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Design Standards For Licensed Aerodromes
Design Standards For Licensed Aerodromes
August 1999
Chapter 7
Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
August 1999
Chapter 7
Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
1. GENERAL
1.1 – Aerodrome design standards are those statutory requirements applying to the
planning, design and construction of aerodromes and individual movement area facilities at
licensed aerodromes. They contrast with the aerodrome operating standards set out in
Chapter 9 which apply to the ongoing day to day operation and maintenance of these
aerodromes and individual movement area facilities thereon. Advisory information on
other aerodrome facilities appears in Chapter 16. Individual design standards also serve, in
some cases, as a datum for the corresponding aerodrome operating standards.
1.2 – The standards set out in this Chapter govern characteristics such as the dimensions
and shape of runways, taxiways, aprons and related facilities provided for the movement of
aeroplanes. The uniform application of these design standards is a critical factor in
ensuring the safe operation of aeroplanes as this should ensure that flying skills learned at
a particular aerodrome will be universally applicable at all Australian aerodromes.
1.3 – An aerodrome can represent a large capital investment, its operation can be
significantly affected by the location, layout and nature of its facilities. Consequently, it is
important to carry out detailed preliminary studies on the type of aerodrome, its siting and
facilities.
3. MOVEMENT AREA
3.1 – The movement area is that part of an aerodrome used for the take-off, landing,
taxying and parking of aeroplanes. It consists of the runway and taxiway systems (also
known as the manoeuvring area) and the aprons. These facilities are often the most costly
and least adaptable part of an aerodrome and relate directly to the safety of aeroplane
operations. There are also equipment and installations with specific requirements, which
have to be sited within the movement area. The movement area should therefore be
planned carefully using the rules herein.
3.2 – Movement area planning and design should consider not only present services and
aeroplanes but also future growth of the community that the aerodrome is intended to serve
and the consequent aviation activity. The Department of Transport and Regional Services
compiles aviation activity statistics for both domestic and international market sectors.
Such information may be available to aerodrome operators on a fee-for-service basis.
(g) graded taxiway strip – overall width not less than 60m;
(h) taxiway shoulders – overall width of taxiway and taxiway shoulders not less
than 60m;
(i) parallel runway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance for
instrument runway – 190m;
(j) parallel runway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance for non-
instrument runway – 115m;
(k) parallel taxiway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance –
97.5m;
(l) taxiway centre line to object separation distance – 57.5m;
(m) taxilane centre line to object separation distance – 50.5m;
(n) minimum distance from runway centreline to a taxi-holding position –
107.5m;
(o) width of inner approach of OLS – 155m.
Note: a The aeroplane reference field length is the minimum field length required for
take-off at maximum take-off mass, at sea level, in standard atmospheric
conditions, in still air and with zero runway slope. It is set out in the
aeroplane flight manual.
6.6 – The code letter for an aeroplane is to be obtained from Table 7–2 by deriving the
code letter applicable to the wing span, and separately deriving the code letter applicable to
the outer main gear wheel span. The code letter to be used is the more senior of these
letters where A is the junior.
6.7 – The general dimensions, of a typical aeroplane, are shown in the diagrams below.
Beechcraft
58 (Baron) 1A 401 11.5 3.1 9.1 2449 392
100 1A 628 14.0 4.0 12.2 5352 -
Cessna
172 1A 272 10.9 2.7 8.2 1066 -
206 1A 274 10.9 2.6 8.6 1639 -
310 1A 518 11.3 3.7 9.7 2359 414
404 1A 721 14.1 4.3 12.1 3810 490
Piper
PA 31 (Navajo) 1A 639 12.4 4.3 9.9 2950 414
PA 34 1A 378 11.8 3.4 8.7 1814
Cessna
208A (Caravan) 1B 296 15.9 3.7 11.5 3310 -
402C 1B 669 13.45 5.6 11.1 3107 490
441 1B 544 15.1 4.6 11.9 4468 665
DHC-8
100 2C 948 25.9 8.5 22.3 15650 805
300 2C 1122 27.4 8.5 25.7 18642 805
Lear Jet 55 3A 1292 13.4 2.5 16.8 9298 -
Canadair
CL600 3B 1737 18.9 4.0 20.9 18642 1140
CRJ-200 3B 1527 21.21 4.0 26.77 21523 1117
Dassault-Breguet
Falcon 900 3B 1515 19.3 5.3 20.2 20640 1300
Embraer EMB 145 3B 1500 20 4.8 29.9 19200 -
BAe
Jetstream 31 3C 1440 15.9 6.2 14.4 6950 448
Jetstream 41 3C 1500 18.3 - 19.3 10433 -
146-200 3C 1615 26.3 5.5 26.2 42185 1138
146-300 3C 1615 26.3 5.5 31.0 44225 945
McDonnell
Douglas
DC-3 3C 1204 28.8 5.8 19.6 14100 358
DC9-20 3C 1551 28.5 6.0 31.8 45360 972
Fokker
F27-500 3C 1670 29.0 7.9 25.1 20412 540
F28-4000 3C 1640 25.1 5.8 29.6 32205 779
F50 3C 1760 29.0 8.0 25.2 20820 552
F100 3C 1695 28.1 5.0 35.5 44450 920
Boeing
B717-200 4C 2130 28.4 6.0 37.8 51710 -
B737-200 4C 2295 28.4 6.4 30.6 52390 1145
B737-300 4C 2749 28.9 6.4 30.5 61230 1344
B737-400 4C 2499 28.9 6.4 36.5 63083 1400
B737-800 4C 2256 34.3 6.4 39.5 70535 -
McDonnell
Douglas
DC9-30 4C 2134 28.5 6.0 37.8 48988 -
DC9-80/MD80 4C 2553 32.9 6.2 45.1 72575 1390
Airbus
A300-600 4D 2332 44.8 10.9 54.1 165000 1260
A310-200 4D 1845 43.9 10.9 46.7 132000 1080
Boeing
B707-300 4D 3088 44.4 7.9 46.6 151315 1240
B757-200 4D 2057 38.0 8.7 47.3 108860 1172
B767-200ER 4D 2499 47.6 10.8 48.5 156500 1310
B767-300ER 4D 2743 47.6 10.8 54.9 172365 1310
McDonnell
Douglas
DC8-63 4D 3179 45.2 7.6 57.1 158757 1365
DC10-30 4D 3170 50.4 12.6 55.4 251744 1276
Lockheed
L1011-100/200 4D 2469 47.3 12.8 54.2 211378 1207
McDonnell
Douglas MD11 4D 2207 51.7 12.0 61.2 273289 1400
Airbus
A 330-200 4E 2713 60.3 12 59.0 230000 1400
A 330-300 4E 2560 60.3 12 63.6 230000 1400
A 340-300 4E 2200 60.3 12.0 63.7 253500 1400
Boeing
B747-SP. 4E 2710 59.6 12.4 56.3 318420 1413
B747-300 4E 3292 59.6 12.4 70.4 377800 1323
B747-400 4E 3383 64.9 12.4 70.4 394625 1410
B777-200 4E 2500 60.9 12.8 63.73 287800 1400
7. RUNWAYS
7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 – A runway is a defined area provided for the take-off and landing of aeroplanes.
