Transportation Engineering-I: Mini Project

Calculation of Realistic ESAL Values for

Future Design of Rural Roads

Submitted by
Sajad Hussain
Shahbaz Khan
Osama
Inam Ullah

Submitted to:
Prof. Tariq Khan

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
2021
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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Background and History 1
1.3. Scope of Work 2
1.4. Problem Statement 2
1.5. Aims and Objectives 2
1.6. Organization 3
CHAPTER 2 Literature Review 4
2.1. Introduction 4
2.2. Truck characteristics affecting pavements ------------------------------------------------ 4
2.2.1. Damage effect of dual versus wide base Tyers ------------------------------------ 4
2.2.2. Effect of Tire pressure on road pavement -------------------------------------------- 5
2.2 3. Axle Spacing: 6
2.2 4. Axle weights 6
2 3. Heavy vehicles roadway loading 7
2.3 1. Loading mechanics 7
2.3 2. Vehicle type 7
2.3 3. Equivalent single axle load 7
2.3 4. Axles and Tires 8
2.3 5. Load distribution 8
2 4. Pavement distresses 8
2.4 1. Alligator (Fatigue) Cracking 8
2.4 2. Corrugation and shoving 9
2.4 3. Potholes 9
2.4 4. Raveling 10
2.4 5. Rutting 10
2.5. The concept of Load equivalency and Generalized Fourth power rule ----------- 11
2.5 1. The AASHO road test 11
2.5 2. Equivalent single axle load 12
2.5 3. Load equivalency factors 12
2.5 4. Generalized fourth power law 13
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 2.5.5. Estimating ESALs 13
2.6. Structural design of the flexible pavement ------------------------------------------------ 14
2.6 1. Structure of the pavement 14
2.6.2. Basic structural elements of flexible pavement ------------------------------------ 15
2.6.3. AASHTO empirical equation for structural design of flexible pavement ----- 16
2.6 4. Assumptions 16
2.6 5. Inputs 17
2.6 6. Outputs 17
CHAPTER 3 Methodology 19
3 1. Introduction 19
3 2. Methods of Traffic Counting 19
3.2 1. Manual Method 19
3.2 2. Automatic Method 19
3.3. Data Collection by Manual Counting Method -------------------------------------------- 20
3.3 1. Topi Swabi Road 21
3.3 2. KDA Road, Kohat 22
3.3.3. Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar 23
CHAPTER 4 Results and Design 24
4 1. Introduction 24
4.2. Graphical Representation of Day Wise Summary -------------------------------------- 24
4.2.1. Topi-Swabi Road 24
4.2 2. KDA Road Kohat 25
4.2 3. Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar 26
4.3. Comparison of Average and Peak values ------------------------------------------------ 26
4.3.1. Topi-Swabi Road 27
4.3 2. KDA Road, Kohat 28
4.3.3. Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar 30
4 4. Calculation of ESAL 31
4.4.1. ESAL calculation for Topi-Swabi Road ---------------------------------------------- 31
4.4.2. ESAL calculation for KDA road Kohat ------------------------------------------------ 32
4.4.3. ESAL calculation for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar -------------------------------- 33
4.5. SN and Each Layer Thickness Calculation ----------------------------------------------- 33

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 4.5.1. Topi-Swabi Road 33
4.5.2. KDA Road Kohat 34
4.5.3. Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar 35
4.6. Cross sectional view of each road 37
4.6.1. Topi-Swabi Road 37
4.6.2. KDA road Kohat 38
4.6.3. Nasir Bagh road Peshawar 38
4.7. Quantities and Rate Analysis 39
4.7.1. Quantities and rate analysis of Topi-Swabi Road per 1km --------------------- 39
4.7.2. Quantities and rate analysis of KDA road Kohat per 1km----------------------- 39
4.7.3. Quantities and rate analysis of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar per 1km ------- 39
4 8. Comparison Chart 40
CHAPTER 5 Conclusions 41
5 1. Introduction 41
References 43

