GOVERNMENT OF WEST PAKISTAN

HIGHWAY DEPART ME NT

CODE OF PRACTICE
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1967

SAEED AHMAD, T.Pk., P.S.E.-I

DIRECTOR GENERAL-HIGHWAYS

HOWARD, NEEDLES, TAMMEN & BERGENDOFF, INT. INC.

GENERAL H IG H W A Y C O N SU L T A N T S
 FOREWORD

The purpose of this Code of Practice is to establish

•minimum standards and uniioi r pi oca dares and practices for
the design of usual types of highway structures in the
Province of West Pakistan. Through such standardisation of
methods,a much greater degree of efficiency and economy will
be realized in design.

Concrete is and will lor some time the most

econom 1ea 1 br id ge e an s tr ue t .on ■nat e r ia 1.. W i th th 1s 1n m ind
this first edition of the Code has been written to cover
prrmar ily re inforced and pro stressed concrete design, Refer -
emee has been raade to the British Standard Specifications
for those special cases who re steal design will be required.

Constant advancements in research, lessons learned thru

experience and the future availability of more economical and
different structural materials will dictate the necessity that
this Code be revised periodically. It is expected that all
those responsible for structure designs will be alert to the
need for such revisions. Suggestions for updating the Code
along these lines are encouraged,
t
 CONTENTS

Article Page
SECTION 1 - GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

1.1 Preliminary Data i-i

1,2 Determination of Waterway Area 1-5
1.3 Spacing and Location of Piers and Abutments 1-8
1.4 Vertical Clearances 1-8
1.5 Restricted Waterways 1-9
1.6 Obstruction and River Training 1-9
1.7 Determination of the Ma:ximum Depth of Scour 1-9
1.8 . Depth of Foundations 1-11
1.9 Size of fulverts Openings 1-13
1.10 Length of Culverts 1-13
1.11 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk,, 1-13
1.12 Clearances 1-13
1.13 Curbs & Safety Curbs, 1-14
1.14 Railings 1-14
1.15 Roadway Drainage 1-15
1.16 Superelevation 1-15
1.17 Floor Surfaces 1-15
1.18 Utilities 1-15
1.19 Roadway Width, Curbs and Clearance for Tunnels, 1-16
1,20 Roadway Width, Curbs and Clearance for Underpasses
(undivided Highways) 1-17
1,21 Roadway Width, Curbs and Clearances for depressed
Roadway 1-18

SECTION 2 - LOADS

2.1. Loads 2-1

2.2 Dead Load 2-1
2.3 Live Load 2-3
2,4 Highway Loadings 2-3
2.5 Standard Truck-Train Loading 2-3
2,6 Application of Loadings 2-5
2.7 Reduction in Load Intensity 2-5
2.8 Sidewalk, Curb, Safety Curb and Railing Loading 2-6
2.9 Impact 2-7
2.10 Longitudinal Forces 2-8
2,11 Wind Loads 2-9
2.12 Thermal Forces 2-11
2.13 Uplift 2-12
2.14 Force of Stream Current 2-12
2.15 Buoyancy 2-13
2,16 Earth Pressure 2-13
2,17 Earthquake Stresses 2-14
2.18 Centrifugal Forces 2-14

i
Article Page

SECTION 3 - DISTRIBUTION 0? LOADS

3.1 -i Distribution of Wheel Loads to Stringers, Longitudinal

Beams and Floor Beams 3-1
3 „2 Distribution of Loads and Design of Concrete Slabs 3-2
3,3 Distribution of Wheel Loads through Earth Fills 3-6

SECTION 4 - MILITARY LOADING

4,1 Loading 4-1

4.2 Horizontal Clearance /,_
4,3 Distribution of Load to Longitudinal Stringers 4 -2
4.4 Impact 4-2
4.5 Distribution cf Loads and Design of Concrete Slabs 4-2

SECTION 5 - UNIT STRESSES

5.1 General 5-1

5.2 Concrete Stresses 5-2
5.3 Reinforcement 5-3
5.4 Steel Stresses 5-3

SECTION 6 - CONCRETE DESIGN

6.1 General Assumptions 6-1

6.2 Span Lengths 6-2
6,3 Expansion 6-2
6.4 I-Beams 6-3
6.5 Re in forcement 6-4
6,6 Compression Reinforcement in Beams 6-6
6.7 Web Reinforcement 6-6
6.8 Columns 6-9
6.9 Concrete Arches 6-16
6,10 Viaduct Bents and Towers 6-17
6.11 Box Girders 6-18

SECTION 7 - PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

7a General 7-1
7.2 Notation 7-1
7.3 Design Theory 7-3
7.4 Basic Assumptions 7-3
7,5 Loading Stages 7-3
7.6 Load Factors 7-4
7.7 Allowable Stresses 7-4
7,8 Loss of Prestress 7-5
7.9 Flexure 7-7
Article PaSe
7.10 Ultimate Flexural Strength 7-7
7.11 Maximum and Minimum Steel Percentage 7-9
7.12 •Nonprestressed Reinforcement 7-9
7.13 Shear 7-10
7.14 Composite Structures 7-11
7.15 End Zone of Concrete I-Beams 7-12
7.16 Cover and Spacing of Prestressing Steel 7-12
7 o17 Embedment of Prestressing Strand 7-13
7.18 Concrete Strength at StressTransfer 7-13
7.19 Reinforcement in Beams 7-13

SECTION 8 - PILE LOADS AND BEARING

POWER OF SOILS

8.1 Bearing Power of Foundation Soils 8-1

8.2 Angles of Repose 8-1
8.3 Bearing Value of Piling 8-2

SECTION 9 - SUBSTRUCTURES & RETAINING WALLS

9.1 Piles 9-1

9.2 Footings 9-4
9.3 Abutments 9-7
9.4 Retaining Walls 9-8
9.5 Piers 9-9

SECTION 10 - STEEL DESIGN

1001 Design and Construction 10-1

iii
 SECTION 1 - GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

1. 1 PRELI MI NARY DATA

The following information will normally be required for the proper

design of structures;

A, STREAM CROSSINGS

(1) An index map to a suitable small scale (topo sheets scale one
inch to one mile would do in most cases) showing the proposed location
of the bridge, the alternative sites investigated and rejected, the
exist ing communications, the general topography of the country , and
the important towns, etc., in the vicinity.

(2) A contour survey plan of the stream showing all topographical

features extending to the distance shown, below (or such other greater
distances as the engineer responsible for the design may direct)
upstream and downstream of any of the proposed sites and to a
sufficient distance on either side to give a clear indication of topo­
graphical or other features that might influence the location and
design of the bridge and its approaches. All sites for crossings worth
consideration shall be shown on the plan.

(a) 300 feet for catchment area less than one square mile
(scale not less than one inch to 100 feet).

(b) 1000 feet for catchment areas of 5 square miles

(scale not less than one inch to 100 feet).

(e) One mile for catchment areas of more than 5 square miles
(Scale not less than one inch to 330 feet).

Note:- In difficult country and for crossings over artificial

channels the engineer responsible for the design may permit discretion
to be used regarding these limits of distance,provided that the plans
give sufficient information on the course of the stream and the topo­
graphical features near the bridge site.

(3) A site plan to a suitable scale showing details of the site

selected and extending not less than 300 feet upstream and downstream
from the centre line of the crossing and covering the approaches to
a sufficient distance which in the case of a large bridge shall be not
less than a quarter of a mile on either side of the stream. The plan
shall include all information that is essential for complete and proper
appreciation of the project. The normal requirements are given below;

(a) The name of the stream or bridge and of the road and
the identification number allotted to the crossing;

1-1
 (b) The approximate outlines of the hanks, the high water
channel (if different from the banks), and the low water
channels with contours at suitable level intervals in
the bed and beyond the banks and the line of the deepest
points along the dry weather channel;

(c) The direction of flow of water at maximum discharge and

if possible, the extent of deviation at lower discharge;

(d) The alignment of existing approaches and of the proposed

crossing and its approaches:

(e) The angle and direction of skew if the crossing is aligned

on a skew;

(f) The name of the nearest inhabited identifiable locality

at either end of the crossing on the roads leading to the
site;

(g) References to the position(with description and reduced

level) of the bench mark used as datum;

(h) The lines and identification numbers of the crosssections

and logitudinal section taken within the scope of the site
plan, and the exact location of their extreme points;

(i) The locations of trial pits or borings each being given

an identification number;

(j) The location of all nullahs, buildings, wells, outcrops

of rocks, and other possible obstructions to a road
alignment.

(4) A cross-section of the stream at the site of the proposed crossing

( Scale not less than one inch to 100 feet horizontally , exaggerated
vertically to a scale of not less than one inch to 10 feet) and indicat­
ing the following information:

(a) The name of the stream and the serial number allotted
to the crossing;

(b) The name of the road with mileage and chainage of the
centre of the crossing;

(c) The bed line up to the top of the banks and the ground line
to a sufficient distance beyond the edges of the stream, with
levels at intervals sufficiently close to give a clear
outline of markedly uneven features of the bed or ground
showing right and left bank and names of villages on
each side;

1-2
 (d) The nature of the surface soil in bed, banks and approa­
ches 5 with trial pit or bore hole sections showing the
levels and nature of the various strata down to hard
strata suitable for foundation and the safe intensity
of pressure on the foundation soil; (as far as practicable,
the spacing of trial pits or bore holes should be such
as to provide a full description of all substrata layers
along the whole length arid width of the crossing);

(e) The low water level:

(f) The ordinary Flood level;

(g) The highest flood level and the years in which it occur­
red . State if the flood level is affected by back-water
and if so, give details;

(h) The catchment area, maximum discharge specified in

Article 1 .2 (A) and corresponding average velocity at the
site of the crossing;

(i) The estimated depth of scour or, if the scour depth has
been observed, the depth of scour, with details of
obstructions or of any other special causes responsible
for the scour,

(5) A. longitudinal section of the stream, showing the site of the

bridge with the highest flood level, the ordinary flood level, the
low water level, and the bed levels at suitably spaced intervals
along the approximate centre line of the deep water channel between the
extreme points to which the survey map required in Article 1 .1 A( 2 )
extends. The horizontal scale not: less than one inch to 100 left,

(6 ) A note giving as far as possible the following particulars

relating to the catchment area;

(a ) The size of the catehmeat;

(b ) The shape of the catchment;

(c) The intensity and frequency of rainfall in the

catchment;

(d) The slope of the catchment, both longitudinal and

transverse;

(e) The nature of the catchment, whether under forests,

under cultivation, urban etc;

(f) The nature of the soil crust, porous or rocky, etc;

 (g) The possibility of subsequent changes in the catchment
like afforestation, deforestation, urban development,
extent of reduction in cultivated area, etc;

(h) Storage in the catchment artificial or natural.

(7) A chart of the periods of high flood levels for as many years as
the relevant data are recorded.

(8 ) A note giving important details of the bridges, if any, crossing

the same river within a reasonable distance of the proposed bridge.

(9) The minimum permissible vertical channel clearance and the basis
on which it has been determined mentioning any special requirements for
navigation.

(10) Liability of the site of earthquake disturbances.

(11) A brief description of the reasons for selection of the particular

site for the crossing accompanied, if necessary , with typical cross-
section of the stream at. suitable alternative crossing places both
upstream and downstream of the selected site.

(1 2 ) Sub-soil data of the stream at the site of the bridge should be

obtained at four or more points in the cross section.

(13) All other pertinent information affecting the design such as:

(a) Width of roadway curb to curb

(b) Vertical and horizontal alignment
(c) Cross Slopes
(d) Live Load to be applied
(e) Safety Curb, footpath and/or animal path
(f) Utilities to be carried by the superstructure
(g) Location and type of piers and foundations
(h) Freeboard Clearance

(14) In case of streams having discharge over 50,000 cusecs, the

hydraulic design should be checked by model studies. The following
data shall be required.

(a) A site plan showing the location of the bridge with

respect to the stream. A stretch at least 5 miles up stream
and 3 miles down stream or two 1S 1 curves up stream and one
1S 1 curve down stream of bridge, whichever is longer, should
be given on the plan. In order to indicate its dominent course,
the- .cours^-of the river or stream over a five (5) years
period should be shown.

(b) The cross sections of the stream should be observed

1-4
 at intervals 1000 ft* apart in straight reaches and 500 ft,
apart along curves for proper representation on the model.
The location of all cross sections should be marked on the
site plan,

(c) Gauge discharge curves and hydrograph of the stream

at the bridge site should be collected for the last 5 to 10
years. If such data is not available, data pertaining to the
hydrographs and guage discharge of the main stream, up stream
and down stream of the site may be used.

B. HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD CROSSINGS

(1) An index map to a suitable small scale (topo sheets scale one
inch to one mile would do in most cases) showing the proposed location of
the bridge, the existing communications, the important; towns etc*, in the
vicinity.

(2) A plan and elevation of the proposed bridge showing span lengths;
critical vertical clearance of superstructure required above roadway or rail-
road * critical horizontal clearance to piers and abutments; depth of structure
from profile grade to bottom of grider; location and number of bore holes;
and the profile of the bridge and its approaches.

(3) A cross section of the proposed bridge showing the number,

type and spacing of girders; the thickness of slab; the cross slope; width
of roadway curb to curb; the width of safety walk, footpath and/or animal
path, and the utilities to be carried by the superstructure.

(4) A profile of the highway or railroad.

(5) A cross section of the highway or railroad.

(6 ) Type of pier to be used.

(7) Type of footing to be used, whether rock bearing, soil bearing

or pile bearing and the allowable capacities of each.

(8 ) Live load to be applied.

1.2- DETERMINATION OF WATERWAY AREA

For the determination of the waterway area to be provided for a

stream crossing or culvert, a careful study shall be made of local
conditions, including flood height, flow and frequency, size and performance
of other openings in the vicinity carrying the same stream, characteristics
of the channel and of the watershed area, available rainfall records and any
other information pertinent to the problem and likely to affect the safety
or economy of the structure.

1-5
(A) The maximum discharge which the stream crossing or culvert shall be
designed to pass shall be determined by a consideration of the following
methods:

(1) From the rainfall and other characteristics of the catchment

which together from the general formula;

Q = C x An

Where Q is the maximum flood discharge in cubic feet per second

(cusecs) j A is the area of catchment of the stream in square miles, TlnH
an exponent varying from 0.5 to 1.0, and C a varying coefficient
depending upon the characteristics of the terrain. Some typical
formulas are:

(a) Dicken1 s formula

3/4
Q = C x A

Where C is equal to 750 for mountainous areas, and 500 for

planes

(b) Ryves formula

2/3
Q =■ C x A

Where C is equal to 500 for mountainous area and 350 for

planes.

(9 ) Inglis formula

0 = 7000 A
VA + 4~

(d) M.E.S. formula

„
Q = 2100 x A
A1/2

(2) From the hydraulic characteristics of the stream such as the

cross-sectional area, and slope of the stream allowing for velocity
of flow. In this method the velocity is obtained from the formula
1.486 2/3 1/2
V = ------ x r x S
n

Where
r = hydraulic mean depth in feet
S = Slope
V = mean velocity in feet per second
n = coefficient of rugosity of stream bed

1-6
 n = 0,020 for earth in good order and regimen, free
from stones and weeds
= 0,025 for earth in fair order and regimen, free
from stones and weeds
= 0,030 for earth in bad order, with occasional
stones and weeds
~ 0.035 for streams in bad order and regimen with
stones and weeds
= 0.050 for torrential rivers in beds covered with
detritus and boulders.

The velocity thus obtained is then multiplied by the cross-

sectional area to give the required discharge Q.

(3) From the Unit Hydrograph method

The results from the above methods should then be compared and
with proper judgement, arrive at the design discharge to be used.

(B) Raving arrived at an estimate of required discharge either by the

calculations from the preceding sections or by flood data secured from
available reports of gauging stations or local high water marks, the next
step is to design an opening that will pass this amount of water without
damage to the structure or to adjacent work or properties,

(1) For artificial irrigation, navigation, and drainage channels,

the effective width of waterway shall generally be equal to the width
of channel at mid^depth, but concurrence shall be obtained invariably
from the authority controlling the channel.

If it is proposed to flume the channel at the site of the

bridge, the fluming shall be subject to the consent of the same
authority and in accordance with its essential requirements,

(2) For nonmeandering natural streams not wide than 100 feet in
alluvial beds but with well-defined banks and for all natural channels
in beds with rigid inerodihle boundries, the width of waterway shall be
the distance between banks at that water surface elevation at which the
designed discharge was determined.

(3) For large natural streams in alluvial beds and having undefined
hanks, the width of waterway shall be determined from the design
discharge, using some accepted rational formula such as Laceyfs formula
for a regime flow condition where
1/2
P = 2.67
P being the wetted perimeter in feet,

and Q the discharge in cusecs of a stream consisting of alluvial

beds like sand, or clay, transported and deposited by flowing water.

1-7
The wetted perimeter thus obtained for a straight reach of the stream
is very nearly the effective width of waterway in such cases.

SPACING AND LOCATION OF PIERS AND ABUTMENTS

The following consideration shall govern the spacing and location of

nd abutments:

(a) Piers and abutments shall be so located as to make the best

use of the foundation conditions available.

(b) Subject to (a) above, the suitable economical span shall be

adopted, modified, if necessary, to suit navigational and
aesthetic requirements. The number of piers should be
limited as much as is practicable, they catch debris and thus
the effective waterway could be reduced substantially.

(c) The alignment of piers and abutments shall, as far as possible,

be parallel to the mean direction of flow in the stream but
provision shall be made against harmful effects on the stability
of the bridge structure and on the maintenance of adjacent
stream banks caused by any temporary variations in the direction
and velocity of the stream current.

VERTICAL CLEARANCES

Clearance shall be allowed according to navigational or anti-

•.tion requirements or, where these condition do not arise, ordinarily
.ows:

(a) For openings of high level bridges, which are approximately

rectangular, or with a very flat curve of the soffit of
super-structure, as for instance in the case of beam, frame,
or bowstring superstructures, continuous girders or open
spandral arches with suspended decking, the minimum clearance
shall be in accordance with the following table:

DISCHARGE MINIMUM VERTICAL

CLEARANCE

Ft. In
Below 10 cusecs 0 6
10-100 cusecs 1 6
101-1000 cusecs 2 0
1001-10,000 cusecs 3 0
10,001-100,000 cusecs 4 0
Over 100,000 cusecs 5 0

The minimum clearance shall be measured from the 1owest point

1-8
 of the deck structure inclusive of main girders in the central
half of the clear opening.