Many aerodromes serving small rural communities, cattle stations or mining centres have
only one runway. Aerodromes serving larger communities, and those with a significant
level of light aeroplanes or “ab initio” flying training activity, often have two or more
runways.
7.1.2 – At aerodromes with more than one runway, the runways are classified as either
primary or secondary runways. The primary runway of an aerodrome is the runway used
in preference to others whenever conditions permit. It is generally the longest runway and
aligned closest to the direction of the prevailing wind. The other runways are classified as
secondary runways.
7.1.3 – A runway is identified by a two part designator each part of which is derived from
the magnetic direction in which an aircraft is flying during landing or take-off from each
end of the runway; thus a runway aligned at 30 degrees magnetic is designated runway
03/21. The letters “L”, “R” or “C” (representing “left”, “right” or “centre”) are combined
with each of the two parts to distinguish between parallel runways: eg. one runway is
designated as 03L/21R and the other is 03R/21L. (Chapter 11: Visual Ground Aids
provides details on runway designators)
7.1.4 – A runway may be either an instrument runway or a non-instrument runway. A non-
instrument runway is a runway intended only for the operation of aeroplanes using VFR
procedures, and requires a circling approach to landing.
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7.3.3 – For a new runway, the beginning of the runway is normally made to coincide with
the threshold. However in exceptional cases where this would result in an inadequate
runway length for take-off (in the same direction), the beginning of the runway may need
to be located prior to the threshold, as shown in the following diagram.
7.3.4 – More commonly, in the decades following the establishment of the runway,
changes in aeroplane types and performance, or standards, or the erection of new structures
may necessitate the displacement of the threshold from a previously acceptable location at
the beginning of the runway, as shown in the following diagram.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
7.3.5 – A runway threshold may also be displaced temporarily owing to aerodrome work
or the presence of obstacles such as cranes in the vicinity of that end of the runway.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
7.5.3 – Where the critical aeroplane is a known type for which the performance
characteristics are available, the aerodrome usability should be determined using the
limiting cross-wind component determined during type certification. This will usually be
the case for aerodromes handling RPT traffic. At GA aerodromes handling a wide range of
light aeroplanes it may not be possible to identify a critical aeroplane. In such cases the
following limiting cross-wind component values for aeroplanes, grouped by reference field
length, may be used:
(a) 20 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1500m or
over;
(b) 13 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1200m or
up to, but not including, 1500m;
(c) 10 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is less than
1200m.
7.5.4 – Where runways are provided essentially for light aeroplane operation, the
maximum permissible cross-wind component to be used for determining runway usability
is to be 10 knots where “ab initio” flying training is carried out. fifteen knots is to be used
if it can be guaranteed that “ab initio” flying training will not take place.
7.5.5 – The Bureau of Meteorology is a reliable source of processed wind data for
calculating aerodrome usability. In order to avoid short term anomalies it is recommended
that wind data cover a period of five years on a continuous basis. In locations where
processed wind data is not available, observations over a period as short as one year can be
used, but the records of nearby measuring stations should also be consulted and the results
should be treated with reserve. In hilly terrain, the wind pattern is often dictated by the
topography and it may be of doubtful value to utilise the records of stations some distance
from the aerodrome site.
7.5.6 – Wind data is collected using anemometers. Depending on the proposed manner of
aerodrome operation, wind data may be collected for all hours (that it, over 24 hours each
day) or only for daylight hours. Where daylight hours is used the hours are to be 0700-
1700hrs each day. The direction and intensity of wind are typically observed at three-
hourly intervals. Wind data is usually presented graphically in the form of polar diagrams
known as wind roses which may then be used to prepare runway usability diagrams.
7.5.7 – It may also be necessary to collect corresponding rainfall data to assess usability
under wet and dry conditions. The actual runway surface wetness at any given time would
depend on the rainfall run-off at that time. However for usability considerations, the
surface condition of the runway is normally assessed as “dry” if rainfall is less than 1.5mm
in the preceding 3 hours and assessed as “wet” if rainfall is equal to or more than 1.5mm in
the preceding 3 hours.
