthiga 1988).
llction
Physical alterations and habitat loss
Because organisms are adapted to specific abiotic environments, the conditions in
each place are crucial in determining the community of species that live there. If
[,such conditions are altered, there will be corresponding changes in the composition of
artens the biological community. Vast areas ofmangroves, estuaries and beaches have been
985a, cleared to make way for coastal development, industrialisation, aquaculture or
)f the agriculture (Dugan 1990, IUCN 1990, UNEP 1982a,c, 1984b,c, UNESCO 1979).
aurist Not only does such development destroy rich mangrove and estuarine fisheries,
tation but many commercially valuable species depend on these coastal habitats as nursery
991). grounds (Salm & Clark 1984, UNEP 1985b). Trawling profoundly disturbs the
~cund
benthic communities on the seabed. Disturbance includes physical damage caused
ction by the trawling gear and reduced photosynthesis caused by resuspension of
sediment (Salvat 1987).
erful.
ional Upstream deforestation and careless agricultural practices increase the sediment
et ai. load in runoff. The addition of anthropogenic sediments, especially silts and clays,
'ited. threatens coastal systems by smothering or burying marine organisms, clogging
large their feeding or respiratory organs, coating photosynthetic surfaces, or increasing
then turbidity reducing the light available for photosynthesis. After sedimentation has
rs of occurred, longer-term effects can follow from changes in the particle size of the
substrate, with consequences for the structure of the benthic fauna. Shallow coastal
ecosystems that flourish in clear waters, such as seagrass beds and fringing coral
also
reefs, are especially vulnerable to siltation. An increase in sedimentation usually
red,
decreases the diver~ity of coral species and the percentage of living coral cover,
lely
which leads to a decline in the diversity and number of fishes that the reef can
and
sustain (Blom 1985, Giesen & Van der Kerkhof 1984, Salvat 1987). On the other
lird
hand, reduction in sediment and nutrient supply from the altered freshwater inflow,
ion
due to modification of river basins, can have dramatic effects in estuarine and
coastal ecosystems. Deltas and their mangrove, marsh and mudflat communities
fer shrink and fish populations can decline rapidly. Estuarine ecosystems depend on
:N the constant or frequent freshwater inputs that determine their productivity and
ms diversity. Dams change the amount and timing of freshwater input and reduce
valuable coastal habitats (Dubois et ai. 1985, IUCN 1990, UNESCO 1981). On
rld the Senegal and Nile Rivers, dams reduced the freshwater and sediment discharge
:4, at their deltas and lead to coastal erosion, salt water intrusion and significant decline
es in fish catch (Dugan 1990).

73
Conservation of biodiversity in Africa

Other activities causing physical alterations are coastal mining and construction,
mangrove clearing for agriculture and aquaculture, dynamiting of reefs causing
serious beach erosion, and dredging of inshore waters. The negative impacts of
tourism include trampling, boating and anchoring on the coral reefs (Martens
1992).

Pollution
A complex mix of anthropogenic pollutants pose a serious threat to estuaries and
coastal waters. Anthropogenic nutrients enter the coastal waters as runoff from
fertilized agricultural and silvicultural lands, sewage effiuents including domestic
and industrial wastes, dredging, vessels dumping cargo at sea and atmospheric
deposition of air-borne pollutants. Nitrogen and phosphorous are the most
common limiting nutrients in coastal waters and their availability determines
species composition and growth of plants, which in turn affects the entire
ecosystem. In most developing countries, sewage is discharged untreated or only
partially treated into rivers, lagoons and coastal waters via short outfalls, most of
which were installed with little attention to advanced planning. Human sewage
(together with pathogenic organisms) and agricultural runoff (with increasing
amounts ofinorganic fertilizers) are particularly rich in nitrogen and phosphorous,
and form the major source of pollution in coastal waters.
The biological process initiated by such nutrient enrichment--eutrophication-
can have far reaching effects such as: increased primary production, changes in
plant species composition, dense and sometimes toxic algal blooms, changes in
structure ofbenthic communities, and conditions of hypoxia or anoxia (GESAMP massive side-ef
~ects on oceans a
1990, Pearson & Rosenberg 1978, Portmann et ai. 1989, UNEP 1982b). Contami-
nation of inshore waters by sewage also causes serious public health problems rbons, accumula1
,~- increase of glob
(portmann et ai. 1989). Coral reefs grow only in clear waters with low nutrients.
Nutrient pollution creates algal blooms that cloud the water and limit the sunlight ring patterns (
reaching the corals. peratures may
m 8 to 340 cm)
Chemicals, such as trace metals, radionuclides and petroleum residues, become elf and the Ii
toxic environmental contaminants when discharged in excessive concentrations. I1IUCN/UNl
Many contaminants become associated with sediments and may remain seques-
tered until resuspended by waves and currents or until sediments are disturbed by 'gether, these ch.
.vironmental cha
dredging activities. Synthetic compounds are becoming increasingly important
chemical pollutants in the sea. Among the most persistent ones are the chlorinated all-bodied rapid
hydrocarbon pesticides used in agriculture (PCBs, DDT), dioxins from incinera- water temperatl
tors and paper mills, organotins (TBT) used as antifoulants, and oil dispersants that production and g
are toxic and cause the oil to sink onto benthic communities (GESAMP 1990). becoming a wide
The main concern for toxic chemicals are the long-term effects as many of them -.il levels rise, coast.
are persistent in the environment and become concentrated through the trophic ill recede unless!
chain. In exposed marine organisms, toxins can cause death, disease, reduced ~inity distributior
reproductive success and developmental aberrations. ., astal currents ar
lange in intensity