(b) In structures provided with metallic bearings such vertical

clearance shall be allowed as will prevent the submergence
of those bearings.

(c) In the case of artificial channels, e .g ., irrigation canals

having controlled flow and carrying no floating debris , the
Engineer-in-Charge may at his discretion provide less vertical
clearance than that specified in sub-clauses (a) and (b) above.

1.5- RESTRICTED WATERWAYS

When it Is necessary to restrict the waterway to such an extent that

the resultant afflux will cause the stream to discharge at erosive velocities,
protection against damage by scour shall be afforded by deep foundations,
curtain or cut-off walls , rip-rap 3 bearing piles, oi other suitable means.
Likewise embankment slopes adjacent to all structures subject to erosion
shall he adequately protected by pitching, revetment walls or other suitable
construction.

1.6- OBSTRUCTION AND RIVER TRAINING

Obstructions in the river bed likely to divert the current or cause

undue disturbed flow or scour and thereby endanger the safety of the bridge
shall be removed as far as practicable for some distance upstream and down­
stream of the bridge depending on the river characteristics, Attention shall
be given to river training and protection of banks over such lengths of the
r Iver as require i t .

1.7- DETERMINATION OF TEE MAXIMUM DEPTH OF SCOUR

(A) The maximum depth of scour in a stream shall be ascertained

whenever possible, by actual soundings at or near the site proposed for
the bridge, during a flood before the scour holes have had time to silt
up appreciably, Due allowance shall be made in the observed depth for
Increase in scour resulting from;

(1) The design discharge being greater than the flood discharge
during which the scour was observed;

(2) The increase in velocity due to the obstruction in flow

caused by construction of the bridge,

(B) Where the practical method of determining scour described at (A)

above is not possible, the following emperical approach may be used as guide
when dealing with natural streams in alluvial beds:

For regime conditions in a stable channel

d 0,413

For restricted flow

1/3
d
■)

d = Normal depth of scour below H«F*L*(high flood level)

Q = Total design discharge in cusecs

q = Design discharge per foot of width in cusecs

k = A factor varying from 1 to 3 depending on local

conditions. For a major stream crossing the factor
to be used shall be decided on consultation with the
Directors of the Bridge and Research Directorates.

f = Lacy’s silt factor for a representative sample of the

bed material. The silt factor is approximately equal
to 1.76 m ^ where m is the w e tted mean diameter in
milimeters (mm) of the bed material. See table for
value of f given by Lacy for various grades of bed
material

LACY'S SILT FACTOR

Material M in Jr__

Medium silt, Ganges canal distributory 00.233 00.850

Standard silt, Punjab data 00.323 01.000
Medium sand 00.505 01.250
Coarse sand 00.725 01.500
F ine Bajri and sand 00.988 01.750
Heavy sand 01.290 02.000
Coarse Bajri and sand 02.420 02.750
Coarse gravel 07.280 04.750
Gravel and bajri 26.100 09.000
Boulders and Gravel 50.100 12.000

The maximum depth of scour shall be taken as follows:

(1) In a straight reach 1.5 d

(2) at a right angle bend 2.0 d

1-10
 (3) at noses of piers 2.0 d

(4) at upstream noses of guide 2*5 d

banks

Due allowance shall be made for an increase in concentration of flow

through a portion of the waterway.

Where the computed depth of scour reaches well into layers, as

indicated by boring information, of relatively scour free material (i,e:gravel
and boulders) the computed depth of scour may be reduced .

1.8- DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS

(A) The depth of foundations shall be determined by consideration

of the safe bearing capacity of the soil after taking into account the effect
of scour o

(B) In all doubtful cases, the bearing capacity of the foundation

soil shall be determined by actual loading tests. The adequate thickness
of the foundation bearing layer of the soil shall be ascertained by borings
or trial pits.

(CJ The maximum toe pressure on the foundation bearing layer

resulting from the worst combination of direct forces and overturning moments
shall be calculated for each individual foundation, In calculating this
pressure, the effect, of passive resistance of the earth of the sides of the
foundation structure may be taken into account below the maximum depth of
the scour only, The effect of skin friction on the sides of the foundation
.structure may be ignored normally except in the case of well and pile
structures where skin friction may be allowed on the portion below the
maximum depth of scour.

(D) Where a substantial stratum of solid rock, or other material

inerodible at the anticipated maximum velocity and of adequate safe bearing
capacity, is encountered at a shallow7 depth below the surface, the
foundation shall be taken into that stratum and securely bonded or if
necessary anchored to it.

(E) Where only erodible strata are available, the foundations may be
designed either as ,fDeep?! or as "Shallow*1 but in such a manner that in
either case the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil is not exceeded,

(1) DEEP FOUNDATIONS (in erodible strata) If !d 1 is the anticipated

maximum depth of scour below the designed highest flood level includ­
ing that on account of possible concentration of flow, the minimum
depth of foundation below H.F.Le shall be 1,33 d . The Depth below the
scour line shall in no case be less than six feet for piers and

1-11
 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE

MINIMUM ROADWAY WIDTH

AT LEAST 4 FT. GREATER THAN
a p p r o a c h p a v e m e n t w id t h
~~ BUT NOT L E S S THAN 24 FT.

CLEARANCE DIAGRAM
TWO LANE HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

FIGURE 1

Note:
For heavy traffic roads, roadway widths greater than the above
minima are recommended„
For all bridges under 50 feet in length, the over-all width should
conform as nearly as practicable to the full shoulder-to-shoulder width
of the highway.
For recommendations as to roadway widths for the various volumes of
traffic see the Highway Design Manual.

1-12
 abutments supporting other types of superstructure. The foundations
shall in all cases be taken down to a depth which will provide proper
grip according to some rational method.

(2) SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS(in erodible strata). Foundations may be

taken down to a comparatively shallow depth below the bed surface
provided the foundation bearing stratum is practically incompressible
(e.g .sand), is prevented from lateral movement, and is also protected
against scour.

1.9- SIZE OF CULVERT OPENINGS

In generalj culverts shall be proportioned to carry the maximum flood

discharge without head. If the maximum flood discharge occurs only at rare
intervals 5culverts may be designed to carry it under slight head, provided
they are protected against undermining by means of adequate pavement and
apron or cut-off walls and that adjacent embankments are protected from
erosion by rip*rap or other suitable means.

1.10- LENGTH OF CULVERTS

The length of culverts shall be sufficient to provide the required

width of roadway embankment. The assumed slope of the embankment shall be .
suitable for the particular filling material and shall be such as to eliminate
any tendency for the embankment slopes to slip or slide.

1.11- WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND SIDEWALK

The width of roadway shall be the clear width measured at right angles
to the longitudinal centre line of the bridge between the bottoms of curbs or
guard timbers, or, in the case of multiple height curbs, between the bottoms
of the lower risers. The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width,
measured at right angles to the longitudinal centre line of the bridge, from
the extreme inside portion of the handrail to top of the face of the curb or
guard timber, except that if there is a truss, girder, or parapet wall adjacent
to the roadway curb, the width shall be measured to its extreme walk side
portion.

1.12- CLEARANCES

The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width, and the vertical
clearance the clear height, available for the passage of vehicular traffic
as shown on the clearance diagrams.

Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the structure shall be

constructed to secure the following limiting dimensions or clearances for
traffic.
The clearances and width of roadway for 2-lane traffic shall be not
less than those shown in Figure l. The roadway width shall be increased at
least 10 feet and preferably 12 feet for each additional lane of traffic.

1-13
1.13- CURBS AND SAFETY CURBS

The face of the roadway curb is defined as the battered or sloping

surface on the roadway side of the curb. Preferably vertical curbs shall not
be used. Horizontal measurements of roadway and curb width are given from the
bottom of the face, or, in the case of stepped back curb, from the bottom of
the lower face for roadway width.

The face of the roadway curb preferably shall be not less than 12
inches and in no instance less than 9 inches from chat, portion of the structure
above the elevation of the top of the curb and nearest the roadway. In cases
of bridges in which the clear roadway width is equal to or greater than the
shoulder width but not less than the approach, pavement width plus 12 fees,
curbs may be omitted, In urban areas* the curb height shall not be less than
7 inches above the adjacent finished surface of the roadway, and in rural areas
not less than 9 inches above the adjacent finished surface of the roadway.
That portion of a curb more than 10 inches above the roadway surface shall be
stepped back or sloped back so that no part of the vehicle except the tires
may come in contact with it. Curbs widened to provide for occasional
pedestrian traffic shall be designated "Safety curbs"* Safety curbs shall
be not less than 1 1~6n wide.

1.14« RAILINGS

Railing shall be provided at the edge of structures for the protection

of traffic, or for the protection of pedestrians, or both. Where pedestrian
footpaths are provided adjacent the roadways, a traffic railing may be provided
between the two with a pedestrian railing outside s or a combination traffic-
pedestrian railing may be provided outside.

Curbs shall be provided between roadways and pedestrian footpaths unless

a traffic barrier separates the two.

A, TRAFFIC RAILING

While the primary purpose of traffic railing is to contain the average

vehicle using the structure, consideration should also be given to protection
of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing, to protection, of
other vehicles near the collision, and to appearance and freedom of view of
passing vehicles.

Material for traffic railing shall be concrete, metal, timber or a

combination. Metal materials with less than 10 per cent tested elongation
shall not be used. Preference should be given to providing a smooth,
continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the posts set back from the
face of the rail. Structural continuity in the rail members, including
anchorage of free ends is essential. Where joints are required in the lengths
of railings, the construction shall be reinforced by reduced post spacing,
by splice material in the rails, by bolting or welding.

1-14
 The height of traffic railing shall be not less than 2 1~3n measured
from the top of the roadway , or curb, to the top of the upper rail member.

Careful attention should be given to the treatment of railing at the

bridge ends. Exposed rail ends and sharp changes in the geometry of the
roadway shall be avoided.

B. PEDESTRIAN RAILING

Railing components shall be proportioned commensurate with the type

and volume of anticipated pedestrians, taking account of appearance, safety
and freedom of view of passing vehicles,

Materials for pedestrian railing may be concrete, metal, timber,

or a combination. The minimum height of pedestrian railing shall be 3 1-0,f
(a preferred height is 3 1- 6 I!) measured from the top of the footpath to the
top of the upper rail members

1.15- ROADWAY DRAINAGE

The transverse drainage of roadways shall be secured by means of a

suitable crown in the roadway surface and longitudinal drainage by camber
or gradient. If necessary, longitudinal drainage shall be secured by means
of scuppers 9 inlets or other suitable means , which shall be of sufficient
size and number to drain the gutters adequately* If drainage fixtures and
downspouts are required, the downspouts shall be of rigid corrosion-resist-
ant material not less than 4 inches in least dimension, provided with
suitable clean-out fixtures * The details of floor drains shall be such as
to prevent the discharge of drainage water against any portion of the
structure. Over-hanging portions of concrete floors preferably shall be
provided with drip beads.

1.16- SUPERELEVATION

The supere 1evation of the floor surface of a. bridge on a horizontal

curve shall be provided in accordance with the geometric design criteria
for highways, except that the superelevation shall not exceed .08 foot per
foot width of roadway.

1.17- FLOOR SURFACES

All bridge floors shall have skid-resistant characteristics.

1.18- UTILITIES

Where required, provision shall be made for electric conduits,

telephone conduits, water pipes and gas pipes.

1-15

•I
1,19- ROADWAY WIDTH, CURBS AND CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS
(See Figure 2,)

(A) Roadway Width - The clear width between curbs shall be not less
than that specified for bridges,

(B) Clearance between Walls - The minimum width between walls of

two-lane tunnels shall be 30 feet*

■(C) Curbs - The width of curbs shall be not less than 13 inches. The
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges*

(B) Vertical Clearance - The vertical clearance, between curbs shall

be not less than 16 f- 6,f*

CLEARANCE DIAGRAM FOR TUNNEL

TWO L A N E HIGHWAY T R A F F IC

FIGURE 2

1-16
 C LE A R A N C E DIAGRAM FOR UNDERPASSES
. TWO LA N E HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

FIGURE 3

1.20- ROADWAY WIDTH, CURBS AND CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES

(UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS) (See Figure 3.)

(A) Widths - The clear width between walls or columns shall be

not less than 6 feet wider than the approach pavement, but in no
case shall the width be less than 30 feet,

(B) Vertical Clearance - A vertical clearance of not less than

16'-6" shall be provided between curbs, or.if curbs are not used,
over the entire width that is available for traffic.

(C) Curbs - Curbs shall not be less than 18 inches in width.

The height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.

1-17
1.21- ROADWAY WIDTH3 CURBS AND CLEARANCE FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS

(A) Roadway Width- The clear width between curbs shall preferably
be not less than that specified for bridges.

(B) Clearance Between Walls ~ The minimum width between walls for
depressed roadways carrying two lanes of traffic shall be 30 feet.

(C) Curbs- The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches.
The height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.

1-18
 SECTION 2 - LOADS

2.1- LOADS

Structures shall be proportioned for the following loads and forces

when they exist:

1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Impact or dynamic effect of the live load
4. Wind loads
5. Horizontal forces due to water currents
6. Longitudinal forces caused by the tractive effort of
vehicles or by braking of vehicles and/or those caused
by restraint to movements of free bearings.
7. Centrifugal forces
8. Buoyancy
9. Earth pressure
10. Thermal forces
11. Shrinkage stresses
12. Rib shortening
13. Secondary stresses
14. Erection stresses
15. Earthquake stresses.

Members shall be proportioned as specified under stresses, Section 5

and 7.

Upon the stress sheets a diagram or notation of the assumed live loads
shall be shown separately.

Where required by design conditions, concrete placing sequence shall

be indicated on the plans.

2.2 - DEAD LOAD

The dead load carried by a member shall consist of the portion of

the weight of superstructure (and the fixed loads carried thereon), which
is supported wholly or in part by the girder or member including its own
weight. The following unit weight of materials shall be used in
determining loads:

Material Lbs./Cu, Ft.

1. Ashlar or Coarse Rubble

Masonry 150
2. Brickwork 120
3. Cast Iron 450
4. Asphalt Concrete 140
5. Cement Concrete, plain 140

2-1
 Materials Lbs ./Cu.Ft.

6 . Cement Concrete,reinforced 150

7. Earth (Compacted) 110
8. Macadam (binder premix) 140
9. Rolled Steel 490
10. Sand (loose) 90
11. Sand (wet compressed) 120
12. Stone Metal 100
13. Water 62
14. Wood 50
15. Wrought iron 480

A. LOAD ON CULVERTS

Earth pressure or load on culverts will be computed as the weight of

earth directly above the slab.

B0 RIGID CULVERTS

For definite conditions of bedding and backfill, the principles of

soil mechanics may be applied 0 The following are recommended formulas for
these conditions:

(1 ) Culvert in trench or unyielding subgrade, or culvert

untrenched on yielding foundation.

P = WH

(2) Culvert, untrenched on unyielding foundation (such as rock

or piles)

P = W (1.92 H - 0.87B) for H > 1.7 B;

k
P = 2,59 BW (e - l) for H < 1 . 7 B

Where K = 0-385 H
B

Where P = the unit pressure in pounds per square foot due to

earth backfill

B = width in feet of trench, or in case there is no

trench, the over-all width of the culvert

H = depth in feet of fill over culvert

W = effective weight per cubic foot of fill material

E = 2.7182818 = base of natural logarithms,abstract
numb er

2-2
C. SHEAR IN SLABS

The maximum shear in the top and bottom slabs shall be assumed
to occur at a distance out from the face of the wall or abutment equal to
the thickness of the slab, When haunches are provided at the corners of
the cells, their effect shall be excluded from the design.

D« NEGATIVE MOMENTS IN SLAB AND WALLS

The maximum negative moments shall be taken at the face of the

wall for the top and bottom slabs and at the underside of the top slab and
top of the bottom slab for the walls or abutment, Bond shall be computed
at the same section as for moments.

2.3- LIVE LOAD

The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied moving
load of vehicles, cars and pedestrians,

2.4- HIGHWAY LOADINGS

Ac. General

The highway live loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental

structures shall consist of a standard truck - train. Two systems of
loading are provided for Class nA n loading and Class t1B 1! loading.

B, Class ?tA1f Loading,

The class tfA 1! loading is illustrated in figure 4, It consists of

a four-axle truck with, two two-axle trailers,

C. . Class 1!B,! Loading

The Class HB 1! loading shall be identical to Class !,A I! loading except

for the axle loads which shall be 60% of Class A Loading,

2.5- STANDARD TRUCK - TRAIN LOADING

The wheel spacing, weight distribution, and clearance of the

standard loading shall be as shown in Figures 4 with the following conditions

(1) Within curb to curb width of the roadway, the standard

vehicle or train shall be assumed to travel parallel to the length
of the bridge, and to occupy any position, which will produce maximum
stresses, provided that the minimum clearances between a vehicle and
the roadway face of a curb arid between two passing or crossing
vehicles, as shown in figure 4, are not encroached upon.

(2) For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit

2-3
H
U
O j£) QJ i£2 c o ^
oo ~
Is
o <
9^
i 4
* 20 O CD CD CO <D SO
o
sc
O
c5
o o o O O O
o o o o . o o CVI
- J **
.£2 o o o q o «3
yj
yd so 20 tD
IM ““
5C 5 ) rd"
00 m
5 <
a
2
5
<
o
-J
Si.
o
ffl
f/3
CO
<
—!
o
K
■*»'«*• JL/
I'' ' flQ LOADING CLASS T FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES
o ©
y- «
u. . »
<r :
< -*o
o
«£ ©ra U
P ° cr
H > 3
ki “« O
2i °
U a
2 f
E ^
K |
X o
2-4
 of vehicles shall be considered as acting simultaneously in a
position causing maximum stresses.

(3) Vehicles in adjacent lanes shall be taken as headed in the

direction producing maximum stresses.

(4) The spaces on the carriage way left uncovered by the standard
train or vehicles shall be assumed as not subject to any additional
live load.

2.6- APPLICATION OF LOADINGS

A, Truck-Train Units

In computing stresses, each single standard truck-train shall be

considered as a unit, and fractional widths or fractional trucks shall not
be used.