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7.5.8 – A typical wind graph (wind rose) and a typical usability chart are shown below.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
7.6.3 – If the usability of the combined primary and secondary runways is still below the
required usability of the aerodrome a further runway may be provided. Other factors being
equal, this third runway should be aligned so as to give the greatest possible increase in
aerodrome usability.
7.6.4 – In addition to increasing aerodrome usability and traffic capacity, multiple runways
have the advantage of permitting the segregation of traffic by concentrating certain types
of aeroplanes on different runways, eg large jet aeroplanes on primary runways and light
aircraft on secondary runways.
7.6.5 – The aerodrome operator is to consult with CASA and Airservices on airspace
aspects and the air traffic control procedures associated with the operation of multiple
runways. Such matters could significantly affect decisions on the number of runways to be
provided or retained at an aerodrome.
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(b) 210m where the higher code number of the two runways concerned is 3 or 4;
(c) 150m where the higher code number of the two runways concerned is 2;
(d) 120m where the code number of each of the two runways concerned is 1.
7.7.7 – There are currently no instances in Australia of simultaneous VFR operations on
code 3 or 4 parallel runways. International practice recommends a minimum separation of
210m for VFR operations between parallel runway centre lines. Where parallel runways
are to be provided for simultaneous use by VFR operations on code 3 and 4 runways in
Australia, the minimum separation between runway centre lines is to be subject to case by
case approval by CASA.
7.7.8 – Much greater separation is necessary when parallel runways are provided for
simultaneous use by IFR operations. The separation required is dependent on many factors
including the type of navigational aids and radar equipment provided, the particular
approach, take-off, ATC procedures, and local conditions.
7.7.9 – International standards appropriate to the separation of parallel runways with
simultaneous IFR operations have not yet been developed. As a guide, the United States of
America practices in this regard are given below.
7.7.10 – The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets a minimum
standard, for simultaneous approaches, of 1300m between the centre lines of parallel
runways. The FAA minimum standard for simultaneous non-radar departures, and for
simultaneous radar arrival/departure on non-staggered thresholds, is 1050m between the
centre lines of parallel runways. Where thresholds are staggered and the approach is to the
nearest runway, the FAA allows the 1050m spacing to be reduced by 30m for every 150m
the thresholds are staggered, but to not less than 300m. Where thresholds are staggered
and the approach is to the farthest runway, the FAA requires the 1050m spacing to be
increased by 30m for every 150m the thresholds are staggered.
7.7.11 – Because of the differences in ATC procedures and equipment existing between
Australia and the USA, the foregoing FAA minimum separation standards should only be
considered as, guidelines. Where parallel runways are to be provided for simultaneous use
by IFR operations, the minimum separation between runway centre lines is to be subject to
individual approval by CASA.
7.9.12 – To minimise taxying across active runways and to utilise the area between parallel
runways more efficiently, the terminal complex and other operational facilities are
normally placed between the parallel runways. To accommodate these facilities, the
distance separating the parallel runways is often greater than the separation required purely
for aircraft flying operations. For example, separations between parallel runways around
the world range from 1300m to over 2500m.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
accommodate and CASA, so that the desired maximum capacity may be obtained at the
lowest cost. The cost of providing a runway will normally be recouped, by the aerodrome
operator, through aircraft landing charges. However, in particular cases, for instance
where additional length of a runway is required by a specific airline, funding of the
additional length may be subject to negotiation.
7.8.3 – When arriving at the length of runway required, the aeroplane operator will utilise
data provided by the aeroplane manufacturer, and certified by CASA. These data which
are contained in the aeroplane operation manual, cover the following considerations:
(a) the maximum take-off mass of the critical aeroplane;
(b) the maximum permissible landing mass of the critical aeroplane;
(c) the climb performance, and braking performance of the critical aeroplane;
(d) the longitudinal slope of the runway;
(e) the air temperature and density based on the location and elevation of the
aerodrome;
(f) the wind velocity; and
(g) the runway surface condition, wet or dry.
Code Letter
Code Number A B C D E
1 18m 18m 23m
2 23m 23m 30m 45m
3 30m 30m 30m 45m
4 45m 45m 45m
7.9.2 – Aerodrome operators are advised that some aeroplanes may be permitted to operate
from runways with width not in accordance with Table 7–4 under one of the following
circumstances:
(1) An aeroplane may be operated from a runway one width less than that specified in
the Table of Width of Runways above provided:
(a) the United States of America Federal Aviation Administration aircraft design
group permits a runway width narrower than provided by Table 7–4; or
(b) it has an aeroplane reference field length (AFRL) less than 1500 m and all
flight manual crosswind limits are reduced by 50%.
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(2) The runway may be narrower than that specified in Table 7–4 if the runway is only
used by aeroplanes that have a maximum take-off weight of not more than 5700 kg.
(3) CASA has conducted runway width testing of an aeroplane and approved its
operations at narrower runways.
(4) CASA may require an aeroplane to operate from a width wider than that
determined from Table 7–4 when CASA is satisfied that the displayed handling
performance during take-off and/or landing warrants such a restriction- being
imposed.
7.10.3 – Although runway widening on the pilot's left as he taxies towards the runway end
is preferred (because the pilot normally occupies the left hand seat and can see the edge of
the pavement more readily) where circumstances warrant, an asymmetric or right hand
turning nodes are acceptable.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
7.10.4 – The value chosen for the turning radius ‘r’ is to be based on the critical aeroplane
and is to be determined in consultation with the relevant aeroplane operators, taking into
account any physical constraints within the manoeuvring area, such as adverse grades,
limited area, or high risk of jet blast damage.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
(a) 1.5% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3
or 4; and
(b) 2.0% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1
or 2.