74
 Causes of biodiversity loss in coastal ecosystems

10n, Communities in contaminated ecosystems have reduced species diversity as more

sing sensitive species are the first effected and tolerant species, relieved of competition
ts of or predation, proliferate. Crude oil and gas production, although bringing in
tens important foreign exchange earnings and local employment, have significant
impacts on coastal areas (IUCN 1990, UNEP 1984a). Industrial and domestic solid
wastes are often dumped in mangrove creeks with consequent outflushing of
rubbish and toxic products (GESAMP 1990, Martens 1992). With the increased
and use and disposal of plastics, solid wastes are now more than a litter problem as
rom plastic debris causes widespread mortality in marine species through entanglement
~stie or ingestion (Carr 1987).Because of their strength, buoyancy and durability,plastic
eric products account for more than 50% of all anthropogenic debris items found at
nost sea and on coastlines.
ines
Introduction of alien species
ltire
mly Introduced species are responsible for many extinctions, especially on islands
it of where the indigenous biota usually lack the necessary defensive or competitive
rage capabilities. Many marine organisms are transported by humans, either intention-
,ing ally for aquaculture and private collections or accidentally from fouling and
)us, ballast-water of ships. Some of these exotics are now dominant species in coastal
communities where they have replaced native species (Carlton 1989, GESAMP
1990, WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992).
n-
510 Global climate change
;10
\1P
A massive side-effect of air pollution~lobal warming-may have profound
effects on oceans as greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide and chlorofluoro-
ni-
carbons, accumulate in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect will not only cause
~ms
an increase of global temperature but also change the distribution of heat thereby
nts.
altering patterns of ocean circulation, precipitation and storm tracks. Warmer
ght
temperatures may also cause a rise in sea level of about 140 cm (estimates range
from 8 to 340 cm) during the next century, due to thermal expansion of the water
me itself and the likely melting of icecaps (GESAMP 1990, IOC 1992,
ns. WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992).
es-
Together, these changes could have serious effects on coastal biodiversity. Rapid
by
environmental change is a common cause of species impoverishment as it favours
lOt
small-bodied rapid-producers over large-bodied long-living organisms. Increase
:ed
ra- in water temperature will also affect temperature-dependent processes such as
reproduction and growth. Coral bleaching, due to prolonged higher temperatures,
lat
0). is becoming a widespread phenomenon and significantly reduces coral growth. As
:10
sea levels rise, coastal erosion and severity offlooding will increase so that coastlines
will recede unless stabilised by dykes or sand influx. Changes in rainfall patterns,
HC
salinity distributions and temperatures will alter rates of delta sedimentation, and
ed
coastal currents and upwelling patterns are likely to shift geographically and
change in intensity.

75
Conservation of biodiversity in Africa

A common consensus is that global warming will make the dry areas drier and wet markets. Man
areas wetter, bringing about a climate of extremes. Coastal wetlands, being highly purification, s
populated, are likely to suffer the most visible impacts as their landward movement Because these
may be hindered by the ever-growing development of coastlines. With the loss of that decide w
this coastal fringe, the species it contains will be lost too. Many islands would be et al. 1990). "
completely submerged if the more extreme projections of sea level rise occur. degradation 0
Economic pol
Root causes
radation as th
Biotic impoverishment is an almost inevitable consequence of the ways in which increase envir
the human species has used and misused the environment. The main root causes products. Ano
of biodiversity loss lie in: demographic pressure and unsustainable use of natural both the use a
resources; economic policies that fail to value the environment and its resources; often the local
insufficient knowledge and its poor application; weakness in legal and institutional out of plannin
systems (Dugan 1990, McNeely et ai. 1990, UNEP 1984b, WRIIIUCN/UNEP
Deficiencies i
1992).
Scien tists stillI