B, Number and Position, Truck-Train Loadings

The number of the truck train loadings and position as specified in

Art. 2.5 shall be such as to produce maximum stress, subject to the reduct
ion specified in Article 2.7.

C, Continuous Spans

On continuous spans one or both trailers shall be removed if worst

conditions are produced by doing so.

2.7- REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY

Where, maximum stresses are produced in any member by more than one
simultaneous truck-train load, the following percentages of the resultant
liveload stresses shall be used in view of improbable coincident maximum
loading:

Per cent

One or two truck train Loadings 100

Three Truck' train loadings 90--"
Four or more 75

The reduction in intensity of floor beam loads shall be determined

as in the case of main trusses or girders, using the number of truck train
loadings which must be used to produce maximum stresses in the floor beam.

2-5
2.8- SIDEWALK, CURB ~ SAFETY CURB AND RAILING LOADING

A. Sidewalk Loading

Sidewalk floors, stringers, and their immediate supports, shall be

designed for a live load of 85 pounds per square foot of sidewalk area.
Girders, trusses, arches and other members shall be designed for the following
sidewalk live loads per square foot of sidewalk area:

Spans 0 to 25 ft. in length .» .. 85 lbs.

Spans 26 to 100 ft. in length .. .. 60 lbs.
Spans over 100 ft, in length according to the formula

P on +
30 4- _3 0_0 0 \| fi .... .. \1 .
m i . i
which
L / \ 50 /
P live load per square foot (maximum, 60 lbs. per sq.ft)
L loaded length of a sidewalk in feet
W width of sidewalk in feet

In calculating stresses in structures which support cantilevered

sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be considered as fully loaded on only one side
of the structure if this condition produces maximum stress.

B. Curb Loading
Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less than
500 pounds per linear foot of curb, applied at the top of the curb, or at
an elevation 10 inches above the floor if the curb is higher than 10 inches.
Where sidewalk, curb and traffic rail form an integral system, the traffic
railing loading shall apply and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.

C. Safety Curb Loading

Safety curbs, or wide" curbs provided for occasional use of pedest­
rians , shall be designed for loads specified in paragraph (A) if the curb
is more than 2 feet in width. If 2 feet or less in width, no live load
shall be applied.
D. Railing Loading
(1) Roadway Railings

Top members of roadway railings shall be designed to resist

a lateral horizontal force of 150 pounds per linear foot together
with a simultaneous vertical force of 100 pounds per linear foot
applied at the top of the railing. When curbs are not less than 9
inches in height, lower rails shall be designed to resist a lateral
horizontal force of 300 pounds per linear foot. When curbs are less
than 9 inches in height, this force shall be increased 40 pounds per
linear foot for each inch the curb is less than 9 inches in height
except that the added increment of horizontal force to be applied

2-6
 to the lower railing shall not exceed 200 pounds. If there is no
lower rail 3 the web members shall be designed to resist a horizontal
force of 300 pounds per linear foot applied not less than 21 inches
above the roadway. For each inch of height of curb above 10 inches
this lateral horizontal force may be reduced 15 pounds per linear
foot, but this force shall not. be less than 150 pounds per linear
foot. The horizontal forces shall be applied simultaneously. Railings
without webs and with single rails shall be designed for the forces
specified above for lower rails.

(2) Sidewalk Railings

Sidewalk railings shall be designed to resist the same forces

as those specified for roadway railings , subject to the same restrict­
ions concerning curb heights. Where through trusses, girders, or
arches separate the sidewalk and roadway or where side-walks are
protected by curb railings, the sidewalk railings shall be designed
only for the forces specified for the top rail,

2.9~ IMPACT

Live load stresses produced by the standard Truck'*Train loading shall

be increased for items in Group A by allowance as stated therein, for dynamic;i
vibratory and impact effects. Impact shall not be applied to items in Group
B.

(A) Group A

(1 ) Superstructure, including steel or concrete supporting

columns, steel towers, legs of rigid frames and generally those
portions of the structure which extend down to the main foundation.

(2) The portion above the ground line of concrete or steel

piles which are rigidly connected to the superstructure as in
rigid frame or continuous designs.

(B) Group B

(1 ) Abutments, retaining walls, piers, piles, except Group A(2)

(2) Foundation pressures andfootings
(3) Timber structure
(4) Sidewalk loads
(5) Culverts and structures having cover of 3 feet or more

(C) Impact Formula

The amount of this allowance or increment is expressed as a fraction
of live load stress, and shall be determined by the formula:I

I = ..— . in which
L + 20

2-7
 1 = impact fraction (maximum 30 per cent)
L = length of span in feet

For uniformity of application the span length ftL,f shall be especially

considered as follows:

For roadway floors, use the design span length.

For transverse members, such as floor beams 3 use the span length
of member centre to centre of supports,
For computing truck load moments use the span length, except for
cantilever arms use the length from moment centre to the farthermost
axle *
For continuous spans use the length of span under consideration for
positive moment, and use the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment.
For bridges having cantilever arms with suspended spans, use the span
of the cantilever arm plus half the length of the suspended span when
designing the cantilever and the span length of the suspended span
designing the latter.
For shear due to truck loads use the length of the loaded portion
of span from the point under consideration to the far reaction,

For culverts with cover O' to l 1 - 0!! i n c c. 1=30%

ft 11 it If 1 1 - 1 **
to 2 ! - 0 f! inc * 1 = 20%
n !t !f If 21 « l f? to 2 * “ lln inc, 1 = 10%

2.10- LONGITUDINAL FORCES ]

Provision shall be made for longitudinal forces arising from any one
or more of the following causes::

(a) Tractive effort caused through acceleration of the driving

wheels or braking effort from the application of the brakes to the
braking wheels.

This force shall be equal to 30% of the weight,’of the

vehicle or any portion of the vehicle on the loaded span, the truck
loads in one lane only being considered. For military loading this
force shall be equal to 15% of the weight of the military vehicle,
The centre of gravity of this longitudinal force shall be assumed to
be located 6 feet above the profile grade of the roadway slab,
» The change in the vertical reaction due to the transfer of the i
: longitudinal force to the bearings 3 shall be accounted for, /

(b) Frictional resistance offered to the movement of expansion

bearings due to change of temperature or any other cause.

This force shall be equal to the dead load reaction multiplied

by the coefficient of friction as shown below for the various

2-8
 types of bearing:

For roller bearings 0*03

For sliding bearings of hard copper alloy 0.15
For sliding bearings of steel on cast iron or
steel on steel 0.25
For sliding bearings of steel or ferro asbestos 0.20
For sliding bearings of concrete on elastomeric
bearing pads 0.20

2.11- WIND LOADS

The following wind load forces per square foot of exposed area shall
be applied to all structures ( see Article ^-5.1 for percentage of basic unit
stress to be used under various combinations of loads and forces). The
exposed area considered shall be the sum of the areas of all members~ includ­
ing floor system and railing* as seen in elevation at 90 degrees to the
longitudinal axis of the structure. The forces and loads given herein are
for a wind velocity of 100 miles per hour. For Group II loading* but not
for Group III loading* they may be reduced or increased in the ratio of the
square of the design wind velocity to the square of 100 * provided the maxi­
mum probable wind velocity can be ascertained with a reasonable accuracy,or
there are permanent features of the terrain which make such changes safe and
advisable. If change in the design wind velocity is made, the design
wind velocity shall be shown on the plans.

(A) Superstructure Design

A moving uniformly distributed wind load of the following intensity

shall he applied horizontally at right angles to the>longitudinal axis of
the structure in the design of the superstructure:

For trusses and arches -•----- — ~~--- 75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams ---------- ---- 50 pounds per square foot

The total force shall not be less than 300 pounds per linear foot in
the plane of the loaded chord and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of
the unloaded chord on truss spans and not less than 300 pounds per linear
foot on girder spans.

The above forces shall be used for Group II loading. For Group III
loading there shall be added thereto a load of 100 pounds per linear foot
applied at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure and 6 feet
above the deck as a wind load on a moving live load. When a reinforced
concrete floor slab or a steel grid deck is keyed to or attached to its
supporting members, it may be assumed that the deck resists within its
plane, the shear resulting from the wind load on the moving live load.

2-9
(B) Substructure Design

Forces transmitted to the substructure by the superstructure and

forces applied directly to the substructure by wind loads shall be assumed to
be as follows:

(1) Forces from Superstructure

The transverse and longitudinal forces transmitted by the

superstructure to the substructure for varying angles of wind direct
- ion shall be as set forth in the following table. The skew angle
is measured from the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis , The
assumed wind direction shall be that which produces the maximum
stress in the substructure being designed 0 The transverse and
longitudinal forces shall be applied simultaneously at the elevation
of the centre of gravity of the exposed area of the superstructure*

Trusses Girders

Skew Angle Lateral Load Longitudinal Lateral Load Longitudinal

of Wind per Sqt Ft, Load per sq. per Sq, Ft. Load per sq.
(Degrees) of Area Ft, of Area of Area Ft, of Area
(Pounds ) (Pounds) (Pounds) (Pounds)

0 75 0 50 0
15 70 12 44 6
30 65 28 41 12
45 47 41 33 16
60 25 50 17 19

The loads listed above shall be used in Group II loading as given in

Article 5 *1

For Group III loadings these loads may be reduced 70 per cent
and there shall be added thereto, as a wind load on a moving live
load 3 a load per linear foot as given in the following table:
i
Skew Angle Lateral Load Longitudinal
of Wind per Lin, Ft, Load per Lin.Ft,
(Degrees) ( Pounds ) ( Pounds )

0 100 0
15 88 12
30 82 24
45 66 32
60 34 38

This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the deck,,

For the usual girder and slab bridges having maximum span

2-10
 lengths of 125 feet, the following wind loading may be used in lieu
of the more precise loading specified above.

W ( wind load on structure)

50 pounds per square foot, transverse;
12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal.
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

WL(wind load on live load)

100 pounds per linear foot, transverse;
40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal.
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

(2) Forces applied directly to the substructure

/
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly
to the substructure for a 100 mile~per~hour wind shall be calculated
from an assumed wind force of 40 pounds per square foot. For wind
direction assumed skewed to the substructure this force shall be
resolved into components perpendicular to the end and front
elevations of the substructure according to the functions of the skew
angle. The component perpendicular to the end elevation shall act on
the exposed substructure area as seen in end elevation and the
component perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on the
exposed substructure area as seen in front elevation. These loads
shall he assumed to act on horizontal lines at the centres of gravity
of the exposed areas and shall be. applied simultaneously with the wind
loads from the superstructure. The above loads are for Group 11
loading and may be reduced 70 per cent for Group 111 Loading.

(O) Overturning Forces

The effect of forces tending to overturn structures shall be calculated

under Group II and Group III of Article 5.1. An upward force shall be applied
at: the windward quarter point of the transverse superstructure width.This force
shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk plan area for Group
II combination, and 6 pounds per square foot for Group III combination.
The wind direction shall be assumed to be at right angles to the longitudinal
axis of the structure.

2.12- THERMAL FORCES

Provision shall be made for stresses or movements resulting from

variations in temperature. The rise and fall in temperature shall be
fixed for the locality in which the structure is to be constructed and shall
be figured from an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due
consideration shall be given to the lag between air temperature and the
interior temperature of massive concrete members or structures.

2-11
 The range of temperature shall generally be as follow :

Metal Structures

Moderate climate from 0°to 120°F

Extreme climate from minimum«30° F to 120° F

Concrete Structure Temperature Rise Temperature Fall

Moderate Climate 30° F 30°F
Extreme climate -45 °F "•'-45o p

2.13- UPLIFT

Provision shall be made for adequate attachment of the superstructure

to the substructure should any loading or combination of loading, increased
by 100% of the live load plus impact, produce uplift at any support.

2.14- FORCE OF STREAM CURRENT

(A) All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the
force of flowing water shall be designed to resist the maximum stress
induced thereby.

The effect of stream flow on piers shall be calculated by the formula:

2
p = KV , where

p = Pressure in pounds per square foot

¥ = velocity of water in feet per second
K = a constant having the following values for different
of piers

Square end piers 1.50

Circular piers or piers with semi-circular ends 0,66
Piers with triangular ends where the angle is
30 degrees or less 0,50
Piers with triangular ends where the angle is
more than 30 degrees but less than 60 degrees 0.50 0.70
Piers with triangular ends where the angle is
more than 60 degrees but less than 90 degrees 0.70 0.90
Piers ends of equilateral arcs of circles 0.45
Pier ends of arcs intersecting at 90 degrees 0.50
2 2
(B) The value of V in the equation P = KV shall be assumed to vary
linearly from zero at the point of deepest scour to the square of the maximum
velocity at H,FCL. The maximum velocity shall be assumed to be equal to 1.4
times the maximum mean velocity of the current.

(C) The intensity of pressure P, shall be applied to all portions of

2-12
the pier extending above the point of deepest scour. This will include
piles when a pile foundation is used.

(D) When the current strikes the pier at an angle, the velocity of the
current shall be resolved into two components, one parallel, and the other
normal to the pier. The value of the coefficient K to be applied to the
component parallel to the pier shall be as per paragraph A of this article.
The value of R to be applied to the component normal to the pier shall be
1 ,5 except for circular piers in which case the value will be 0 .66 .

(E) When piers are designed parallel to flow an allowance of a 20 degree

oblique flow shall be included in the design.

2.15- BUOYANCY

Buoyancy shall be considered as it effects the design of either the

sub-structure, including piling, or of the superstructure.

No provision need be made for buoyancy if the bridge is founded on

homogeneous, impermeable strata. For bridges founded on coarse sand or
shingle, full buoyancy shall be allowed. For other foundation conditions,
including foundations on rock, the calculated effect of buoyancy may be taken
as a fraction of the full buoyancy, at the discretion of the engineer
responsible for the design.

2.16- EARTH PRESSURE

Structures which retain fills shall be proportioned to withstand

pressure as given by Rankin1s formula; provided, however, that no structure
shall be designed for less than an equivalent fluid pressure of 30 pounds
per cubic foot,

For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the moment caused by

earth pressure (lateral) may be used to reduce, the positive moment in the
beams, in the top slab, or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be.

When highway traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the
top of the structure equal to one half its height, the pressure shall have
added to it a live load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of
earth.

Where an adequately designed reinforced concrete approach slab support­

ed at one end by the bridge is provided, no live load surcharge need be
considered.

All designs shall provide for the thorough drainage of the back­
filling material by means of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains,
gravel drains, or perforated drains.

2-13
 2.17- EARTHQUAKE STRESSES

In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, provision shall be

made to accommodate lateral forces from earthquakes as follow:

EQ = CD

where

EQ = Lateral force applied horizontally in any direction at centre

of gravity of the weight of the structure.

D = Dead load of structure

C = 0.02 for structures founded on spread footings on material

rated as 4 tons or more per square foot.

= 0.04 for structures founded on spread footings on material

rated as less than 4 tons per square foot.
,r;v
= 0.06 for structures founded on piles. .

,» ,7 ' Live load may be neglected. ,

2.18- CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

Structures on curves shall be designed for a horizontal radial force

equal to the following percentage of the live load, without impact, in all
traffic lanes:
2 6.68 S2
C = 0.00117 S D = -- ----
R
where
C = the centrifugal force in percent of the live load, without impact
S = the design speed, in miles per hour
D = the degree of curve
R - the radius of the curve, in feet

The centrifugal force shall be applied 6 feet above the roadway

surface, measured along the centre line of the roadway. The design speed
shall be determined with regard to the amount of superelevation provided in
the roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance with the
provision of Article 2.5 and 2.6

When reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid deck is keyed

to or attached to its supporting members, it may be assumed that the deck
resists, within its plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces
acting on the live load. The effects of superelevation shall be taken into
account.

2=14
 Section 3 - DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

3.1- DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS

AND FLOOR BEAMS

(A) Position of Loads for Shear

In calculating end shears .and end reactions in transverse floor beams

and longitudinal beams and stringers 5 no lateral or longitudinal distribution
of the wheel load shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the
end at which the stress Is being determined. For loads in other positions on
the span, the distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
prescribed for moment.

(B) Bending Moment in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams

In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams or stringers no

longitudinal distribution of the wheel load shall be assumed. The lateral
distribution shall be determined as follows:

(1 ) Stringers and Beams

The live load bending moment for each stringer shall be

determined by applying to the stringer the fraction of a wheel load
(both front and rear) determined by the following table:

Kind of Bridge Designed for Bridge designed for two

Floor one traffic lane or more traffic lanes

Concrete:
On steel I-beam
Stringers (a) S / 7 .0 S/5.5.
If S exceeds 101 If S exceeds 14*
see note (b) see note (b)
On concrete
Stringers (c) S/5.5 S/5.5
If S exceeds 6* If S exceeds 141
see note (b) see note (b)
Concrete box S / 8 .0 S/7.0
girder (d) If S exceeds 12 1 If S exceeds 16 1
see note (b) see note (b)

The dead load considered as supported by the outside roadway

stringer or beam shall be that portion of the floor slab carried
by the stringer or beam. Curbs, railing and wearing surface, If
placed after the slab has cured, may be considered equally distributed
to all roadway stringers or beams.

3-1
 Notes:

S average stringer spacing in feet

(a) Design of I-Beam Bridge by N. M. Newmark-Proceedings 9

ASCE, March 1948,

(b) In this case the load on each stringer shall be the

reaction of the wheel loads, assuming the flooring
between the stringers to act as a simple beam.

(c) Design of Slab and Stringer Highway Bridges by N.M.

Newmark and C sP. Sless-Publie Roads, January-February-
March 1953.

(d) The sidewalk live load (see 2.11) shall be omitted for
interior and exterior box girders designed in accordance
with the wheel load distribution indicated herein.

(2) Total capacity of Stringers

The combined design load capacity of all the beams in a span

shall not be less than required to support the. total live and dead
load in the span,

3.2- DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLABS

(A) Span Lengths ( See also Article 6.2 )

For simple spans the span length shall be the distance centre to centre
of supports but not to exceed clear span plus thickness of slab.

The following effective span lengths shall be used in calculating

distribution of loads and bending moments for slab continuous over more than
two supports;

Slabs monolithic with beams or walls (without haunches)

x S = Clear Span

Slabs supported on steel stringers

S = distance between edges of flanges plus \ of the

stringer flange width

(B) Edge Distance of Wheel Load

In designing slabs the centre line of wheel load shall be assumed to be

1 foot from the face of the curb.