7.11.5 – The transition from one slope to the next is to be a vertical curve, with a rate of
change not exceeding:
(a) 0.1% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 30000m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 4;
(b) 0.2% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 15000m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3; and
(c) 0.4% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 7500m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1 or 2.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
7.11.8 The following diagram illustrates the distance (D) and the slope changes (x, y, z)
between the points of intersection of two successive curves on a runway as defined above.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
standpoint of aircraft controllability, since the greater the cross slope the greater the
tendency for aircraft to run off the pavement. To meet these requirements the runway
should be built with a central crown.
7.13.2 – The runway transverse slope measured from the crown to the runway edge, is to
be consistent with Table 7–6.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
and jet engine flame-out problems. These types of distress constitute an unserviceability
problem and are subject to standards specified in Chapter 9 - Operating Standards.
7.14.3 – When deciding on the appropriate pavement strength for a particular runway, the
aerodrome operator should weigh the economic costs and benefits accruing over the life of
the pavement. Economic benefits may be derived from the provision of a less costly,
lower strength pavement which will meet the loading requirements of the majority, but not
all of the aeroplanes likely to use the runway. The economic, social and political penalties
involved are associated with the repair of pavement damage and the certain bringing
forward of major pavement maintenance as a result of pavement overloads caused by
certain aeroplanes using the runway.
7.14.4 – The load on those sections of a runway pavement where there is no parallel
taxiway and where an aircraft rolls at high speed (such as the middle part of a runway
during take-off and the first 1000m beyond the threshold during landing) is transient and is
thus less severe than on those sections where aircraft speeds are slower. In such cases, the
transient load on the pavement is further reduced by the lift of the aircraft wings. In
addition, certain sections of a runway pavement (such as the two outer thirds of a runway,
the runway shoulders and the stopways), although subjected to the same aircraft loads, will
experience markedly lower load frequencies than those occurring on the middle third of a
runway.
7.14.5 – There is scope for effecting savings through reductions in runway pavement
thickness in specific areas according to the function of the pavement. This concept is used
overseas, but the aerodrome operator should consider the savings that may be achieved,
compared with the possible difficulties which may arise during construction or at the time
when such pavement areas may be incorporated in runway widening or runway extension
works.
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7.15.6 – Paved runways used by RPT aircraft are to have an average surface texture depth
greater than 1.0mm as measured by the grease patch test. The equipment required for this
test consists of a 15 cubic centimetre tube which is used to measure a volume of grease, a
tight fitting plunger which is used to expel the grease from the tube, and a rubber squeegee
which is used to work the grease into the voids in the runway surface. The tube is packed
using a simple tool such as a putty knife, and the ends are squared off. Parallel lines of
masking tape are placed on the pavement surface about 100mm apart. Grease is then
expelled from the tube with a plunger and deposited between these lines. It is then worked
into the voids of the runway pavement surface with the rubber squeegee. The distance
along the lines of masking tape is then measured and the area that is covered by grease
subsequently computed. The average surface texture depth is obtained by dividing the
volume of grease by the area covered by the grease.
7.15.7 – Grooving of the runway pavement surface should be considered to counter
problems with aquaplaning in localities which experience frequent heavy rains. In such
cases, grooving should be provided over at least the central two-thirds of the runway
pavement width, and the full length of the runway.
7.15.8 – A Runway surface treatment, such as grooving, is usually required at runways
accommodating larger aeroplanes. Accordingly the aerodrome operator should decide the
type of surface treatment in conjunction with the airlines, who may elect to contribute to
the costs.
7.15.9 – When a runway pavement surface is grooved or scored, the grooves or scorings
should be either at right angles to the runway centre line or parallel to transverse joints,
where applicable. The groove size should be 6mm by 6mm, spaced at 32mm centres for
grooving at major capital city aerodromes, and 75mm centres for grooving at other
intermediate sized licensed aerodromes. Variations from the above spacing may be
justified by the traffic volume and/or the rainfall intensity at a particular location.
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7.16.4 – Runway shoulders are to extend symmetrically on each side of the runway to a
minimum width of:
(a) 7.5m. for 45m wide runways, or
(b) 3.0m. for 30m wide runways.
7.16.5 – Runway shoulders are not required for aircraft operational purposes where the
runway code letter is A, B and C and the runway is used only by aeroplanes not exceeding
22700 kg. However, as previously stated, shoulders are recommended for engineering
purposes to protect runway pavements.
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by turbine engines. A good grass cover may suffice in some areas and oiling, chemical
treatment or soil stabilisation may be more suitable in other areas.
7.16.13 – The shoulders of runways that are used by large jet aeroplanes are to be paved to
guard against soil erosion from wing tip or wake turbulence which may blow soil particles
onto the runway pavement. Such soil particles may be sucked in by aircraft engines, and
may cause damage to the engines. The Boeing B747 is currently the only Australian
registered aeroplane which requires surface blast protection in excess of that provided by
the runway shoulders. The B747 requires a blast resistant surface width of 74m. For
runways serving B747 aeroplanes, the full 7.5m shoulder width is to be paved and a further
surface width of 7m either side of the shoulders is to be prepared so as to resist aircraft
blast erosion. The extent of preparation would depend on local climatic and soil
conditions, and the maintenance standards of the aerodrome. Grass may be suitable. The
surface near runway ends where B747s make their turns, and in the vicinity of the aircraft
rotation area need particular close attention.
7.16.14 – While it is not necessary that the surface of shoulders associated with runways
for other wide-bodied jet aeroplanes (such as the Boeing B767, and the Airbus A300) be
paved, it is mandatory that those surfaces be prepared to be resistant to aircraft blast
erosion.