Human population growth and unsustainable use of resources innumerable 0

The global human population is quickly rising towards the 6 billion mark. Almost exists it does r
70% of this population lives near aquatic systems, especially coastal zones. In develop policit
countries with high fertility rates, about half of the populations is under 16. The coastal biodive
resulting demographic momentum in coming years, due to this large number of 1992). Except
people reaching their reproductive age, means that the global population will most marine re
continue to grow for at least the next half-century. The rates and magnitude of databases on m
this growth depend on social and economic measures, especially on economic policy-makers,
development in developing countries (WRIIIUCN/UNEP 1992). As numbers difficulty in coc
increase, the consumption of renewable and non-renewable resources has a higher jurisdictions an
rate of increase. The recreational use of coastal waters is also increasing, in some A final difficul~
areas representing the major industry. Coastal tourism generally shows peaks in resource conSUl
tourist numbers in certain areas, especially those with high biodiversity such as campaigns.
coral reefs, and at certain times of the year. High tourist numbers put additional
J#ak legal an,
pressure on coastal biodiversity through excessive food, energy and water con-
sumption, physical alterations of the environment (infrastructural development, Most COuntries:
boating, trampling), and cultural alterations (Schoor! & Visser 1991). Ironically, this resources, but ea
environmental degradation and congestion may destroy the main natural assets on or tourism. Eco:
which tourism development is based. including local-
ciplinary and im
Economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment and its nication and i
resources developing cour
Conversions of natural systems to farmlands or industrial areas take place due to ments to ensure
the urgent need for economic land use. These developments are often economi- (Dugan 1990,!v
cally and biologically unsound because they are implemented regardless of legal constraints
sustainability, and because natural habitats are commonly under-valued. There are fragmented and
several reasons for the mis-valuation of biological resources. Many resources, such grated and regio
as food, fuelwood and medicinal plants, are consumed directly and never enter biotic communil

76
 Causes of biodiversity loss in coastal ecosystems

nd wet markets. Many values of coastal biotopes do not have markets, such as water
highly purification, storm surge protection, and nursery grounds for fisheries products.
rement Because these are 'free goods' they tend to be ignored in economic calculations
loss of that decide whether such biotopes should be conserved or developed (McNeely
,uld be et al. 1990). The result is a systematic bias favouring development and hence
cur. degradation of coastal ecosystems.
Economic policies in many African countries contribute to environmental deg-
radation as the need for foreign exchange earnings often forces countries to
which increase environmental exploitation, such as for wood, minerals and marine
causes products. Another aspect is the inequity in ownership and flow of benefits from
latural both the use and conservation of biological resources (McNeely et al. 1990). Too
>Ufces; often the local communities, who are dependent on the natural resources, are left
Itional out of planning but in the end pay the price.
JNEP Deficiencies in knowledge and its application
Scientists still do not have adequate knowledge of coastal ecosystems and their
innumerable components (Martens & Jaccarini 1990). Even where information
I.lmost exists it does not flow efficiently to decision-makers, who have often failed to
les. In develop policies that reflect the scientific, economic, social and ethical values of
5. The coastal biodiversity (Dugan 1990, McNeely et al. 1990, WRIIIUCN /UNEP
ber of 1992). Except for research on commercially important resources, until recently
n will most marine research had scientific rather than resource-management goals. Few
Ide of databases on marine subjects exist that are accessible or informative enough for
lOmic policy-makers, especially on a regional and international scale. An additional
mbers difficulty in coordinating information collection and transfer relates to overlapping
ligher jurisdictions and competition among agencies concerned with marine resources.
some A final difficulty is often public reluctance to accept policies that reduce excessive
aks in resource consumption, which shows an urgent need for more public awareness
Ich as campaigns.
tional ~ak legal and institutional systems
con-
nent, Most countries have different institutions that are responsible for managing coastal
y. this resources, but each ofthem focuses on only one aspect such as agriculture, fisheries
:ts on or tourism. Ecological realities, however, clearly call for a cross-sectoral approach
including local-community participation. It is only quite recently that multidis-
ciplinary and institutional collaboration has been established to facilitate commu-
its nication and information exchange among all concerned groups. Many
developing countries lack adequate environmental laws and enforcement instru-
ue to ments to ensure protection of the environment and sustainable use ofits resources
omi- (Dugan 1990, McNeely et al. 1990). Largely because of these institutional and
ss of legal constraints, biodiversity conservation and management has typically been
~e are
fragmented and restricted to specific protected areas or species. However, inte-
such grated and regional approaches are needed to address the habitat needs of whole
enter biotic communities in relation to development programmes.

77
Conservation of biodiversity in Africa

Conclusions Jaccarini, V.
related eo
Although some coastal ecosystem loss is inevitable and can even benefit man, much Academic
is both detrimental and avoidable. Only by increasing awareness of the value of
coastal ecosystems and designing economic incentives that encourage people to Margulis, L.
support conservation, will the rate of biodiversity loss be subsequently reduced. the phyla ~
Martens, E.J
S.G. Njug
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