3-2
(C) Bending Moment

Bending moment per foot wid Kb oi slab shall be calculated according to

methods given under Cases A and B .

In cases A and B:

S = Effective span length, in feet, as defined under 1!Spao.

Lengths” (Art, 3 ,2 (A) and 6,2)

E = Width of slab in feet over which the load is distributed

P = Load on one wheel of truck

12,500 pounds for Class A loading
7,500 pounds for Class B loading

Case - A Main Reinforcement perpendicular to traffic

The live load moment per foot width of slab for a simple
span shall be determined by the following formula
(Impact not included)

M = (S+2) P/25

In slabs continuous over three or more supports a

continuity factor of 0,8 shall be applied to the above formulas
for both positive and negative moment.

Case ~ B Main Reinforcement Parallel to traffic

For distribution of wheel loads

E = 2+0.6S , Emax = 7.0* x K

For roadway widths ^ 28f

K - 1

For roadway widths 281

Roadway width
K
14 x Number of Truck Train Load
-ings
Truck train moments for continuous spans and simple spans, except as
noted, shall be determined by suitable analysis and distributed over a
width of 2E , The lateral distribution of wheel loads for multi-beam precast
concrete bridges shall not exceed that specified for slabs.
The live load-moment per foot width of slab for simple spans shall
be determined by the following formulas.

3-3
 (Impact not included)

For simple spans upto 3 5 ’

Use M = 0.9S x K :•t Kips)

For simple spans 3 5 ! to 701

Use M = (1.35 S - 16) x K (Foot Kips;)

(D) Edge Beams ( Longitudinal)

Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs having main reinforcement
parallel to traffic. The beam may consist of a slab section additionally
reinforced 5 a beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral
reinforced section of slab and curb.

It shall be designed to resist a live load moment of

0.5 x simple span truck train Moment

Value for continuous spans may be reduced 20 per cent unless a greater
reduction results from a more exact analysis.

(E) Distribution Reinforcement

Reinforcement shall be placed in the bottoms of all slabs transverse to

the main steel reinforcement, to provide for the lateral distribution of the
concentrated live loads, except: that this specification will not apply on
culverts or bridge slabs when the depth of fill over the slab exceeds two
feet. The amount shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel
required for positive moment as given by the following formula:

For main reinforcement parallel to traffic:

100
Percentage = Maximum 50%

For main re inf or cement: perpendicular to traffic:

22.0
Percentage = “ rnrr: Maximum 67 %
i s

where S = the effective span length, in feet

For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic the specified amount of

distribution reinforcement shall be use-:! in the middle half of the span but this
may be reduced by 50% in the end quarters of the span.
Longitudinal reinforcement in the top of slab having the main
reinforcement perpendicular to traffic shall not be less than 0.20 square
' inch per foot of width.

3-4
(F) Shear and Bond stress in Slabs

Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance with the foregoing

shall be considered satisfactory in bond and shear,

(G) Unsupported Edges, Transverse

The design assumptions of this article do not provide for the

effect of load near unsupported edges. Therefore, at the endsof the
bridge and at intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is
broken, the edges shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable means.
The diaphragms shall be designed to resist the full moment and shear
produced by the wheel loads which can come on them.

(H) Cantilever Slabs

Under the following formulas for distribution of loads on cantilever

slabs, the slab is designed to support the load independent of edge support
along the end of the cantilever.

Case A . Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic

Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic shall be

distributed according to the following formula:

E = 0.6 X + 2.5
PX
Moment per foot of slab = -—
E
in which X =■■ distance in feet from load to point of
support

Case B. Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

The distribution for each wheel load on the element parallel to

traffic shall be as follows:

E = 1.2 X + 1.6 , E = 7.0 x K

max
For roadway widths ^ 2 8 1 K= 1

For roadway widths < 2 8 1 Roadway width

K= ----------- ----------- ------- --------------
14x Number Truck Train Loadin

In calculating the moments one axle load of 36000 lbs. may be

substituted for the two 25000 lbs tandem axles of the standard truck
train if this produces a greater stress.

3-5
(I) Slab Supported on Four Sides

In the case of slabs supported along four edges and reinforced in both
directions the proportion of the load carried by the short span of the slab
shall be assumed as given by the following equations:

in
For load uniformly distributed, p =
a4 + b4

For load concentrated at centre,p

a? + b3

Where p = proportion of load carried by short span

a = length of short span of slab
b = length of long span of slab

Where the length of the slab exceeds 1\ times its width, the entire
load shall be assumed to be carried by the transverse reinforcement.

The distribution width3 E, for the load taken by either span shall
be determined as provided for other slabs. Moments obtained shall be used
in designing the centre half of the short and long slabs. The reinforcement
steel in the outer quarter of both short and long spans may be reduced 50
per cent., In the design of the supporting beams, consideration shall be
given to the fact that the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not
uniformly distributed along the beams.

3,3- DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH EARTH FILLS

When the depth of fill is 2 feet: or more, concentrated loads shall be

considered as uniformly distributed over a square., the sides o.f which are
equal to l~3./4 times the depth of fill.

The shear produced by such loads shall be calculated as provided for

dead loads.

When such areas from several concentrations overlap, the total load shall
be considered as uniformly distributed over the area defined by the outside
limits of the individual areas, but the total width of distribution shall not
exceed the total width of the supporting slab. For single span the effect of
live load may be neglected when the depth of fill is more than 8 feet and
exceeds the span length; for multiple spans it may be neglected when the depth
of fill exceeds the distance between faces of end supports or abutments. When
the depth of fill is less' than 2 feet the wheel load shall be distributed as
in slabs with concentrated loads. When the calculated live, load and impact
moment in concrete slabs based on distribution of the wheel load through filIs­
as herein outlined exceeds the live load and impact moment: calculated according
to Article 3.2 then the latter moment shall be used.

3-6
 Section 4- MILITARY LOADING

4.1- LOADING

The military loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental

structures shall consist of 70 long ton tracked vehicle as shown in Figure
5 subject to the restriction that the nose to tail distance between two
successive vehicles is not less than 300 feet. No other live load shall
cover any part of the roadway of the bridge when this vehicle is crossing
the bridge. Only one such train shall occupy the roadway of the bridge.

70 TON MILITARY LOADING

FIGURE 5

4-1
4.2- HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE

The minimum clearance between the roadway face of curb and the
outer edge of the track shall be assumed as follows:

Width of roadway 1 1 1- 6 1, to 13 1 1 r~ 0 n
13'- 6 U to 18,-0,- ~ — — — 2 1«QIf
18 '-O11 „ — 4 - G fS

4.3- DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD TO LONGITUDINAL STRINGERS

Unless a more exact analysis is made the 70 I Military Load shall

be distributed to the stringers as indicated below:

Steel or Concrete Stringers Simple beam reaction

4.4- IMPACT

Live load stresses shall he increased for items in Group A 3 referred

to in Article 2 U9 by an allowance, as stated 'herein.* for dynamic vibratory
and impact effects.

Impact shall not be applied to items in group B referred to in

article 2 *9 *

A, Impact Formula

1* Concrete Structures

Spans less than 30 feet * * * , . . * «, * » , * „ 25%

Spans 30“150 feet * 10%
Spans greater than 150 feet* . , * a . . a 0* •* 8* 8%

2, Steel Structures

Spans less than 30 feet * • , * * « „ * «* 25%

All spans greater than 30 ft * * * . * , . . „* 10%

4,5“ DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLABS

(A) Span lengths See Art* 3,2

(B) Edge distance of track

In designing slabs the center line of track shall be assumed

to be minimum 1 *~ 6n from the face of curb.

4-2
(C) Bending Moment

Bending moment per foot of widen of slab shall be calculated

according to methods given under Cases A and B,

In cases A and Bs

S = Effective span length in feet, as defined under

l?Span Length (A,rticle 3 a2

E = Width o f slab in feet over which a track is distributed

P = Load on one track - 78*4 Kips (35 Long tons)

Case A. * Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic

Moment for simple spans = 1,1 S - CL5

For spans continuous over three or more supports use CL.8 x simple
span moment f o r both positive and negative moment,

Case B Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

For simple spans greater than 12 feet

M = P (S ~ 6)/4E

For simple spans less than 12 feet

M = PS2/96E

F o r m om en ts i n c o n t i n u o u s s p a n s a s u i t a b l e a n a l y s i s s h a l l b e u s e d ,
The w i d t h o f d i s t r i b u t i o n , E, s h a l l be com puted a s f o l l o w s :

. 45S + 4 .0

4-3
 Section 5 - UNIT STRESSES

5.1 GENERAL

Unless otherwise noted the allowable unit stresses indicated herein

are given in pounds per square inch.

The following groups represent various combinations of loads and forces

to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of such structure or the
foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned for all combinations of
such of these forces as are applicable to the particular site or type, and
at the percentage of the basic unit stress indicated for the various groups
except that no increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for
members or connections carrying wind loads only. See article 2.1 to 2.18
for T o ads and forces.

The maximum section required shall be used.

Percentage of Unit
Stress

Group I = D+L+I+E+B+SF , 100%

Group II = D+E+E+SF+W 125%
Group III = Group I+J^FiF+CF+,30% ^+WL/ - 125%
Group IV = Group I+R+S+T 125%
Group V = Group II+R+S+T 140%
Group VI = Group III+R+S+T 140%
Group VII = D+E+B+SFI|EQJ 133%
Group VIII = Group I+TCE 140%
Group IX = Group II+ICE 150%
= Dead Load
lL - Live Load
/I = Live Load Impact f ft '4 (T
\E = Earth Pressure
iB = Buoyancy
w = Wind Load on Structure
WL = Wind Load on Live Load-100 pounds
per linear foot
LF... = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
CF = Centrifugal Force
F .... -= TiOilgitudinal Force due to friction
R = Rib Shortening
S = Shrinkage
T = Temperature
EQ = Earthquake
,SF = Stream Flow Pressure
ICE = Ice pressure

5-1
5<
,2- CONCRETE STRESSES (i)

(A) Standard Notations and Assumptions

fc = Permissible Extreme fiber stress in compression

£ 1c = Unit ultimate compressive strength of concrete as determined

by 6 inch cube tests at 28 days.

(f?c) = Unit ultimate compressive strength of concrete as determined

by 6 ff cylinder test at 28 days.

n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.

The-value of n, as a function of the ultimate strength of
concrete 3 shall be assumed as follows:

Cube Cylinder

= 2600 - 3 10 0 ( f !e) = 2000 - 2400 n=15

= 3200 - 3 700 2500 - 2900 n = 12
= 3800 - 5000 3000 - 3900 n= 10
5100 - 5900 400 0 - 4900 n= 8
= 6000 - o r m ore 5000 - o r m ore n= 6

For computations of deflections the value of n=8 shall be used.

Coefficients:

Therm al .000006 per ®F

Shrinkage „0002

(E) Allowable Stresses

Cube Cylinder
(1 ) Flexure Strength Strength
Extreme fiber in compression. £c= 0.33 f 1c 0 , 4 0 ( £ ?c)
Extreme fiber in tension,
plain concrete, primarily in
footings-------------------- £c = 0.025 f ?c 0„03(£¥c)
Extreme fiber in t e n s i o n ,
reinforced c o n c r e t e - - - - - - - - - None None
(i) The ratios and values i n this section apply to concrete made with convent
-ional hard rock aggregate, values applicable to light weight aggregate
concrete should be established by adequate investigation.

(ii) In no case shall the allowable stresses be based on an ultimate cube

•strength greater than 5800 psi or ultimate cylinder strength greater than
4500 psi except for prestressed concrete.

5-2
( 2) Shear
Cube Cylinder
Strength Strength
Beams without web reinforcement
Longitudinal bars not anchored
or plain concrete footings--- 0.016 f'c 0 .02 (f'c )
Max 75 psi

Longitudinal bars anchored 0.024 f ’c 0.03 (f'c)

Max 90 psi
Beams with web reinforcement V=0.060 f'c bjd 0.075(f'c)bjd

Horizontal shear in shear keys 0.12 f'c 0.15(f'c)

between slab and stem of T
beams and box girders

(3) Bond 3 Deformed bars:

With deformation complying with
specifications ASTM A 305
Straight or hooked ends ^exclus-
ive of top bars

(a) In beams 3 slabs, one way

footings, 0,08 f !c 0 .1 0 (f!c)

(b) In two way footings 80%

of one way footings
lop bars® Bars near fop of beams
and girders having more than 12
inches of concrete under the bars 0 o05 f*c 0,06 (f 1c}

For plain bars the values listed, for deformed bars shall be decreas­
ed by 50%

5,3- REINFORCEMENT
Mild Steel conforming to B „S , 785 or ASTM A15 Specifications
Steel Reinforcement:
Tension in flexural members«~-~-----~-18,0G0
Tension in web members----5------'----— *18,000
Compression in colunms-- — ----------- -13,200
Compr.ession in beams See Article 6.6

5.4- STEEL STRESSES

Steel stresses shall conform to the British Design Standard 153

Part 3 B a Stresses 3 of the British Standard Institution 1958 Edition.

5-3
 SECTION 6 - CONCRETE DESIGN

6.1- GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS

The design of reinforced concrete members under these specifications

shall be based on the following assumptions:

(1 ) Calculations are made with reference to unit working stresses

and safe loads, as elsewhere specified herein, rather than with reference to
ultimate strength and ultimate loads,

(2) A plane section before bending remains plane after bending,

(3) The modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression is

constant within the limits of working stresses; the distribution of compress­
ive stress in flexure is, therefore, rectilinear.

(4) The ratio lfn,f shall be assumed as follows:

Es
Value of n = ,
Ec

Ultimate strength For compu- For comput-

of concrete, Lbs. per sq.in. tations of tation of
6" cube 6,! cylinder strength deflection
strength strength

2600 - 3100 2000 - 2400 15

3200 - 3700 2500 - 2900 12
3800 - 5000 3000 - 3900 10 8
5100 - 5900 4000 - 4900 8
6000 or more 5000 or more 6

In computing the ultimate deflection of slabs and beams, the value

of the modulus of elasticity should be assumed as one-thirtieth that of steel
in order to allow for the effect of plastic flow and shrinkage.

(5) Concrete shall be assumed as offering no tensile resist­

ance .
(6) The bond, between concrete and metal reinforcement is
assumed to remain unbroken throughout the range of working stresses. Under
compression the two materials are therefore stressed in proporation to
their moduli of elasticity.

(7) Initial stress in the reinforcement due to contraction

or expansion of the concrete, is neglected, except in the design of
reinforced concrete columns.

6-1
 (8 ) For the determination of external reactions, moments, shears,
and deflections, moments of inertia of rigid frame and continuous structures
shall be computed for the gross concrete sections, neglecting the effect of
steel reinforcement, except that the transformed area of the steel shall be
included for columns, arches or other compressive members,

(9) The moment of inertia of the entire superstructure sections,

except railings or any curbs or sidewalks not placed mono 1 ithica 1 ly with the
superstructure before the falsework is released, and the moment of inertia
of the full cross section of the pier or bent shall be used to determine the
elastic properties of the various spans’and supports.

(10) The depth of girder or slab to be used in computing moment of

inertia at the centerline of the support shall be obtained by extending the
slope of the intrados of the member to the centerline.

(11) Rigid frames shall be considered free to sway longitudinally

due to the application of vertical dead loads and vertically applied live
loads except when the structure is restrained from movement by external
forces.
(12) The assumption of no moment restraint at the base of column
shall be used in the analysis of rigid frames (superstructures) unless the
base is known to be fully fixed. When a pinned end condition is assumed for
the analysis of the superstructure, the base of column, footing and piling
shall be designed to resist the moment resulting from an assumed restraint
varying from zero to full fixity. The degree of restraint shall be
determined by the type of footing and the character of the foundation
material.
(13) Piers or bents constructed integrally with footings placed on
a skew exceeding 10 ° shall be considered fixed at the top of footing.

6 .2“ SPAN LENGTHS

The effective span lengths of slabs shall be as specified in

Article 3.2.

The effective span length of freely supported beams shall not exceed
the clear span plus the depth of beam.
For the analysis of all rigid frames, the span lengths shall be taken
as the distance between the centres of bearings at the top of the footings.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and beams
shall be the clear distance between faces of support.

8.3- EXPANSION

In general, provision for temperature changes shall be made in all

simple spans having a clear length in excess of 40 feet.

6-2
 In continuous bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to
resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be provided for movement
caused by temperature changes.

Expansion not otherwise provided for shall be provided by means of

hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates or other devices.

6.4“ I -BEAMS

(A) Effective Flange Width

In beam and slab construction, effective and adequate bond and

shear resistance shall be provided at the junction of the beam and slab. The
slab may then be considered an integral part of the beam, but its assumed
effective width as a T-beam flange shall not exceed the following:

(1) One fourth of the span length of the beam.

(2) The distance centre to centre, of beams
(3) Twelve time the least thickness of the slab plus
the width of the girder stem.

For beams having a flange on one side only, the effective over-
hanging flange width shall not exceed one twelfth of the span length of
the beam, nor six times the thickness of the slab, nor one half the clear
distance to the next beam.

(B) Shear

The flange shall not be considered as effective in computing the

shear and diagonal tension resistance of T-beams, except in the determination
of the value of j .

The horizontal shearing unit stress at the juncture of the flange

and the monolithic fillet joining it to the girder stem shall not exceed
that given in Article 5 .2 (B)(2 ), shear of beams with web reinforcement.

(C) Isolated Beams

Isolated beams, in which the Inform is used only for the. purpose of
providing additional compression area, shall have flange thickness of not
less than one-half the width of the web, and a total flange width of not:
more than 4 times the width of w e b .

(D) Diaphragms
For T-beam spans^ diaphragms or spreaders shall be placed between
the beams at the middle or at the third points.

6-3
(E) Construction Joints

When a construction joint is required between the slab and the seem
of the beam, the shear-keys shall be designed in accordance with allowable
stresses given in Article 5.2(B)(2).
6.5- REINFORCEMENT
(A) Spacing
The minimum spacing centre to centre of parallel bars shall be 2% times
the diameter of the bar, but in no case shall the clear distance between the
bars be less than 1% times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.