7.16.15 – The aerodrome operator should consider extending this practice to shoulders of
runways that are used by narrow-bodied jets and propeller driven aircraft, both to minimise
foreign object damage to aircraft, and to reduce pavement maintenance cost through break
up of pavement surface caused by weed growth and erosion of the strip surface adjacent to
the runway from water coming off the runway.
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7.17.9 – Because runways are costly, the aerodrome operator should ensure that the
operators of aircraft that the runway is to accommodate, the Air Traffic Service provider,
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and CASA, are fully consulted in the early planning stages to ensure that the runway strip
provided will be able to cater for the desired aircraft.
7.17.10 – It should be noted that, when CASA grants a runway width exemption for a
particular aeroplane, it will not necessarily grant a matching corresponding exemption for
the runway strip width standard. For example, the B737 is a code 4C aeroplane which in
accordance with the standards, requires 45m wide runways with 150m graded runway strip
width. This aeroplane type has been exempted to operate from 30m wide runways, but
150m wide graded runway strip width is still required.
Fly-over area
7.17.16 – The fly-over area is the extra area provided for an instrument runway on either
side of the runway over and above the area provided for a non-instrument runway. This
area is provided to allow an aircraft to be able to fly over it at very low level, in the event
of a missed approach. No portion of a runway strip beyond the graded area, nor objects
thereon, are to project upwards through a plane surface, originating from the outer edge of
November 2000 7 – 31
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the graded runway strip, sloping upwards and outwards at a slope of 5% measured with
reference to the horizontal.
7.17.17 – Although, in general, grading, levelling or other special preparation with a
mechanical grading device is not required within this portion of the runway strip, it is
recommended that upstanding objects be cleared to natural surface level along the full
length of the fly-over area. For this purpose upstanding objects include tree stumps, knolls
and rock outcrops.
7.17.18 – Transient objects such as vehicles and equipment may operate in this area
provided they do not infringe the inner transitional surfaces.
7.17.19 – Ditches and depressions are acceptable in this portion of the runway strip, as it is
provided as an aircraft fly-over area and is not intended to cater for the ground running of
an aircraft.
Objects on runway strip
7.17.20 – Standards for objects which are required to be located within the runway strip
are given in Chapter 10.
Longitudinal slopes on graded area
7.17.21 – The longitudinal slope of a runway strip should follow the longitudinal slope of
the associated runway. The longitudinal slope of the runway strip at any point is
determined by the combination of the longitudinal slope of the runway and the transverse
slope of the runway, and runway strip, at that point. The longitudinal slope along the
graded area of the runway strip should not exceed:
(a) 1.5% where the runway code number is 4;
(b) 1.75% where the runway code number is 3; and
(c) 2.0% where the runway code number is 1 or 2.
Longitudinal slope changes on graded area
7.17.22 – There are no mandatory requirements associated with the longitudinal slope
changes on the graded runway strip. To minimise hazards to an aeroplane running off the
runway or stopway, slope changes should be as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes
or sudden reversals of slopes avoided, and should not exceed 2%.
7.17.23 – For precision approach runways Category II and III, slope changes within an
area 60m wide and 300m long, symmetrical about the centre line, before the threshold, are
to be avoided. This is because aeroplanes making Cat II and III approaches are equipped
with radio altimeters for final height guidance in accordance with the terrain immediately
prior to the threshold. Excessive slope changes can cause errors in data. Where slope
changes cannot be avoided, the rate of change between two consecutive slopes should not
exceed 2% per 30m.
Transverse slopes on runway strips
7.17.24 – The runway strip should have a transverse slope downwards from the runway to
facilitate removal of surface water and to avoid problems with ponding resulting in
differential bearing capacity, and bird attraction. For the graded area of the runway strip,
the transverse slope should not exceed:
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aeroplane which touches down before the threshold, or to an aeroplane overrunning the
end of a runway either during landing or in an aborted take-off.
RESA dimensions
7.18.2 – The whole part of a RESA may be included in the runway strip. In Australia, a
RESA originates from the end of a runway, or stopway, if provided. It should be noted
that this is different from international practice which defines the origin of RESA as from
the end of a runway strip.
7.18.3 – A RESA should be provided at each end of a runway, or stopway if provided, for
as great a distance as is practicable.
7.18.4 – The minimum length of the RESA is to be 90m where the associated runway is
suitable for aircraft with a code number of 3 or 4 and is used by regular public transport jet
aeroplanes. In other cases, the minimum RESA length is automatically provided for by the
requirement for the runway strip to extend beyond the end of a runway.
7.18.5 – The width of a RESA should be at least twice the width of the associated runway.
7.18.6 – Where provision for a RESA is not feasible due to terrain constraints or obstacles,
consideration could be given to reducing some of the declared distances in order to meet
the RESA requirements.
RESA obstacles
7.18.7 – Standards in respect of objects on runway strips, specified in Chapter 10, are also
generally applicable to objects on RESAs.
RESA slopes
7.18.8 – The slopes of the RESA are to be such that no part of the RESA (frangibly
mounted objects excepted) penetrates the approach or take-off climb surfaces.
7.18.9 – The longitudinal slope of a RESA is not to exceed a downward slope of 5%.
Slope changes are to be as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes or sudden reversal of
slopes are to be avoided.
7.18.10 – The transverse slope of a RESA is not to exceed an upward or downward slope
of 5% beyond the graded runway strip.
7.18.11 – Transition between different slopes is to be as gradual as practicable.
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7.19 CLEARWAYS
7.19.1 – A clearway is an obstruction-free rectangular plane, extending from the end of a
runway, over which an aeroplane taking off may make a portion of its initial climb to
35feet (10.7m) above the ground at the end of the clearway. It is used to increase the take-
off distance available (TODA) without increasing the length of the runway proper. Thus a
clearway is not prepared for the surface movement of aircraft, but only to be cleared of
upstanding obstacles to permit safe over-flying.
Clearway location
7.19.2 – The clearway commences at the end of the take-off run available (TORA). Its
length is added to TORA to give TODA, ie TODA = TORA + length of clearway.
Accordingly, a clearway overlies part of the runway strip, including any stopway, if
provided, and may overlap part, or all, of the runway end safety areas.
7.19.3 – The decision to provide a clearway of a particular length is to be made by the
aerodrome operator, and should be part of the same financial calculations used to
determine the length of runway to be provided. If the component of the declared distance
provided by the clearway (as distinct from the runway) is significant to the financial
viability of the aerodrome, then the aerodrome operator would clearly be well advised to
ensure its provision or continued availability. Availability is most certain where the
property under the clearway is owned by the aerodrome owner. However, other forms of
control, such as the Civil Aviation (Buildings Control) Regulations, air rights or easements
are also available.
Clearway dimensions
7.19.4 – The declared length of a clearway is not to exceed half the length of TORA, ie.
the clearway will be equal to or less than half the runway length.
Clearway width
7.19.5 – The width of the clearway is to be at least 150m for code 3 or 4 runways and at
least 80m for code 2 runways.
Clearway slopes
7.19.6 – The natural surface within a clearway is not to project above a plane having an
upward slope of 1.25%, the lower limit of this plane being the inner edge of the take-off
surface, ie. a horizontal line which
(a) is perpendicular to the vertical plane containing the runway centre line, and
(b) passes through a point located on the runway centre line at the end of the
TORA.
7.19.7 – There is no mandatory requirement for the downward slope. A mean falling slope
not exceeding 2.5% is recommended. Where the runway strip has a one-way transverse
slope, then part of the clearway within the strip may follow the runway strip slope.
Isolated depressions such as narrow ditches across the clearway are permissible.
Clearway obstacles
7.19.8 – Standards in respect of obstacles on runway strips, specified in Chapter 10, are
generally applicable to clearways.
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7.20 STOPWAYS
7.20.1 – A stopway is a rectangular area of ground, originating at the end of a runway, on
which an aeroplane may be stopped in the case of an aborted take-off.
7.20.2 – The length of the stopway is used in the calculation of one of the declared
distances, viz. the accelerated stop distance available (ASDA): ASDA = length of runway
+ length of stopway.
7.20.3 – A stopway may be used to achieve the financial savings associated with lower
strength pavement and the absence of runway marking and lighting.
7.20.4 – The decision to provide a stopway will depend on factors such as the physical
characteristics of the area beyond the runway, the take-off performance characteristics of
the critical aeroplanes and any planned future extensions of the runway.
Stopway dimensions
7.20.5 – A stopway is to commence at the end of the runway and is to finish at least 60m
before the end of the runway strip. The length of a stopway is usually determined by the
aerodrome operator, after studying the factors described above.
7.20.6 – The all weather bearing capacity of the stopway is to be such that it can withstand
at least one single passage of the critical aeroplane, without inducing structural damage to
the aeroplane.
7.20.7 – In considering the length required for a stopway it should be noted that this length
is used by pilots as part of the calculations to determine the payload that can be uplifted
from the runway. Where the stopway comprises an area meeting the above strength
criteria, the full length of the stopway may be included in the ASDA. Where the stopway
does not meet the strength criteria, then:
(a) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass in excess of 68,000kg,
unpaved stopway will not be included in the ASDA calculations;
(b) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass between 36,300kg and
68,000kg, a maximum length of 60m will be included in ASDA calculations;
and
(c) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass not in excess of 36,300kg, a
length of stopway not exceeding 13% of the runway length may be included
in ASDA calculations.
7.20.8 – A stopway is to have the same width as the runway with which it is associated.
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Stopway strength
7.20.10 – The minimum strength requirement of the stopway is that it can support at least
one pass of the critical aeroplane without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane. In
practice the stopway should be constructed to the full runway pavement depth where it
abuts the runway, tapering to one half of the runway pavement depth over the first 15m
and continued at half the runway pavement depth thereafter, in order to effect a gradual
transition in all weather conditions.
Stopway surfaces
7.20.11 – The surface of the stopway associated with a runway suitable for aeroplanes with
a code number of 3 or 4 should be paved. The surface of a paved stopway is to provide a
good coefficient of friction when the stopway is wet. In this regard, the friction
characteristics of a stopway should not be less than that of the runway, set out in section
7.15 above.
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8. TAXIWAYS
8.1 GENERAL
8.1.1 – A taxiway is a defined path on an aerodrome provided for the safe and expeditious
surface movement of aircraft between aprons and holding bays, and runways. The
provision of taxiways is not a mandatory requirement, rather the decision to provide
taxiways, the timing of the provision and the complexity of the taxiway system to be
provided are financial considerations for the aerodrome operator.
8.1.2 – Where taxiways are provided the following mandatory provisions are applicable.
Table 7–10. Minimum Distance between Aeroplane Outer Wheel and Taxiway Edge
A 1.5m
B 2.25m
C (where aircraft wheel base is less than 3.0m
18m)
C (where aircraft wheel base is 18m or 4.5m
more)
D 4.5m
E 4.5m
Taxiway widening
8.2.2 – Where a curve is provided at a paved taxiway bend, junction or intersection,
additional pavement is to be provided on the inside of the curve, to ensure that the
clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the
paved taxiway is not less than that specified in Table 7–10. This additional taxiway
pavement is often referred to as taxiway fillet.