(B) Covering
The minimum covering, measured from the surface of the concrete to the
face of any reinforcement bar, shall not be less than 2 inches except in slabs
where the minimum covering shall be 1 inch at the bottom, and lV* at the top.
Where an additional wearing surface is to be used the required clearance at
the top of slab may be reduced to 1H . In the footings of abutments and
retaining walls and in piers the minimum covering shall be 3 inches. In work
exposed to the action of sea water the minimum covering shall be 4 inches
except in precast concrete piles, where a minimum of 3 inches may be used. For
stirrups in T-beams, the minimum cover shall be \ \ inches.

(C) Splicing

Tensile reinforcement shall not be spliced at points of maximum stress.

When reinforcement is spliced, the spliced bars shall lap sufficiently to
develop the full strength in bond.

(D) End Anchorages and Hooks

End anchorage may be an extension of the bar, either straight, bent
or hooked. A properly dimensioned hook is:(a) one in which the bar is bent
in a complete semi-circular turn with a radius of bend on the axis of the bar
of not less than three bar diameters, plus an extension at the free end of
at least four bar diameters,(b) a 90° bend having a radius of not less than
four diameters plus an extension of twelve bar diameters.

Hooks having a radius of bend of more than six bar diameters shall be
considered as extensions to the bars. Hooks shall not be considered effective
in adding to the compressive resistance of bars. Any mechanical device capable
of developing the strength of the bar without damage to the concrete may be
used in lieu of hooks or extensions.

(E) Extension of Reinforcement

(1) To provide for contingencies arising from unanticipated
distribution of loads, yielding of supports, shifting of points of
inflection, or other lack of agreement with assumed conditions
governing the design of elastic structure, the reinforcement shall

6-4
 be extended at the supports and at other points between the supports
as indicated in (2) to (5) below. These paragraphs relate to
ordinary anchorage and are the minimum requirements under which
normal working stresses for bond or shear are permitted.

(2) Negative tensile reinforcement at the supported end of a

restrained or cantilever beam or member of a rigid frame shall be
extended in or through the supporting member in such a manner as to
develop the maximum tension in the bar with a bond stress not
exceeding the normal working stress provided in Article 5,2.

(3) Between the supports of continuous or simple beams, every

reinforcement bar shall be extended at least 25 diameters but not less
than 1/20 of the span length, beyond the point at which computations
indicate it is no longer needed to resist stress.A U-type hook shall
be considered equal to 16$ and an L type hook equal to g
(4) In simple beams and freely supported ends of continuous
beams, at least 1/3 of the positive reinforcement shall extend beyond
the face of the supports a distance sufficient to develop ^ the
allowable stress in the bars.

(5 ) In restrained or continuous beams at least k of the positive

reinforcement shall extend beyond the face of the supports and the
remainder treated as provided in (3).

(6) Dowels and bars carrying little or no theoretical stress

should be embedded at least ten bar diameters from the construction
joint.

(F ) Max imum Sizes

The maximum size of bar reinforcement shall be \ \ inches in

diameter, unless the particular conditions warrant the adoption of special
reinforcement, design.

When structural steel shapes are used for reinforcement, mechanical

bond should be provided which will effect:ively bond the member to the
surrounding concrete mass.

(G) Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement in T-Beams

When the floor slabs or flange of a continuous or cantilevered

I-beam is placed after the concrete in the stem has taken its set, at
least 10 per cent of the negative moment reinforcing steel shall be
placed in the beam stem in order to prevent: cracks from falsework settlement
or deflection. This reinforcing steel shall extend a distance of one“fourth
the span length each side of the. intermediate supports of continuous spans,
one-fifth the span length from the restrained ends of continuous spans, and the
entire length of cantilever spans.In lieu of the above requirement two number

6-5
 8 bars full length of the girders may be used

(il) Reinforcement of Beam Sides

The depth of the beam between the main reinforcement and the flange
or the top reinforcement shall be reinforced with horizontal bars in both
faces to prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks. The total area of steel
in each face shall not be less than %. sq. in, per foot of height of the
unreiriforced beam side. The spacing of bars shall not exceed 2 feet.

6 .6“ COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

Compression reinforcement in girders and beams shall be secured

against buckling by ties or stirrups adequately anchored in the concrete,
and spaced not more than 16 bar diameters apart. Where compression
reinforcement is used, its effectiveness in resisting bending may be taken
as twice the value indicated from the calculations assuming a straight-line
relation between stress and strain and the modular relation of stress in
steel to stress in concrete given in Article 6.1(4). However, in no case
should a stress in compression reinforcement greater than 16,000 pounds per
square inch be allowed.

6.7“ WEB REINFORCEMENT

(A) General

When the allowable unit shearing stress for concrete is exceeded,

web reinforcement, shall be provided by one of the following methods:

(1) Longitudinal bars bent up in series or in single plane.

(2) Vertical stirrups.
(3) Combination of bent-up bars and vertical stirrups.

When any of the above methods of reinforcement are used, the concrete
may be assumed to carry external vertical shear not to exceed .024 f * (cube
strength) or .03 (f^), (cylinder strength) (Maximum 90 pounds per square inch)
the remainder of shear being carried by the web reinforcement.

The webs of T-bearns and box girders shall be reinforced with stirrups
in all cases.

(B) Calculation of Shear and Bond

Diagonal tension, shear, and bond in reinforced concrete beams shall

be calculated by the following formulas:

NOTATIONS:

A =•- total area of web reinforcement in tension within a distance ,!s11

v

6-6
 (measured in a direction parallel to that of the
main reinforcement), or the total of all bars bent
up in any one plane.

b = width of beam.

d = effective depth, or depth from compression surface of

beam to centroid of tension reinforcement.

f = tensile unit stress in web reinforcement,

v
j = ratio of lever arm of resisting couple to depth ndn .

s = spacing of web reinforcement bars, measured at the neutral

axis in a direction parallel to that of the main reinforce­
ment .

u = bond stress per unit area of the surface of the bar.

v = shearing unit stress

V! = external shear on. any section after deducting shear carried

by concrete.

sum of perimeters of bars

angle between web bars and axis of beam

FORMULAS:

Shearing unit stress, as a measure of diagonal tension

v = _L_
bjd

Stress in vertical web reinforcement

f = V' s

Av 3d

When a series of web bars of bent-up longitudinal bars are used, the
reinforcement shall be designed by the following formula:

V* s
fv jd ( s i n < + cosct)

When the web reinforcement consists of bars bent up in a single

plane so as to reinforce all sections of the beam which require reinforce­
ment , the bent-up bars shall be designed by the following formula:

6-7
 V*
A
f sincC
v

The bond between concrete and reinforcing bars in beams and slabs
shall be computed by the following formula:
V
U' = —— —
jd 2 0

(For approximate results !lj?f in the above formulas may be taken as

7/8)

Bond shall be similarly computed on compressive reinforcement, but

the shear used in computing the bond shall be reduced in the ratio of the
compressive force assumed in the bars to the total compressive force at the
section. Anchorage shall be provided by embedment past the section to
develop the assumed compressive force,

(C) Bent-up Bars

Bent-up bars used as web reinforcement may be bent at any angle

between 20 and 45 degrees with the longitudinal reinforcement. The radius
of bend shall not be less than 4 diameters of the bar.

The spacing of bent-up bars shall be measured at the neutral axis

and in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the beam. This spacing shall
not exceed three-fourths the effective depth of the beam. The first bar
from the support shall cross the mid-depth of the beam, at a distance from the
face of the support, measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the -beam*
not greater than one-half the effective depth.

(D) Vertical stirrups

Where stirrups are required to carry shear, the maximum spacing of

vertical stirrups shall be limited to \ the depth of the beam, and where not
required to carry shear, the maximum spacing shall be limited to 3/4 the depth
of the beam. The first stirrup shall be placed at the distance from the face
of the support not greater than one-fourth of the effective depth of the
beam.

(E) Anchorage

(1) The stress in a stirrup or other web reinforcement shall not

exceed the capacity of its anchorage in the upper or lower one-half of the
effective depth of the beam.

(2 ) Web reinforcement which is provided by bending into an

inclined position one or more bars of the main tensile reinforcement where not
required for resistance to positive or negative bending, may be considered
completely anchored by continuity with the main tensile reinforcement, or by '

6-8
embedment of the requisite length in the upper or lower half of the beam
provided at least one half of such embedment is as close to the upper
or lower surface of the beam as the requirements of fire and rust protection
allow. A hook placed close to the upper or lower surface of the beam may
be substituted for a portion of such embedment.

(3) Stirrups shall be anchored at both ends by one of the

following methods or by combination thereof:

(a) Rigid attachment, as by welding, to the main longitudinal

reinforcement.

(b) Bending round and closely in contact with a bar of the

longitudinal reinforcement, in the form of a U-stirrup
or hook.

(c) A hook placed as close to the upper or lower surface of the

beam as the requirements of fire and rust protection will
allow. In estimating the capacity of this anchorage the
stress developed by bond between midheight of the beam and
the centre of bending of the hook may be added to the
capacity of the hook.

(d) An adequate length of embedment in the upper or lower one-

half of the effective depth of the beam, whether straight
or bent. Anchorage of this type alone should not be relied
on for stirrups in cases where the shearing stress in the
web exceeds that recommended for beams without end anchorage
of the reinforcement.

(See Article 5.2)

6.8- COLUMNS

(A) General

Other provisions of Section 6, Concrete Design, shall apply in the

design of columns unless specially modified by this article.

In the design of columns the unsupported length shall be defined as the

clear distance between struts, cross beams, footings or other types of adequate
restraint to lateral movement. Where a bracing member has haunches at its
junction to a column, the unsupported column length shall be measured from
the junction of the haunch with the column provided that the face of the
haunch makes an angle with the face of the column of at least 45 degrees.Struts
or cross beams joining columns at angles greater than 30 degrees from the
plane of symmetry of the column shall not be considered as adequate support.

6-9
The least lateral dimension of a column shall be taken a s : (1) for rectangular
columns 3 the over-all thickness along a principal axis; (2 ) for spirally
reinforced columns, the overall diameter including the encasement of the
spirals; (3) for "T"-shaped columns , the width or depth of the T.

In a column which, for architectural or other reasons, has a larger

cross section than required by the load carried, the minimum, amount of longi­
tudinal steel hereinafter specified may be reduced provided that in no case
shall less longitudinal steel be used than that: required by the minimum
column designed with one per cent of longitudinal steel.

The notations used in this article are as follows:

Ag = over-all or gross cross-sectional area of spirally reinforced

or tied pier, pedestal or column in square inches.

Ac = cross-sectional area of core of spirally reinforced columns

measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square inches.

As = cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel

A = Ag + (n-l) A g 9 effective area of column

fa fa
C = — - — — - -— ■ or .-— - — — —
factor used in '-the design
0.30 f *c~ 0.40 (f!c)''
of members subject to
combined axial and bending
stresses
d = least lateral dimension of column, inches

e = eccentricity of resultant load on a column, measured from a

gravity axis.

f'c = crushing strength of 6n cubes at age of 28 days, psi

(£ 1c )= crushing strength of 6!,xl 2lf cylinders at age of 28 days, psi.

0.175 f£* + fs p
fa = — ---— — ----- - for spiral columns and
1 + (n-l) p
807o of that amount for
**
0.225(f'c) + fs p tied columns.
or — -- -— — —— -- -
1 + (n -l) p

fe = maximum allowable compressive stress in members subjected to

combined axial and bending stress, psi.
fs = nominal working stress in longitudinal reinforcing steel (see
Article 5.3)
6-10
* 6 t! cube strength
ic-k 5,f cylinder strength
 1s = yield stress of spiral reinforcement (for steel grades not
having a definite yield point, the stress causing a 0.2 per
cent plastic set), psi

t*
K = _ a factor used in the design of members subjected
to combined axial and bending stress.

L unsupp< )£ column3 inches.

n = ratio < ot elasticity of steel to that of concrete-
Pe = a load
Pp = total load on pier or pedestal, pounds
Ps = total load on spirally reinforced column, pounds
Psl = total load on spirally reinforced long column, pounds
Pt = total load on tied column, pounds
Ptl = total load ^ on tied long column, pounds
P = ratio
P! = ratio
r = radius i) in the
direct
t = over-a
or bending

(B) Piers and Pedestals

The ratio of the unsupported length of unreinforced concrete piers

or pedestals to their least dimension shall not exceed 3. The total load
on any unreinforced concrete pier or pedestal shall not exceed that given
by the following formula:

Pp = 0.20 Ag f'c*
,* * ( 1)
or 0.25 Ag (f’c)

(C) Spirally Reinforced Columns

(1) Longitudinal Reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed within the area

contained by the spiral reinforcement„ Hie ratio between the area
of longitudinal reinforcement and the gross area of the column,
including the encasement outside the spiral reinforcement3 shall be
not less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08. There shall be a minimum
of six longitudinal bars evenly spaced around the periphery of the
column core. The. clear spacing between individual bars or pairs
of bars at lapped splices shall be not less than 1\ inches or 1 \
times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, used, subject to the
further requirement that the centre-to-centre spacing shall be not
less than 2% times the diameter of bars. The diameter of bars
shall be not less than five-eighths inch. For columns with a

6-11
* 6lf cube strength
** 6” cylinder strength
 circular spirally reinforced core having excessive size or other
outside shapes, the gross area to be used in determining percentage
of reinforcement shall be a circle with a diameter equal to the
minimum core required for structural design plus the specified
outside cover.

(2) Spiral Reinforcement

Spiral reinforcement shall consist of uniform spirals held

firmly in position by attachment to the. longitudinal reinforcement.
Spiral reinforcement may be plain or deformed reinforcing bars or
cold drawn wire. Splices in spiral bars should be avoided if
practical and, if necessary, shall be made by welding or by lap of
1% turns. The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 1/6 of the core
diameter, The clear distance between individual turns of the spiral
shall not exceed 3 inches or be less than 1-3/8 inches or 1% times
the maximum size aggregate used. Spiral reinforcement shall extend
from the footing or other support to the level of the lowest horizontal
reinforcement of members supported by the column.

The ratio of the volume of spiral reinforcement to the

volume of core of the column, out to out of spirals, shall be not less
than
, *
Ag \ f'c
p# = 0.35 — -1 J -=—
Ac / f ’s (2 )
(f'c)
or 0.45 — - U
Ac / f's

The yield strength for design assumption* f's shall not be

taken higher than 60,000 p.s.i.

(3) Allowable Load - Short Columns

The provision of this subarticle shall apply only to columns

having ratios of unsupported height to least lateral dimension of not
more than 10. The total axial load on a column shall not exceed
that given by the following formula.

P = 0.175 f1c Ag 4- As fs
s (3)
or 0.225 (f1c) Ag + As fs

(4) Long Columns

The total axial load on a column having a ratio of unsupported

height to least lateral dimension greater than 10, but not greater than

6-12
6ncube strength
JUJU
6,f cylinder strength
 20, shall be not greater than given by the following formula:

P = P ( h 3-0.03 L/d) (4)

si s
If L/d ratio of columns exceeds 20? the column shall be
investigated for elastic stability.

Tied Columns

(1) Longitudinal Reinforcement

The longitudinal reinforcement shall consist of at

least four bars, and when only four bars are used 3 they shall be
placed at the corners of the section, Bars shall he placed at each
intersection of column faces e The bars shall be not less than five-
eighths inch in diameter, The ratio of the total cross-sectional
area of the bars to the total cross-sectional area of the column
shall be not less than 0,01 nor more than 0.04,

(2) Hoops and Lateral Ties

Hoops shall surround the longitudinal reinforcement. They

shall be not less than one-fourth inch in diameter and shall be.
spaced not more than 12 inches apart except that this spacing may be
increased in the case of pier shafts or columns having a larger cros
section than required by conditions of loading. Adequate auxiliary
ties shall be provided to support intermediate longitudinal bars
whose distance from any tied bar exceeds 2 feet,

(3) Allowable Load - Short Columns

The provisions of this subarticle shall apply only to columns

having ratios of unsupported height to least lateral dimension of
not more than 10. The total axial load on a column shall be not
greater than 0.8 of that given by equation 3 5 which results in

Pt - 0.8 (0.175 f !c Ag + As fs)

(5)
or 0.8 (0.225 (f’c) Ag + As fs)

(4) Long Columns

The total axial load on a column having a ratio of

unsupported height to least lateral dimension greater than 10
but not greater than 20 shall be not greater than given by the
following formula

Ptl = Pt (1-3-0.03 L/d) (6)

6-13
6" cube strength
6" Cylinder strength
 If the L/d ratio exceeds 20, the column shall be investigated
for elastic stability.

(E) Bending Moments in Columns

When beams or slabs are connected to columns, the moments induced

in the columns by such beams or slabs shall be provided for in the column
design.

(F) Combined Axial and Bending Stress

A reinforced concrete column which is symmetrical about two mutually

perpendicular planes through its axis and which is subjected to an axial
load P e ? combined with bending in one or both of the planes of symmetry •
may be designed on the basis of uncracked sections provided the ratio of
eccentricity to depth e/t, is not greater than 0.5 in either plane, The
combined fiber stress in compression is given by the following formula:

K. e
( 1 + _
t \

o
1 + (n-l)p /

The column may be designed for an equivalent axial load PQ or Pt as

|
given by the following K *e
formula:
p = Pe I l + C — — (8 )
\ t

The maximum allowable compressive stress in the concrete, fe 9 in

columns subjected to combined axial and bending stress as described above
shall not exceed that given by the following formula:
K*e
1 +
t
fe (9)
K -e
1 + C —
t

In the case of square or rectangular columns subjected to bending in

both planes of symmetry the column shall be designed on the basis of uncracked
sections only when the sum of the e/t ratios about both axis does not exceed
0.5. In this case formulas (7), (8) and (9) may be used by substituting for
Ke/t the sum of the Ke/t ratios in both planes of bending.

In formulas (7), (8) and (9) for an approximate or trial design K may
•be taken as 8 for a circular spiral column and as 5 for a rectangular, tied

6-14
or spiral column. The assumed value of K shall be checked for the
adopted section.

Reinforced concrete columns , in which the e/t ratio is

greater than 0,5 in the case of bending in one plane or in which the sum
of the e/t ratios is greater than 0,5 in the case of bending in both
planes of symmetry, shall be designed on the basis of the recognized-
theory for cracked sections, based on the assumption that no tension
is resisted by the concrete.