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A 7.5m
B 10.5m
C (when the aircraft wheel base is less than 18m) 15m
C (when the aircraft wheel base is 18m or more) 18m
D (when the aircraft has an outer main gear 18m
wheel span of less than 9m)
D (when the aircraft has an outer main gear wheel 23m
span of 9m or more)
E 23m
20 km/h 24 m
30 km/h 54 m
40 km/h 96 m
50 km/h 150 m
60 km/h 216 m
70 km/h 294 m
80 km/h 384 m
90 km/h 486 m
100 km/h 600 m
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8.5.2 – Excessive longitudinal slope reduces aircraft stability during taxying and also
increases aircraft operating costs (fuel and tyres).
A 1.5 m 150 m
B 2m 200 m
C, D or E 3m 300 m
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A (not mandatory) 3m
B (not mandatory) 3m
C (mandatory when used by jet propelled 3.5 m
aeroplanes)
D 7.5 m
E 10.5 m
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A 32.5 m
B 43 m
C 52 m
D 81 m
E 95 m
8.10.3 – Visual aids that have to be located within a taxiway strip are to be sited at such a
height that they cannot be struck by propellers, engine pods and wings of aircraft using the
taxiway.
A 22 m
B 25 m
C 25 m
D 38 m
E 44 m
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8.10.7 – The upward slope being measured with reference to the transverse slope of the
adjacent taxiway surface and not the horizontal.
8.10.8 – The downward transverse slope of the graded portion of the taxiway strip should
not exceed 5% measured with reference to the horizontal.
8.10.9 – No portion of the taxiway strip beyond the graded portion, nor objects thereon, are
to project upwards through a plane surface, originating from the outer edge of the graded
taxiway strip, sloping upwards and outwards at a slope of 5% measured with reference to
the horizontal. The presence of drains and ditches in this part of the taxiway strip is
acceptable.
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Table 7–17.
a
Note: The separation distances are based on the concept of the wing of the
aeroplane, centred on the parallel taxiway, remaining clear of the runway strip
of standard width. If the width of the runway strip is varied, separation
distances may be varied accordingly.
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Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
Taxi-holding positions
8.14.4 – A taxi-holding position is a marked (and, as appropriate, lit) position on a taxiway
at its intersection with a runway or another taxiway, at which a taxying aeroplane or a
vehicle may be required to hold (ie stop temporarily), in order to be sufficiently clear of
the runway or other taxiway so that aeroplanes may operate safely in the latter.
Accordingly taxi-holding positions are to be marked, and, as appropriate, lit, at each such
intersection.
8.14.5 – In the case of a precision approach runway, the taxi-holding position is to be
located such that a holding aeroplane will not interfere with the operation of the radio
landing aids. Prior approval from CASA is to be obtained before establishing such a
holding position.
8.14.6 – The distance between a taxi-holding position and the centre line of the runway is
not to be less than the dimensions specified in Table 7–18.
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Table 7–18. Minimum Distance from the Runway Centre Line to a Taxi-Holding
Position
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9. APRONS
9.1 GENERAL
9.1.1 – An apron is a defined area on an aerodrome provided for the safe parking of
aeroplanes. Aprons are provided as necessary to permit the transfer of passengers and
freight between aircraft and terminal facilities, and to enable the servicing and
maintenance of aircraft, without interference to the flow of taxying aircraft, or to aircraft
taking-off or landing.
9.1.2 – In the absence of an apron, aircraft can park on a runway. However, while so
parked, that runway is closed to all operations by all other aircraft. Thus, an apron will
normally be provided when the costs incurred by its absence become greater than the costs
involved in its provision.
9.1.3 – Aprons with paved surfaces must contain appropriate marked-out aircraft parking
positions, sometimes referred to as ramps, stands or turnarounds (see Apron Markings,
Chapter 11).
9.1.4 – There is no mandatory requirement to provide aprons on aerodromes, however,
where aprons are provided, they must meet the following mandatory provisions.
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9.3.2 – It is mandatory that the clearance distance provided between an aircraft using an
aircraft parking position and an adjacent building, aircraft or another aircraft parking
position or other objects, complies with Table 7–19.
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9.3.5 – It is mandatory that clearance distances during aircraft fuelling operations shall
comply with those specified in CAO Section 20.9.
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Code Letter
A B C D E
Separation 12.0 m 16.5 m 24.5 m 36.0 m 42.5 m
9.3.7 – It should be noted that the minimum separation distances specified above may need
to be increased to take account of the need to maintain blast clearances as specified under
CAO section 20.9 subsection 5 – “starting and ground operation of engines”.
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location of aeroplanes should be such, that the buildings and structures would
not be subjected to a jet blast velocity in excess of 100 km/h.
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Obstacle limitation
surfaces (OLS)
Approach and departure
paths:
Length Sufficient to take the outer edge of the approach and departure
slope to 500 ft above ground level.
Slope 1:8 (7.5 degrees)
Width: outer edge 10 rotor diameters minimum
inner edge 2 rotor diameters minimum
Splays 15 degrees
Buffer zone Buffer zone shall extend 15m beyond each end of the runway
strip over a width of 51m and along each side of the runway
strip 3m external to the runway strip over its full length. No
upstanding obstacles above lm above ground are permitted
within the buffer zone.
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12.3.8 – Where located wholly or partly within an existing runway strip, a glider runway
strip is to have sufficient length for the glider operations, and a width of at least 37.5
metres, measured:
(a) where there is flush-mounted lighting or no runway lighting, from the
existing runway edge, as shown below; and
(b) where there is upstanding runway lighting, or where physical features such as
stone filled rubble drains, steep or rough shoulders exist, from three metres
clear of the runway lights or such physical features, as shown below.
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(b) in the case of the glider runway strip located wholly or partly within an
existing runway strip, not closer than 15 m from the edge of the glider
runway strip furthest from the runway.
12.5.2 – Where the glider runway strip is within an existing runway strip the presence of
an aircraft on either strip will preclude the use of the other. Where the glider runway strip
is located outside but parallel to an existing runway strip, operations may occur on both
concurrently, with a common circuit direction, provided the take-off and landing
separation minima are met.
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13 CONTROL TOWERS
Note: The material set out on control towers is incomplete and the relevant
standards have not yet been identified as such. In the interim it is to be
implemented as a standard.
13.1 GENERAL
13.1.1 – A control cab tower should be sited to:
(a) provide adequate visibility to all the movement area and airspace which are
operational and specified herein, within acceptable economic and operational
limits;
(b) provide a view of all runway ends and taxiways, with suitable depth
perception;
(c) provide adequate visual detection and commencement of aircraft take-off run;
(d) obtain adequate site area to provide for immediate and forecast building and
facility requirements; and
(e) achieve proper control cab orientation.
Siting Requirements
13.2.2 – The site should provide maximum visibility of air-borne traffic patterns with
primary consideration being given to the view from the locations in the tower cab occupied
by staff responsible for the aerodrome control function. This should, however, not
preclude the need for all tower staff to have a clear view.
13.2.3 – Unobstructed lines-of-sight from the control tower eye-level should be achieved
to:
(a) the manoeuvring area of the aerodrome;
(b) the runway approach lights and/or graded areas at ground level for a distance
of 300m from the threshold along the extended centre line, then upward and
outward within the take-off climb area normally at an angle not less than two
and one half degrees; and
(c) the first 150m of fire routes and/or service roads to the above areas.
13.2.4 – A clear unobstructed view (line of sight) should be obtained to sections of aprons
used as a taxiway to a line (at ground level) 15m from the apron edge, toward the building
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line. Primary consideration should be given to the view from the locations in the tower
occupied by staff responsible for ground control function. This should however, not
preclude the need for all tower staff to have a clear view.
13.2.5 – Sufficient visual resolution should be achieved of all aerodrome movement areas
for which tower staff have a responsibility. The term visual resolution in this standard
means the ability to visually differentiate between the number and type of aircraft or
ground vehicles and to determine their movement and position relative to each other and
the airport movement areas).
13.2.6 – Resolution is enhanced where the air traffic controllers’ line-of-sight is
perpendicular or oblique, not parallel, to the line established by the aircraft and ground
vehicle movement and where the line-of-sight intersects the aerodrome ground surface at a
vertical angle equal to or greater than 35 minutes arc.
13.2.7 – The air traffic controller should be able to detect movement of a departing aircraft
as soon as possible after it has commenced its take-off run.
13.2.8 – Sufficient land area to accommodate initial and forecast building and vehicle
parking areas should be supplied.
13.2.9 – The tower should be located as close as practicable to the thresholds of all
runways and/or strips. Where certain directions are used more than others and/or where an
ILS system exists, the tower should be located closer to these thresholds.
13.2.10 – Every effort should be made to locate the control tower structure north of the
main aerodrome control activity area, so that the majority of observations by air traffic
controllers are to the south. If this is not possible, then the alternatives of siting the
structure to the west, south, and east should be considered in that order. Siting that entails
a view of the runway approach in line with a rising or setting sun should be avoided.
13.2.11 – The tower should be sited to minimise the adverse affects on the performance of
existing or forecast navigational aids.
13.2.12 – Clear lines-of-sight unimpaired by direct or indirect external light sources such
as apron lights, car parking area lights, surface traffic and street lights and reflective
surfaces, should be achieved.
13.2.13 – Unobstructed visibility should be provided of all movements of aircraft and
vehicles not previously specified on aprons, parking areas and test areas at aerodromes
where apron control responsibilities will not be provided as a separate service from air
traffic control.
13.2.14 – Due consideration should be given to local weather phenomena which could
restrict visibility due to fog or industrial/ground haze from off-aerodrome sources, and to
the location of existing or future planned heating plants or other such possible sources of
visible contaminants, steam or heat distortion patterns which may cause obstruction to the
air traffic controllers’ line-of-sight.
13.2.15 – Electronic interference to tower equipment and exterior noise should be
minimised.
13.2.16 – Easy road access to the site, avoiding areas of aircraft operations, should be
provided.
13.2.17 – Consideration should be given to forecast aerodrome development as shown on
the aerodrome master plan, and in particular to forecast buildings, hangars, new or
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extended runways, taxiways and aprons etc., to preclude the necessity for relocation or
raising of the control tower at a future date.
13.2.18 – If the tower location under consideration is remote from the main aerodrome
activity regard should be given to the possible increase in construction and operating costs
due to the greater distances involved in providing engineering services, staffing and
management.
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13.4.7 – This formula is used to determine the circular area within which a certain pre-
selected response time can be satisfied. This circular area is located relative to the position
on the runway centre line where the aircraft commences its take-off run, which is normally
the runway end. The formula can be used for all runway ends and where the areas overlap,
more than one runway end meets the predetermined detection requirement.
13.4.8 – The formula R=195 t2 expresses R as a function of the response time t and if a
desired response time is adopted, R can be easily calculated. Conversely if R is known,
the associated response time may be determined. The formula may thus be used for two
purposes:
(a) to determine the radius of the circumference of the circular area within which
detection of aircraft movement on take-off is satisfied whilst not exceeding a
certain pre-selected response time-Figure 1 illustrates the use of the formula
for this purpose; and
(b) to determine the response times as they can be expected to apply to take-offs
at various runway ends for existing or proposed tower positions - Figure 2
illustrates the use of the formula for this purpose.
Figure 1.
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Figure 2
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August 1999 7 – 71