In such cases the modular ratio, n 5 for the compressive

reinforcement may be assumed as twice the value given in Article 5.2(A);
however, the stress in the compressive reinforcement when calculated on this
basis, shall not be greater than the allowable stress in tension*

POSIT!OH AND DIRECTION OF NEUTRAL AXIS

A method of determining the location and direction of the

neutral axis is as follows:

When the plane of bending does not lie on principal axis of the
column section or when the point of application of the.resultant load
does not lie within the kern area, of the gross transformed section, the
position and direction of the. neutral ax:
following formula:

P Mx M'y
“ + — X0+ — Yo = 0
a “ i; I'y

P - load parallel to the axis of the column in pounds

A = transformed area of cracked section in square inches

I
Xx v
jr

__1 m Mx
J!

M ’x -
1

mx
H

! y
xy X

(i x y )2 0-xy)
i'x = ix T
j. 1v — T -

Iy 1
iX

= Moment of external forces about Y axis

My = Moment of external forces about X axis

X Y = coordinate referred to axes passing through the

centroid of the section.

6-15
 Ix = moment of inertia about the Y axis

ly = moment of inertia about the X axis

I = Product of inertia about axis, X and Y

In solving the above formula if; is necessary to assume a value

for either X Q or YQ.

FORMULAS FOR STRESSES

With the position and direction the neutral axis determined, the
maximum unit stress in the concrete shall be computed with the formula,

M'y M'x
f = ... r-
. Yn or f - — X . in which
T
X 1y T
- 1X

Yn = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber

in compression measured parallel to the Y axisc

X = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber

in compression measured parallel to the X axis .

The limiting steel ratio of 0,04 provided in Article 6,8(B) (1)

may be increased to 0,08 for tied columns designed to withstand combined
axial and bending stresses provided that the amount of steel spliced by
lapping in any 3 foot length of column shall not exceed a steel ratio of
0.04. The size of the column shall be not less than that required by axial
load alone.

6.9- CONCRETE ARCHES

(A) Shape of Arch Rings

Arch rings shall be selected as to shape in such manner that the axis
of the ring shall conform, as nearly as practicable, to either the equilibrium
polygon for full dead load or to the equilibrium polygon for full dead plus
one-half live load over the full span, whichever produces the smallest
bending stresses under combined loads.

(B) Spandrel Walls

When the spandrel walls or filled spandrel arches exceed 8 feet in

height above the extrados they shall be designed as vertical slabs supported
by transverse diaphragm walls or deep counterforts. Vertical cantilever
walls over 8 feet in height, or counterforts having a back slope of less
than 45 degrees with the vertical, shall not be used, on account of the

6“ 16
excessive and indeterminate stresses set up in the arch ring by
torsion.

(C) Expansion Joints

Vertical expansion joints shall be placed in the spandrel walls

of arches to provide for movement due to temperature change and arch
deflection* These joints shall be placed at the ends of spans and at
intermediate points , generally not more than 50 feet apart.

(B) Reinforcement

Arch ribs in reinforced concrete construction shall be reinforced

with a complete double line of longitudinal reinforcement consisting of an
intradosal system and an extradosal system connected by a series of stirrups
or tie rods,

For barrel arches , a system of transverse reinforcement,thoroughly

anchored to the longitudinal reinforcement, shall be used in both intrados
and extrados. The transverse reinforcement shall be proportioned, to resist
the bending stress due to any overturning action of the spandrel wall.

For rib arches, hoops or tie bars shall be used in connection with
the longitudinal rib reinforcement, as in the case of reinforced concrete
columns.

(E) Waterproofing

Preferably, the top of the arch ring and the interior faces of the
spandrel walls of all filled spandrel arches shall be waterproofed with a
membrane waterproofing.

(F) Drainage of Spandrel Fill

The fills of filled spandrel arches shall be effectively drained

by a system, of the tile drains or French drains laid, along the intersection
of the spandrel walls and arch rings and discharging through suitable outlets
in the piers and abutments. The location, and detail of the drainage outlets
shall be such as to eliminate, as far as possible, the discoloration by
drainage water of the exposed masonary faces.

6,10- VIADUCT BENTS AND TOWERS

When concrete columns are used in viaduct construction, bents and

towers shall be effectively braced by means of longitudinal and transverse
struts. For height greater than 40 feet, both longitudinal and transverse
cross or diagonal bracing, preferably, shall be used, and the footings for
the columns, forming a single, bent, shall be thoroughly tied together.

6-17
 6 . 11- BOX GIRDERS

(A) Effective Compression Flange Width

In girder and flange construction,, consisting of a girder stem with

top and bottom slab, effective and adequate bond and shear resistance shall
* be provided at the junction of the girder and slab. The slab may then be
considered an integral part of the girder, but its effective width as a
girder flange shall not exceed the following:

(1) One fourth of the span length of the girder

(2) The distance centre to centre of girder

(3) Twelve times the least thickness of the slab plus the
width of the girder stem

For girders having flanges on one side only, the effective over­
hanging flange width shall not exceed the following:

(1) One twelfth of the span length of the girder

(2) One-half the clear distance to the next girder

• (3) Six times the least thickness of the slab,

(B) Flange Thickness

(1) Top Flange

The minimum flange thickness shall be 1/16 the clear distance

between girders, or 6 inches, whichever is greater.

(2) Bottom Flange

The minimum thickness of the bottom flange shall be determined

by maximum allowable unit stresses as specified in (C) and (D) but in
no case shall be less than 1/16 of the clear span between girders or
5% inches, whichever is the greater. Adequate fillets shall be provided
at the intersection of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder.

(C) Flexure

(1) Parallel to Girder

The compressive unit stress in extreme fiber of concrete in

both girder stem and flange shall not exceed that given in Article
5.2(B )

6" 18
 (2) Normal to Girder

The compressive unit stress in extreme fiber of concrete in

the girder flange shall not exceed that given in Article 5.2(B).

(D) Shear

The flange shall not be considered as effective in computing the

shear and diagonal tension resistance of girder stems9 except in the
determination of the value of j .

The horizontal shearing unit stress at the junction of the. flange

and the monolithic fillet joining it to the girder stem shall not exceed
that given in Article 5.2(B), shear-beams with web reinforcement.

Changes in girder stem thickness shall he tapered for a minimum

distance of 12 times the difference in stem thickness,

(E) Re inforcement

The unit stress in steel for both girder stem and flange shall not
exceed that given in Article 5,3,

(P) Flange Reinforcement

(1) Parallel to Girder

Minimum reinforcement of 0.6 per cent of the flange section,

but in no case less than required by Article 3.2(E) shall be placed
in both top and bottom flanges5 distributed over both surfaces.
Where necessary, a single layer of bars may be centred in the bottom
slab. Bar spacing -shall not exceed 18 inches,

(2) Normal to Girder

Minimum reinforcement of 0,5 per cent of the flange section

shall he placed in the slab* distributed over both surfaces. Bar­
spacing shall not exceed 18 inches. These bars shall be bent up
into the exterior girder stem at least 10 bar diameters.

Reinforcement in the top flange in a direction transverse to

the girders shall extend to the exterior face of all outside girders,
and a minimum of 1/3 of such reinforcement shall either be anchored
with 90° bends or extended beyond the girder face a sufficient
distance to develop the strength of the bar in bond provided the
flange projects beyond the girder face a sufficient distance to
provide this bond length,

(G) Diaphragms

Diaphragms or spreaders shall be placed between the girders at

6-19
intervals not to exceed 40 feet,

(H) Flanges Supporting Pipes and Conduits

Flanges supporting both vehicle live load and pipes or conduits shall
be designed using unit stresses set forth in Article 5,2 and 5.3,

Flanges supporting only dead load of structure and pipes or conduits

shall be designed in the direction normal to the girder using unit stresses
not exceeding 75 per cent of those set forth in Article 5*2 and 5,3.

(I) Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement,,

When the floor slab of a box girder is placed after the web walls
have taken their set, at least 10 per cent of the negative moment reinforc­
ing steel shall be placed in the web walls. The reinforcing steel shall
extend, a distance of one-fourth the span length each side, of the
intermediate supports of continuous spans , one-fifth the span length from
the restrained ends of continuous spans, and the entire length of canti-
lever spans. In lieu of the above requirement two number 8 bars full
length of the webs may be used,

(J) Reinforcement of Web Wall Bides

The web walls between the top and bottom slabs shall have reinforcing
bars placed horizontally in both faces to prevent temperature and shrinkage
cracks. The total area of steel shall not be less than 1/8 sq0 in. per foot
of height of the unreinforced web walls. The spacing of bars shall not
exceed 2 feet.

6-20
 Section 7 - PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

7,1= GENERAL

The design of prestressed concrete members of highway bridges shall

conform to the requirements of Section 6 , Concrete Design, insofar as the
requirements of that section apply and are not specifically modified by
requirements set forth herein.. The specifications of this section are
intended for use in the design of simple-span structures of moderate length.
Large or unusual structures require special st udy and detailed consideration,
of e At•:cts tha r cat be neglecren or assigned arbitrary values ir. the design
•ji; -.it.rue lures to which this section is intended to apply.

7.2- NOTATION

= bearing area of anchor plate of post~tensioning steel.

Ac = maximum area of the portion of the anchorage surface that is

geometrically similar to and concentric with the area of the
bearing plate of post-tensioning steel.

Ag = area of main prestressing tensile steel

A 1s= area of conventional steel.

A gr= steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength

of the web of a flanged section.

A = area of web reinforcement,

v
b = width of flange of a flanged member or width of a rectangular
member.

b* = width of web of a flanged member.

d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the

prestressing force.

I = Moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross section.

I = Impact load

j = ratio of distance between centroid of compression and centroid

of tension to the depth d.

p = A g /bd, ratio of prestressing steel.

p 1 = A fs/bd, ratio of conventional reinforcement,

s = longitudinal spacing of web reinforcement.

7-1
 t average thickness of the flange of a flanged member .

Q = statical moment of cross section area, above or below the level

being investigated for shear, about the centroid.

D effect of dead load.

L effect of design live load including impact, where applicable.

Vc = shear carried by concrete

V = shear due to ultimate load and effect of prestressing.

Ec = flexural modulus of elasticity of concrete.

Es = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel.

f'c = compressive cube strength of concrete at 28 days (6!I cube)

(f'c)== compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days(6H cylinder)

f'ci = compressive cube strength of concrete at time of initial prestress

(f'ci)= compressive cylinder strength of concrete at time of initial

prestress .

ultimate strength of prestressing steel.

f ’s =

f se = effective steel prestress after losses

£ su = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load.

■^sy nominal yield point stress of prestressing steel (at 1.0 per cent
extension)

yield point stress of conventional reinforcing steel.

f 'y =
11 = ratio of Es / Ec

e = base of Naperian logarithms.

K friction wobble coefficient per foot of prestressing steel.

To - steel stress at jacking end.

Tx = steel stress at any point x, located at a distance x from the

jacking end.

M = friction curvature coefficient.

oC =: total angular change of prestressing steel profile in radians
from jacking end to point x.

7-2
 1 = length of prestressing steel element from jacking end to point x .

7.3- DESIGN THEORY

The elastic theory shall be used for the design of prestressed concrete
members under design loads at working stresses. The members shall be
checked by ultimate strength theory for compliance with specified load factor.

7.4- BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

The following assumptions are made for design purposes:

(a) Strains vary linearly over the depth of the member throughout
the entire load range.
(b) Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain.
(c) After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.

7.5- LOADING STAGES

The state of stress shall be investigated under each loading

condition that is anticipated in the. manufacture, handling and service life
of the structure. The following are some of the. conditions that may exist:

(A) Initial Prestress

The concrete and steel stresses in the initial stressing of the

member before the dead load from, other members is effective and before losses
due to length changes of the concrete and steel have taken place, The
condition of manufacture shall be taken into account, particularly as to
whether the dead load of the member itself is effective.

(B) Transportation and Erection

Precast members that are to be moved from, their place of manufacture

shall be designed so that handling is practicable.

(C) Design Load

Stresses in effect after losses and under dead load and the assumed
working live load.

(D) Cracking Load

Complete freedom from cracking may or may not be necessary at any

particular loading stage. Type and function of the structure and type,
frequency, and magnitude of live, loads should be considered.

(E) Ultimate Load

The ultimate load that a member can withstand without failure shall

7-3
be the sum of the multiples of live and dead loads specified in the formulas
given in Article 7.6. The ultimate load capacity shall be that producing
moments equal to the ultimate moment of the concrete or steel as given in
Article 7.10.

%. 6- LOAD FACTORS

Load factors are multiples of the design load applied to the structure
to insure its safety.

The computed ultimate load capacity shall not be less than

1.5 D + 2.5 (L+I)

These load factors are intended for simple spans of moderate length.
For long spans, continuous spans and unusual design, special investigation is
advisable with probable increase in the ultimate load factors.

7.7- ALLOWABLE STRESS

In general the design of prestressed members shall be based on a

maximum concrete cube strength of 6000 psi or a maximum concrete cylinder
strength of 5000 psi

(A) Prestressing Steel

(1) Temporary stress before losses due to creep and shrinkage 4#a 0.70f
(Overstressing to 0.80 f1s for short periods of time may
be permitted provided the stress after seating of the
anchorage, does not exceed 0.70 f1s)

(2) Stress at design load(after losses) 0.60 f1 or 0.80 f ^ which

s sy
ever is smaller, or 0.70 f g less all computed losses.

(B) Concrete

(1) Stress at Transfer before losses due to creep and shrinkage:

Compression Cube Cylinder

strength strength
Pretens ioned members --- .50 f 1ci 0.60(f'ci)
Post"tensioned members-* - ,45 f 1 0.55(f' )
ci ci
Tension

Members without nonprestressed reinforcement:

Single element-- 2.75 V/f' . 3A f .)

Cl ci
Segmental element Zero Zero

7.4
 Cube Cylinder
strength Strength
Beams and girders may be
comprised of !s ingle element1,
or a number of precast elements
hereafter referred to as
{segmental elements1.

Members with nonprestressed

reinforcement sufficient to
resist tensile force in. the
concrete, without cracking
when computed on the basis
of an uncracked section:

Single element ---------- - 5.5 /f 1c 1

Segmental element(within the

element itself) ••75 / F “
" Cl ci^
(2) Stress at design load after losses
have occurred:

Compress ion— -- ---------------- 0.33£ f 0.40(ff )

c c
Tension (in precompressed tensile zone.)

Post”tensioned members Zero Zero

Pretensioned Members 2.75

(but not: to exceed 250 psi)

(3) Cracking Stress

Flexure tensile strength(Modulus

of rupture)from tests or if not
ay a liable— ---- 6.8 7 .5 y T f f T )

(4) Anchorage hearing stress

Post” tensioned anchorage-”-*-””- 0.50 f *c j§|-=

(but not to exceed ) fAp

7.8“ LOSS OF PRESTRESS

(A) Friction Losses

Friction losses in post-tensioned members occur from angle change in

draped cables and from wobble of the ducts. These losses can be estimated

7-5
by the following formula:
(El 4-//^ )
To ~~ Tx e

using the following average values of K and /*

*

For small values of Kl and the following formula can be used.

I = T (1 + Kl + y ^ < )
o A

Type of steel Type of Duct K V*

Wire cables Bright metal sheathing-— •- 0.0020 0.30
Galvanized metal sheathing--- 0.0015 0.25
Greased or asphalt-coated
and wrapped-- 0.0020 0.30
Direct contact: with concrete- 0.0015 0.45
High-“Strength bars. . ... Bright metal sheathing------ 0.0003 0.20
GaIvanized metal she a thing--- 0.0002 0.15
Direct contact with concrete- 0.0005 0.40
Galvanized Strand.. ,. , . Bright metal sheathing------- 0.0015 0.25
Ga Tvanlz ed me ta 1 she.ath ing--- 0.0010 0.20
Direct contact with concrete- 0.0015 0.50

Friction, losses occur prior to anchoring but should he estimated for

design and checked during stressing operations.

(B) Prestress Losses

The following sources of loss Of prestress in addition to friction

losses 3 shall be considered to determine the. effective prestress.

1. Elastic shortening of concrete

This loss is equal to n (Afc). For pretensioned concrete A fc is

the concrete stress at the centre of gravity of the prestressing steel for
which the losses are being computed. For post-tensioned concrete where the
steel elements may not be tensioned simultaneousIvy A, fe is the average
concrete stress along one prestressing element from end to end of the beam
caused by subsequent post-tensioning of adjacent elements. Taking one
half the loss of the first element by subsequent application of prestress
from other elements closely approximates the average loss of all elements.

2. Creep of Concrete

Creep is the time-dependent strain of concrete caused by stress.

For pre-tensioned and post-tensioned bonded members 3 concrete stress is
taken at the centre of gravity of prestressing steel under effect of
prestress and permanent loads ( normal conditions of unloaded
structure).

7-6
 In post-tensioned unbonded members, stress is the average
concrete stress along the profile of centre of gravity of prestressing
steel under the effect of prestress and permanent loads. Additional
strain due to creep may be assumed to vary from 100 per cent of elastic
strain for concrete in very humid atmosphere to 300 per cent of elastic
strain in very dry atmosphere.

3. Shrinkage of concrete

The following value of unit strain for shrinkage shall be used:

For pre-tens ioned members ---- 0.00030

For post-tensioned m e m b e r s ---» 0.00025

4. Relaxation of Steel Stress

Loss of stress due to relaxation of prestressing steel should be

provided for in the design in accordance with test data furnished by the
steel manufacturer. The loss, generally, is in the range of 2 to 8% of
the intial steel stress.

5. Slip at Anchorage

Where a slip of the tendons is expected to take place in seating

the anchorage device, the resulting loss of prestress shall be allowed
for. An average value of 0.10 inches may be used to compute this loss
at each end.

The total prestress losses(except the friction and slip loss) may
be assumed to be

35000 p.s.i. for pretensioned members

25000 p.s.i. for post-tensioned members

when data is not available to calculate losses more exactly.

7.9- FLEXURE

Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act as uncracked

members subjected to combined axial and bending stresses within specified
design loads. The transformed area of bonded reinforcement may be included
in pretensioned members and in post tensioned members after grouting.

7.10- ULTIMATE FLEXURAL STRENGTH

(A) Rectangular Sections

For rectangular or flanged sections in which the. neutral axis lies

within the flange, the ultimate flexural strength shall be assumed as:

7-7
(B) Flanged Sections

If the neutral axis falls outside the flange, the ultimate flexural
strength shall be assumed as:

0.70 Asr fsu °-6° Asr £su

1- —
«u ' Asr fs “u “ Asr *su d 1
“d ( b'd f', (‘ b'd(f V)'
i€i<
+ 0,70 f !c (b»bJ)t (d-0a5 1) +0.85(£rc) (fa-b!)t(d~0.5t)

Where

A sr the steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive

strength of the web of a flanged section

A = A ~ A _
sr s sf

sf Steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive

strength of the overhanging portions of the flange

0.70 f (b-b')t /f A =0.85 (£' ) (b-b’H/f

sf SU sf SU

(C) Steel stress

Unless the value of fgucan be more accurately known from detailed analysis,
the following value may be used:

Bonded members

fsu = f's(l-0.60p f's / f'c*) fsu = f's(l-0.50 p f's/(f'/*)

Unbounded members

f = f + 15000
su se
Provided that
1) The effective prestress after losses is not less than 0.5 f 'g
2) The stress relieved wire for prestressing should display a high
yield strength and a reasonable elongation before rupture. Minimum
yield strength at 1 per cent elongation under test load should be

7-8
* 6,f compressive cube strength
** 6If compressive cylinder strength
 equal to 80 per cent of specified ultimate strength.
Minimum elongation after rupture should be 4 per cent
in 10 inches.

High strength bars for perstressing should have a minimum yield

strength measured by the 0.7 per cent extension under load method
equal to 90 per cent of the specified ultimate tensile strength.
Minimum elongation after rupture should be 4 per cent in a
length of 20 diameters.

High tensile strength seven wire strands should conform to the require-*
meats of ASTM designation A416.

7.11- MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM STEEL PERCENTAGE

Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so that failure of the

steel rather than of the concrete will occur at ultimate load. In general
the percentage of steel shall be such that:

For rectangular sections

it
p f / f' = 0.25 p f'SU /(£'*) = 0.30

For flanged sections

Asr fs„ /b 'd f 'c S ° - 25 Asr S ° - 30

For steel with percentage greater than this the ultimate flexural
strength shall not be assumed as greater than

For rectangular sections

it 2 itit 2
Mu = 0.20 f'c bd Mu = 0.25(f*c) bd

For flanged sections

it ^
M = 0.20 b 'd2 f1 M =0.25 b'd (f' )
u c u c
+ 0. 70 f ' hb-b')t(d-0.5t) +0.85(f ' )<b-b ’)t (d-0.5t)
c c
In prestressed concrete members reinforced with tendons of high tensile
strength steel wire or high tensile-strength strand in which the anchorage
of the tendons is by bond alone, the cross sectional area of the tendons shal
be not less than 0.3 per cent of the cross sectional areas of the member at
the time of the transfer of stress from the prestressing bed to the member.

7.12- NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT

Nonprestressed reinforcement may be considered as contributing to the

7“ 9
* 6,f cube strength
itit 6" cylinder strength
tensile strength of the beam at ultimate strength in an amount equal to its
area times its yield point, provided that r

For rectangular sections

Lsu P f f' P f su P 1 f *y ^
+ - -0.25 .... .. + — .-.- — 0.30
£1 £ I ■&
c

For flanged sections

A
sr fsu A' f'
s sy <- ^sr fsu
A r f1
---- — . + -— -- £ =0.25 4- —— f— U L =0.30
b'd f'*c b'd f'*c b'd (f* ) - b'd(f' )**
c c

7.13- SHEAR

A. The effects of shear may reduce the resistance to cracking and the
ultimate strength of flexural members. For uncracked sections, the
principal tensile stresses should be calculated at points of maximum shear
and at points where, there is a significant change of shear or change of
section. Shear reinforcement should be provided where necessary in
accordance with the provisions of this clause.

B. Where the principal tensile stress due to prestress, bending and

shear at working loads exceeds that: given in the table below shear reinforce­
ment should be. introduced. The proportion of shear to be resisted by this
re infer clement should be assumed to vary linearly with the principal tensile,
stress from a value of O^for the stress given in the tahle^ to 1.0 for a
stress of 1.5 times that given. When the principal tensile stress is greater
than 1.5 times that given in the Table the whole of the shear should be carried
by reinforcement. The area of web reinforcement shall not be less than 0.0025
b's. The spacing of web reinforcement shall not exceed three-fourth the depth
of the member or 24", whichever is less, and shall provide transverse
reinforcement across the bottom flanges.

C. Shear reinforcement is often desirable for major structural members even

when the principal tensile stress is less than the appropriate value in the
Table particularly for beams with thin webs, for which recommendations are
given in Article 7.19
Specified Strength of Concrete Limiting principal tensile stress
(lbs / sq. in. ) for concrete in uncracked sections
Cube Cylinder at working loads at ultimate load
Strength Strength (lbs/ sq. in, ) (Ibs/sq. in.
4500 3500 125 300
6000 4700 150 350
7500 5900 175 400

7-10
* 6" cube strength
** 6" cylinder strength
D. Where the principal tensile stress due to shear and effective prestress *
at uncracked sections, under the ultimate load, exceeds that given in the
Table above,* the whole of the shear in excess of that resisted by tendons
inclined’ to the neutral surface should be resisted by shear reinforcement
acting at a stress not exceeding 80 per cent of the yield stress( or 0.2
per cent proof stress, where appropriate).

E. Special consideration should be given to the shear resistance under

ultimate load conditions where the section is cracked in bending. The
possibility of developing such resistance by means of truss, arch or similar
actions should be examined and, where reliance is placed on one of these,
adequate reinforcement, complying with the requirement of the preceding
paragraph of this clause, should be provided.

7.14- COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

(A) General

Composite structures in which the deck is assumed to act integrally

with the beam shall be interconnected to transfer shear along the contact-
surfaces and to prevent separation of the elements. Transfer of shear shall
be by bond or by shear keys. The elements shall be tied together by
extension of the web reinforcement or by dowels.

(£) Shear Capacity

The shear connection shall be designed for the ultimate load and
may be computed by the formula v = Q/I.

(C) Bond Capacity

The following values for ultimate bond resistance at the contact

surfaces shall be used in determining the need for shear keys:

When the minimum steel tie requirements of (D) of this

article are met---------- ------------- ----- --------- 75 psi

When the minimum steel tie requirements of (D) of this

article are met and the contact surface of the precast
element is artificially roughened'-- ----------- --- --150 psi

When steel ties in excess of the requirements of (D) of

this article are provided and the contact surface of
the precast element is artificially roughened------- -225 psi

If bond capacity is less than the computed shear, shear keys shall
be provided throughout the length of the member. Keys shall be proportioned
according to the concrete strength of each component of the composite
member.

7-11
(D) Vertical ties

All web reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place decks. The

spacing of vertical ties shall not be greater than four times the minimum
thickness of either of the composite elements and in any case not greater
than 24 inches. The total area of vertical ties shall not be less than
the area of two N o .3 bars spaced at 12 inches.

(E) Shrinkage stresses

In structures with a cast-in-place slab on precast beams, the

differential shrinkage tends to cause tensile stresses in the slab and in
the bottom of the. beams. Stresses due to differential shrinkage are
important only insofar as they effect the cracking load. When cracking
load is significant such stresses should be added to the effect of loads.

7.15- END ZONE OF CONCRETE I-BEAMS

For beams with post-tensioning tendons, end blocks shall be used to

distribute the concentrated prestressing forces at the anchorage. Where
all tendons are pretensioned wires or 7-wire strand, the use of end blocks
will not be required.

End blocks shall have sufficient area to allow the spacing of the
prestressing steel as specified in article 7.16 . Preferably, they shall
be as wide as the narrower flange of the beam. They shall have a length
at least equal to three fourth of the depth of the beam and in any case
24 inches. In post tensioned members a closely spaced grid of both
vertical and horizontal bars shall he placed near the face of the end block
to resist bursting and closely spaced reinforcement shall be placed both
vertically and horizontally throughout the length of the block.

In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of

18000 p.s.i. to resist at least 4 per cent of the total prestressing force
shall be placed within the distance of d/4 of the end of the beam, the end
stirrup to be as close to the end of the beam as practicable.

7.16- COVER AND SPACING OF PRESTRESSING STEEL

(A) Minimum Cover
The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided, for prestressing
and conventiona1 steel:

Prestressing Steel and Main reinforcement 1% inches

Slab reinforcement: bottom of slab 1 inch, top of slab 1\ inches **
Stirrup and ties 1 inch
** May be reduced to one inch where an additional wearing surface is
to be used.

7“ 12
 In location where members are exposed to salt water, salt spray or
chemical vapor, additional cover should be provided.

(B) Minimum Spacing

The minimum clear spacing of prestressing steel at the ends of beams

shall be as follows:

Pretensioning Steel: Three times the diameter of the steel or 4/3

the maximum size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is greater.

Post-tensioning ducts: Horizontally - 1\ inches or 1% times the

maximum size of the aggregate, whichever is the greater. However,there
should be sufficient gaps between the tendons to allow the largest
size of aggregate used to move, under vibration, to all parts of the
forms. At the ends the spacing will be governed by the end details
of the type of the system used. The inside diameter of post
tensioning ducts shall be at least one fourth inch greater than the
diameter of the prestressing steel.

(C) Bundling

When prestressing steel is draped or deflected, not to exceed three

ducts may be bundled in the middle third of the beam length provided that the
spacing specified in (B) is maintained in the end three feet of the member.

7.17- EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND

To insure proper bond in pretensioned members designed to resist

flexure, the following minimum length of embedment of seven-wire strand,
measured from the free end of the strand to the point of maximum steel
stress at ultimate flexural strength, shall be as follows:

1/2 inch strand 135 inches

7/16 inch strand ..oa 120 inches
3/8 inch strand »«•9 100 inches
1/4 inch strand ..aa 65 inches

7.18- CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER

Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to

the concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete, as indicated
by test cubes or cylinders cured by methods identical with the curing of
the members, is at least 80% of the 28 day compressive strength.

7.19- REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

Reinforcement may, in certain circumstances, be desirable in
prestressed concrete beams.

It should be noted that steel reinforcement lying parallel to the

7-13
axis of prestress in a prestressed concrete member may at some time act as
longitudinal reinforcement in compression. Transverse binding may be required
to prevent buckling of this reinforcement particularly if its diameter is
large.

Reinforcement will often be required at the ends of members to take

the tensile stresses that may be induced near the ends by the prestressing
force and particularly stresses caused during transfer.

Reinforcement may be necessary, particularly where post-tensioning

systems are used, to control any cracking resulting from restraint to longi­
tudinal shrinkage of members provided by the formwork during the time before
the prestress is applied.

Web reinforcement is desirable in beams with thin webs, particularly

when ducts or tendons are located in the webs. Generally in beams of depth
exceeding 2 ft. and length exceeding 30 ft. in which the depth of the web is
more than four times the web thickness, vertical reinforcement is desirable
in the form of stirrups. Where this reinforcement is provided in the form
of mild steel bars its total cross-section area should be not less than 0.1
per cent of the sectional area in plan of the web. Where high tensile steel
is used, the area of this reinforcement may be reduced with respect to the
area of mild steel otherwise required, in the inverse ratio of the corres=
ponding permissible stresses. In either case, this reinforcement should
preferably not be spaced further apart than a distance equal to the clear
web depth. The size of such reinforcement should be as small as practicable.

Where prestressed concrete beams may be required to resist shock

loading, the beams should be reinforced with closed stirrups and longitudinal
reinforcement of mild steel.

7-14
 SECTION 8 - PILE LOADS AND BEARING POWER OF SOILS

8.1- BEARING POWER OF FOUNDATION SOILS

When required by the engineer, the. bearing power of the soil>in

excavated foundation pits shall be determined by loading tests. The follow­
ing tabulation of the bearing power of broad basic groups of materials may
be used as an aid to the judgement in the absence of more definite
information:

Safe bearing power

Tons per square foot
Material Min, Max.

Alluvial soils % 1
Clays i 4
Sand, confined 1 4
Gravel 2 4
Cemented sand & gravel -------- 5 10
Rock 5

Loading tests have a limited depth influence and may not disclose
long-time consolidation.
When the consolidation of foundation soils causes the settlement of
the backfill against an abutment or the settlement of the soil under an
abutment: which is placed on piles driven through a fill, the load transmitted
may result in overloading the piles*
When the hydraulic gradient is increased as in excavating material
from below the water table 9 foundation soils may be loosened by the upward
flow of wafer. Such a condition should be guarded against.
Intrusion failures should be prevented by requiring a base course
between rip rap and fine soils and by requiring proper gradation of drainage
backfill behind abutments.

8.2“ ANGLES OF REPOSE

Earth, Loam - -- — 30°'to 45° Gravel 30° to 40'

Dry Sand --- 25 to 35 Cinders ---- 25 to 40
Moist Sand — — 30 to 45 Coke -■— ' 30 to 45
Wet Sand ----15 to 30 Coal — 25 to 35
Compact earth — 35 to 40

In the absence of exact data which has been determined by field

investigation and soil analysis, the angle of repose of the material shall
be assumed to be the minimum given in the table.

8-1
8.3- BEARING VALUE OF PILING

(A) General

The design loads for piles shall not be greater than the minimum
value which shall be determined for Case A, Case B, and Case C; where Case A
is the capacity of the pile as a structural member, Case B is the capacity of
the pile to transfer its load to the ground and Case G is the capacity of the
ground to support the load delivered to it by the pile or piles. The values
assignable to each of the three cases shall be determined by making subsur­
face investigations or tests of sufficient extent to justify the assumed
design values used for the particular condition of support under consideration.

In determining the bearing value of piles for use in designing,

consideration shall be given to all information available relative to the
sub-surface conditions. Consideration shall also be given to:

a) The difference between the supporting capacity of a single

pile and group.

(2 ) The capacity of the underlying strata, to support the load

of the pile group.

(3) The effect of driving additional piles and the effect of

their loads on adjacent structures.

(4) Possibility of scour and its effect

(B) Case A. Capacity of Pile as a Structural Member

(1) Structural Columns:

Piles shall be designed as structural columns. Concrete

piles shall be designed in accordance with Article 5.2, steel piles
in accordance with Article 5.4, and concrete-filled pipe piles
in accordance with Article 5.2, except that the allowable unit
stresses may be increased 20% provided the shell thickness is not
less than % inch. The area of the shell shall be included in
determining the value p , (percentage of reinforcement). Where
corrosion may be expected 1/16 inch shall be deducted from the
shell thickness to allow for reduction in section by corrosion.
The allowable stresses of Article 5.4 and 5.2 may be used in all
cases where all of the stresses to which the piles may be
subjected have been included. These stresses may be increased
in accordance with Article 5.1. For trestle piles or other
piles without lateral support designed for dead load and live
load only and where temperature, traction, water pressure and
other forces are not considered, the allowable unit stresses
specified in Article 5.2 and 5.4 shall be decreased 20%.

8-2
 (2} Required Subsurface rvestigacions

Subsurface investigations shall be made which will determine

the. probable depth of scou.r or flotation of material and the condition
of lateral support of the pile.
Case B* Capacity-of Rile to Transfer Load to the Ground:

(1) Pointsbearing Piles

A pile shall he considered to be a point-bearing pile when

placed or driven on or into a material which is capable of developing
the pile load by direct bearing at the point with reasonable factor
of safety.
The allowable load at tip of the pile shall not exceed the
following:

(a) For concrete piles 5 0.26 f !c * or 0 933{£!e ) ^

(b) For concrete^ filled pipe piles .32 f *c'k or 340(fvc)^*

in accordance with Article 5.23 applied to the total
actual area of the concrete and steel.

•(c) For steel piles 9000 pounds per sq» in. over the cross
sectional area of the pile tip.

The limitation in (b) and(c) govern except where the point bearing
capacity of the piles is determined by loading test piles.

(2) Friction Piles:

A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if its point
does not rest on or in a material which is capable of developing the
pile load by direct bearing at the point.
The load-carrying capacity of friction piles shall be
determined by one or more of the following methods:

(a) Driving and loading test piles.

(b) Pile-driving experience in the vicinity. When piles are

designed on the basis of experience in the vicinity, due
consideration will he given to the variation in pile types
and lengths, and in the variation of the soil strata.
Where possible the complete driving records of all piles
in the vicinity shall be examined and compared to the
driving records of the project: piles.

(e) Adequate tests of the soil strata through which the pile
is to be driven. .These tests -should be projected and
compared, if possible , to tests of similar material
through which piles of known capacity have been driven.

8-3
6 ,f compressive cube strength
6lf compressive cylinder strength
 (3) Required Subsurface Investigations

(a) Point^bearing piles. Sufficient borings shall be made to

determine the presence3 position, and thickness of the material
which is capable of developing point-bearing, and the log of
borings shall show the nature of the overlying strata in
order that the extent of lateral support may be determined.
If the point-bearing stratum is of doubtful thickness and
quality, the borings shall be made to such sufficient depth
below this stratum that the capacity of a friction pile may
be determined.

(b) Friction piles. Borings shall be made to an elevation well

below the expected elevation of the pile tips and accurate
logs of these borings shall be made, In those cases where
the piles are to be designed on the basis of soil tests,
undistrubed samples shall be taken on all strata which will
have appreciable influence on the capacity of the pile,

(c) Combination point-bearing and friction piles. Riles shall

be classified as either (1) po in t-b ear ing or (2) friction.
Those cases where adequate strength is developed by both
point-bearing and friction may be designed under either of
these classifications.
(D) Case C. Capacity of the Ground to Support the Pile Load

Preference shall be given to the determination of maximum loads on

piles by test loading or by satisfactory subsurface investigation.
The capacity of the ground to support the load delivered by the
pile shall be determined from the results of the applicable subsurface
investigations:

(1) Point-bearing Piles

Sufficient borings shall be made to determine the thickness and

quality of the stratum i'n which the point bearing is developed. If
that stratum is of sufficient thickness and is underlain by a firm
material, no reduction will be made for group action of piles. In
general, piles should not rest on a thin stratum of hard material
which is underlain by a thick stratum of soft or yielding material,
but where this condition cannot be avoided, group action should be
considered and the design loads reduced accordingly.

(2) Friction Piles

Borings shall be carried well below the tips of the piles in

order to determine the characteristics of the underlying material. In
most cases a study of those borings will suffice to determine whether
or not the underlying soil will support the loads delivered to it, but

8-4
 in doubtful or special cases9 especially large foundation areas and
important footings the material should be investigated more thoroughly
by soil mechanics methods,

A single row of piles shall not be considered as group provided

that they are not spaced 'Closer centre to centre than 2% times the
nominal diameter or dimension* In those cases where piles are driven
in groups into plastic material the design load shall be determined
by the loading of a group of piles or definite allowance shall be
made for the difference between the supporting capacity of a single
pile and a group of piles, "Refer to (G)

(E) Maximum Design Loads for Files

In those cases where it is not feasible to make the required sub™

surface investigations or test loads the maximum assumed design load for
M-i*-d

lies shall be as given in the table below* These values may be increased
or certain combinations of loads as specified in Article 5„1*

TYPES OF PILES

Size or Diameter Concrete Steel Steel

in inches Tons (Fr iction)Tons Point Bearing

8 - 16 9000 pounds per

10 20 20 sq, ina of point
12 24 24 area
14 28 28
16 32 S3
20 40
24 50 -

(F) Uplift

Friction piles may be considered to resist an intermittent but not

sustained uplift equivalent to 40 per cent of the above loads providing
proper provision is made for the anchorage at fop and sufficient skin
friction is developed and in no case shall it exceed the weight of material
(buoyancy considered) surrounding the emheded portion of the pile,

(G) Group Pile Loading

Where the capacity of a group of friction piles driven into plastic

material is not determined by test loadings the following Convex s e~ Lab ar re
formula is suggested to determine the reduction of a single pile load
for a group pile load:
(n - 1) is t ( m ~ 1) xi
E - 1 - ^ .... ....— ..... -.......
90 m n

8-5
Where

E = the efficiency or the decimal fraction of the single

pile value to be used for each pile in the group0

n = the number of piles in each row

m = the number of rows in each group

d = the average diameter of the pile

s = centre to centre spacing of piles

Tan 4 = d/s

is numerically equal to the angle expressed in degrees.

8-6
 SECTION 9 - SUBSTRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS

9.1.. PILES

(A) General

In general, piling shall be used when footings cannot, at a reasonable

expense, be founded on rock or other solid foundation material. At locations
where unusual erosion may occur and the soil conditions permit the driving of
piles, they, preferably^ shall be used as a protection against scour, even
though the safe bearing resistance of the natural soil is sufficient to support
the structure without piling.

In general, the penetration for any pile shall be not less than 10 feet
in hard material and not less than 1/3 the length of the pile nor less than 20
feet in soft material..

For foundation work, no piling shall be used to penetrate a very soft

upper stratum overlying a hard stratum unless the piles penetrate the hard
material a sufficient distance to rigidly fix the ends,

(B) Design Loads

The design loads for piles shall be according to Article 8,3,

Piles shall be designed to carry the entire superimposed load, no

allowance being made for the supporting value of the material between the piles,

The supporting power of piles shall be determined by the application

of test loads.

(€) Spacing, Clearances and Embedment

Footing areas shall be so proportioned that pile spacing shall be not

less than 2 feet 6 inches centre to centre. When the tops of foundation piles
are incorporated in a concrete footing, the distance from the side of any pile
to the nearest edge of footing shall not be less than 9 inches.

The top of steel piles shall project not less than 12 inches into the
concrete after all damaged material has been removed. The penetration of
concrete piles shall be not less than 6 inches,

(D) Batter Piles

When the lateral resistance to the soil surrounding the piles is

inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces transmitted to the foundation
or when increased rigidity of the entire structure is required, batter piles
shall be used in the foundation.

9-1
(E) Buoyancy

The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered in the design as

provided in Article 2, 15.

(F) Concrete Piles (Precast)

Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and shape.. If a

square section is employed, the corners shall be chamfered at least one inch.
Piles, preferably, shall be cast with a driving point and for hard driving,
preferable; shall be shod with a metal shoe of approved pattern. Piling may be
either of uniform section or tapered. In general, tapered piling shall not be
used for trestle construction except for that portion of the pile which lies
below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in any location where
the piles are to act as columns* In general, concrete piles shall have a cross
sectional area, measured above the taper, of not less than 140 square inches
and when they are to be used in salt water they shall have a cross sectional
area of not less than 220 square inches.

The diameter of tapered piles measured 2 feet from the point shall be
not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter shall be considered as the
least dimension through the centre. The point in all cases, where steel points
are not used, shall be not less than 8 inches in diameter and the pile shall
be beveled, tapered or sloped uniformly from the point to 2 feet from the point.

Vertical reinforcement shall be provided consisting of not less than

four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the pile.. It shall be at
least 1% per cent of the total cross section measured above the tapper, except
that if more than four bars are used, the number may be reduced to four In the
bottom 4 feet of the pile.

The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral re­
inforcement or equivalent hoops.

The spiral reinforcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of
3 inches, and gauge of not less than No *5(Birmingham)* In addition the top 6
inches of pile shall have five turns of spiral winding at one-inch pitch.

For the remainder of the pile the vertical steel shall be enclosed with
spiral reinforcement No, 5 gauge(Birmingham), with not more than 6-inch pitch,
or with linch round hoops spaced not more than 6 inches on centres,
4
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance from the face of
the pile of not less than 2 Inches and when the piles are for use in salt water
or alkali soils this clear distance shall be not less than 3 inches.

In computing stresses due to handling, the computed static loads shall

be increased by 50 per cent as an allowance for impact and shock,

9-2
(G) Concrete Piles (Cast-in-Place)

Cast-in-Place concrete piles shall be , in general, cast in metal

shells which shall remain permanently in place. However, other types of cast-
in-place concrete piles, plain or reinforced, cased or unrased, may be used
if, in the opinion of the engineer, the soil conditions permit their use and
if their design and the method of placing are satisfactory to him.

Cast-in-place concrete piles may be of either uniform section or taper­

ed or a combination thereof. The minimum size, measured at the butt, or above
the taper, and embedment of reinforcement shall be as specified for precast
piles, except that foundation piles may have a minimum butt cross-section area
of 100 square inches. The minimum diameter at tip of pile shall be 8 inches.

Cast*in-plape piling shall be reinforced when specified or shown on

the plans. Cast-in-place foundation piling, carrying axial loads only and
where the possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles is insig­
nificant, need not be reinforced when the soil provides adequate lateral
support. Those portions of cast-in-place piling which are not supported
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with
Article 6.8, and the reinforcing steel shall extend ten feet below the plane
where the soil provides adequate lateral restraint. Where the shell is more
than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may be considered as reinforcement.

Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the pile

with the superstructure to make a suitable connection.

The metal shall be of sufficient thickness and strength so that the

shell will hold its original form and show no harmful distortion after it
and adjacent shells have been driven and the driving core, if any, has been
withdrawn. The design of the shell shall be approved by the engineer before
any driving is done.

(H) Steel Piles

(1) Thickness of Metal

Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of web of .400"

Splice plates shall be not less than 3/8 inch thick.

(2) Splices

Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.

The flanges and web shall be either spliced by butt welding or with
plates, welded, riveted or bolted. The bolted splices shall only be
used on projects where a small number of piling are required and
where facilities for riveting or welding are not available.

Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.

9-3
 (3) Caps

In general, caps are not required for steel piles embedded in

concrete. Reference is made to Research Report N o .1, investigation of
the Strength of the Connection between a Concrete Cap and the Embedded
end of the Steel H-Pile" - Department of Highways , State of Ohio , lb S*A*
for a discussion of this subject and for the results of the tests pertinent
to it .

(4) Scour

If heavy scour is anticipated, consideration shall be given to

design of the portion of the pile which would be exposed, as a column.

(5) Lugs, Scabs and Core-stoppers

These devices may be used to increase the bearing power of the

pile where necessary. They may consist of structural shapes, welded,
riveted or bolted, of plates welded between the flanges, or of concrete
blocks securely fastened.

(I) Steel Pile and Steel Pile Shell Protection

Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete encasement shall be used on

steel piles and steel shells or 1/16 inch depth of thickness shall be deducted
from all exposed surfaces in computing the area of steel in the piles or
shells.

9.2- FOOTINGS

(A) Depth

The depth of footings shall be determined with respect to the character

of the foundation materials and the possibility of undermining. Except
where solid rock is encountered or in other special cases the footings of all
structures other than culverts, which are exposed to the erosive action of
stream currents, preferably, shall be founded at a depth of not less than 4
feet below the permanent bed of the stream. Stream piers and arch abutments,
preferably, shall be founded at a depth of not less than 6 feet below stream
bed. The above preferred minimum depths shall be increased as conditions may
require.

Footings not exposed to the action of stream currents shall be founded

on a firm foundation and below frost.

Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation sufficient to

secure a firm foundation, or a heavy reinforced floor shall be used to distri­
bute the pressure over the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any
location liable to erosion, aprons or cut-off walls shall be used at both ends

9-4
of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire floor area between the wing
walls shall be paved. Baffle walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of
a culvert barrel shall not be used where the stream bed is subject to erosion.
When conditions require, culvert footings shall be reinforced longitudinally.

(B) Anchorage

Footing on inclined smooth solid surfaces which are not restrained by

an overburden of resistant material, shall be effectively anchored by means of
anchor bolts, dowels, keys or other suitable means.

(C) Distribution of Pressure

All footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil pressures

within safe bearing values. In order to prevent unequal settlement, footings
shall be designed to keep the pressure as nearly uniform as practicable. In
footings having unequal pressures and requiring piling, the spacing of the
piles shall be such as to secure as nearly equal loads on each pile as may be
practicable.

(D) Spread Footings.

Spread footings which act as cantilevers may be decreased in thickness

from the junction of the footing slab with column or wall toward the edge
of the footing, provided sufficient section is maintained at all points to
provide the necessary resistance to diagonal tension and bending stresses.
This decrease in section may be accomplished by sloping the upper surface of
the footing or by means of vertical steps. Stepped footings shall be cast
monolithically.

(E) Internal Stresses in Spread Footings

Spread footings shall be cons idered as under the action of downward

forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted by an upward pressure exerted
by the foundation materials and distributed over the area of the footings as
determined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward forces. Where
piles are used under footings, the upward reaction of the foundation shall be
considered as a series of concentrated loads applied at the pile centres, each
pile being assumed to carry its computed proportion of the total footing load,

When a single spread footing supports a column, pier or wall, this

footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever. When two or more piers or
columns are placed upon a common footing, the footing slab shall be designed
for the actual conditions of continuity and restraint.

Footings shall be designed for the bending stress, diagonal tension

stress and bond at the critical section designated herein.

9-5
 The critical section for bending shall be taken at the face of the
column, pedestal or wall. In the case of columns other than square or rec~
tangular, the critical section shall be taken at the side of the concentric
square of equivalent area. For footings under masonary walls, where bond
between the wall and footing is reduced to friction value, the critical
section shall be taken as midway between the middle and the face of the wall.
For footings under metallic column bases, the critical section shall be taken
as midway between the face of the column and the edge of the metallic base.
The load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over the column,
pedestal or wall, or metallic column base.

The critical section for bond shall be taken at the same plane as for
bending, and the shear used for computing bond shall be based on the same
loading and section as for bending. Bond should also be investigated at
planes where changes of section or of reinforcement occur.

The critical section for diagonal tension in footings on soil or rock

shall be considered as a concentric vertical section through the footing at
a distance ffd,f from each face of the column, pedestal, or wall; fld!l being
equal to the depth from the top of the section to the centroid of the
longitudina 1 tension reiriforcement.

The critical section for diagonal tension in footings supported on

piles shall be considered as the concentric vertical section through the
footing at a distance, d/2, from each face of the column, pedestal or wall,
and any piles whose centres are at or outside this section shall be
considered in computing the diagonal tension.

In sloped or stepped footings, stresses should be investigated at

sections where the depth changes outisde the critical section as defined
above.

Bending need not be considered unless the projection of the footing is

more than two-third of the depth.

In plain concrete footings, the stresses shall be computed on the

basis of a monolithic section having a depth measured from the top of the
footing to a plane 2 inches above the bottom of the footing. The maximum
fibre stress due to bending shall not exceed that specified in Article 5.2
and the average shearing stress on the concentric vertical section through
the footing at a distance (d minus 2 inches) from each face of the column,
pedestal or wall, shall not exceed the shearing stress specified in Article
5.2 for beam without web reinforcement and with longitudinal bars not
anchored.

(F) Reinforcement

Footing slabs shall be reinforced for bending stresses and, where

necessary, for diagonal tension. The computed stress in the bar shall be
developed in bond.

9-6
 The reinforcement for square footings shall consist of two or more bands
of bars. The reinforcement necessary to resist the bending moment in each
direction in the footing shall be determined as for a reinforced concrete
beam; the effective depth of the footing shall be the depth from the top to
the plane of the reinforcement. The required reinforcement shall be spaced
uniformly across the footing, unless the footing width is greater than the
side of the column or pedestal plus twice the effective depth of the footing,
in which case the width over which the reinforcement is spread may equal the
width of the column or pedestal plus twice the effective depth of the footing
plus one~hal£ the remaining width of the footing. In order that no consider­
able area of the footing shall remain unreinforced,additional bars shall be
placed outside of the width specified^hut such bars shall not be considered as
effective in resisting the calculated bending moment. For the extra bars a spa­
cing double that used for the reinforcement within the effective belt may be
used.
(G) Transfer of Stress from Vertical Reinforcement
The stresses in the vertical reinforcement of columns or walls shall be
transferred to the footings by extending the reinforcement into them a suffi­
cient distance to develop the strength of the bars in bond,or by means of
dowels anchored in the footings and overlapping or fastened to the vertical
bars in such manner as to develop their strength. If the dimensions of the
footings are not sufficient to permit the use of straight bars, the bars may
be hooked or otherwise mechanically anchored in the footings.
9.3- ABUTMENTS
(A) General
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pressure as specified
in Article 2,16, the weight of abutment and superstructure, live load over
any portion of the superstructure or approach! fill, wind forces,longitudinal
force when the bearings, are fixed, and longitudinal forces due to frictional
bearings. The design shall be investigated for any combination of these
forces which may produce the most severe condition of loading.
Abutments shall be designed to be safe against overturning about the
toe of the footing, against sliding on the footing base and against crushing
of foundation material or overloading of piles at the point of maximum pressure
In computing stresses in abutments, the weight of filling material
directly over an inclined or stepped rear face, or over a reinforced concrete
spread footing extending back from the face wall, may be considered as part of
the effective weight of the abutment. In the case of a spread footing, the
rear projection shall be designed as a cantilever supported at the abutment
stem and loaded with the full weight of the superimposed material,unless a
more exact method is used.
The cross section of stone masonry or plain concrete abutments shall
be proportioned to avoid the introduction of tensile stress in the material.

9-7
(B) Reinforcement for Temperature

Except in gravity abutments, not less than 1/8 square inch of horizon­
tal reinforcement per foot of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces
not otherwise reinforced, to resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage
cracks.

(C) Wing Walls

Wing walls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway embank­

ment to the required extent and to furnish protection against erosion. For
ordinary materials, in the absence of accurate data, the slope of the fill
shall be assumed as 1% horizontal to one vertical and wing lengths computed
on this basis.

Inhere deflection joints are not used reinforcement rods or other suit­
able rolled sections preferably shall be spaced across the junction between
all wing walls and abutments to thoroughly tie them together. Such bars shall
extend into the masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop the
strength of the bar as specified for bar reinforcement, and shall vary in
length so as to avoid planes of weakness in the concrete at their ends. If
bars are not used, an expansion joint shall be provided at this point in
which the wings shall be mortised into the body of the abutment.

(D) Drainage

The filling material behind abutment shall be effectively drained by

weep holes with French drains, placed at suitable intervals.

9.4- RETAINING WALLS

(A) General

Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand earth pressure, includ­

ing any live load surcharge, and the weight of the wall, in accordance with
the general principles specified above, for abutments.

Stone masonry and plain concrete walls shall be of the gravity type.
Reinforced concrete walls may be of either the cantilever, counterforted,
buttressed, or cellular types.

(B) Base or Footing Slabs

The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be designed to support

the entire weight of the superimposed materials, unless a more exact method is
used.
The base slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
supported by the walls.

9-8
 The base slabs of eounterforted and buttressed walls shall be designed
as fixed or continuous beams of spans equal to the distance between counter­
forts or buttresses.

(C) Vertical Walls

The vertical stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilever

supported at the base.

The vertical or face walls of eounterforted and buttressed walls shall

be designed as fixed or continuous beams. The face walls shall be securely
anchored to the supporting counterforts or buttressed by means of adequate
reinforcement.

(D) Counterforts and Buttresses

Counterforts shall be designed as T-beams, Buttresses shall be design

=ed as rectangular beams. In connection with the main tension reinforcement of
counterforts there shall be a system of horizontal and vertical bars or
stirrups to effectively anchor the face walls and base slabs. These stirrups
shall be anchored as near the outside faces of the face walls , and as near to
the bottom of the base slab as practicable.

(E) Reinforcement for Temperature

Except in gravity walls not less than 1/8 square inch of horizontal
reinforcement per foot of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not
otherwise reinforced, to resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage
cracks.

(F) Expansion and ContractionJoints

Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not exceeding 30

feet and expansion joints at intervals not exceeding 90 feet, for gravity or
reinforced concrete walls.

(G) Drainage

The filling material behind all retaining walls shall be effectively

drained by weep holes with French drains, placed at suitable intervals. In
eounterforted walls there shall be at least one drain for each pocket formed
by the counterforts.

9.5- PIERS.

Piers shall be designed to withstand dead and live loads superimposed

thereon; wind pressures acting on the pier and superstructure; the force due
to stream flow, centrifugal force, earthquakes, floating drift; and longitud­
inal forces at the fixed end of spans.

9-9
 SECTION 10 ~ STEEL DESIGN

10.1-DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The design of steel bridges shall conform to the British Design Standard
153, Part 4. Design and Construction of the British Standards Institution
1958 Edition.

10-1