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 List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Alligator Cracking ......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.2 Shoving at busy intersection .......................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.3 Pothole Cracks ............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.4 Raveled Area ............................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.5 Rutting ......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.6 AASHO Road test ....................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.7 Basic Flexible Pavement Structure .............................................................................. 15
Figure 3.1 Data Collection at Topi-Swabi Road by Shahbaz Khan .............................................. 21
Figure 3.2 Data Collection at KDA Road Kohat by Osama ......................................................... 22
Figure 3.3 Data Collection at Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar by Inamullah ..................................... 23
Figure 4.1 Day wise Summary Bar charts of Topi Swabi Road ................................................... 25
Figure 4.2 Day wise Summary Bar Charts of KDA Road Kohat ................................................. 25
Figure 4.3 Day wise Summary Bar Charts of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar .................................. 26
Figure 4.4 Comparison of Average and Peak values bar chart of topi-Swabi road ...................... 27
Figure 4.5 Comparison of Average and Peak values bar chart of KDA road Kohat .................... 29
Figure 4.6 Comparison of Average and Peak Values Bar charts for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar 30
Figure 4.7 Typical Cross section of Topi Swabi Road Designed by Shahbaz Khan .................... 37
Figure 4.8 Typical Cross section of KDA Road Kohat Designed by Osama .............................. 38
Figure 4.9 Typical Cross section of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar Designed by Inam Ullah ......... 38

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 List of Tables
Table 2.1 LEF for various load combinations [1] ......................................................................... 13
Table 3.1 Day wise Summary of Topi-Swabi Road ..................................................................... 21
Table 3.2 Day Wise Summary of KDA Road Kohat .................................................................... 22
Table 3.3 Day wise Summary of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar ...................................................... 23
Table 4.1 Average and Peak Values of Topi-Swabi Road............................................................ 27
Table 4.2 Average and Peak values of KDA road Kohat ............................................................. 28
Table 4.3 Average and Peak Value of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar.............................................. 30
Table 4.4 Calculation of ESAL for Topi-Swabi Road .................................................................. 31
Table 4.5 Calculation of ESAL for KDA Road Kohat ................................................................ 32
Table 4.6 Calculation of ESAL for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar .................................................. 33
Table 4.7 Calculated SN ............................................................................................................... 37
Table 4.8 Calculated Each Layer Thickness ................................................................................. 37
Table 4.9 Rate Analysis of Topi Swabi Road ............................................................................... 39
Table 4.10 Rate Analysis of KDA Road Kohat ............................................................................ 39
Table 4.11 Rate Analysis of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar ............................................................ 39
Table 4.12 Comparison Chart ....................................................................................................... 40

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 Abstract

During the design life of the pavement, the pavement structure is subjected to repetitive load of
vehicles. If the vehicle is overloaded than the limits described by the concerned authorities, it will
cause serious damage to the pavement structure before reading the design life. In order to study
the effect of heavy vehicular loadings, a study was done for the Equivalent Single Axle Load
calculations (ESAL) and structural design of road. The study was done by using the background
knowledge of famous American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) road test 1961, whose results are still widely used in present day for the design of
road. The study was done for the three rural roads i.e., KDA road Kohat, Nasir Bagh Road
Peshawar and Topi Swabi Road. Average daily traffic data was obtained and forecasted for 20
years. ESALs were calculated and then Structural number was calculated by using the method
prescribed by the AASHTO design guide, 1993. On the basis of structural number road layer
thicknesses was calculated. From the results, it was observed that heavy trucks pose more serious
damage to the pavement than the Passenger cars. These trucks are sometimes more loaded than
prescribed by the concerned authorities resulting in the damage of pavement structure. In order to
save pavement structure from damaging effects it is necessary to have a proper check and balance
on the load limits given by the concerned authorities.

Keywords: Daily Traffic, Average annual daily traffic, ESAL, Pavement damage, Pavement
structure, Structure Number, Design Life, Pavement design

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 List of Acronyms

ESAL Equivalent Single Axle Load

ADT Annual daily traffic

AADT Average annual daily traffic

HVs Heavy Vehicles

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials

LEF Load Equivalency Factor

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
In this chapter, a brief discussion on the basics is provided about the research work in order
to understand the research work and provide a pathway for the reader to smoothly read and
understand this document.

This chapter will cover background and history of the calculation of realistic ESAL values for
future rural roads design, also main objectives of this work such that the needs it will fulfill and
chapter wise organization of these documents.

1.2. Background and History

In Pakistan there are around 45,640 villages estimated in 2012, hence construction of good
road infrastructure is very much crucial for the advancement of any country. Economical,
educational &social development of any villages significantly hinge on their accessibility to the
developed dwellers. This undeveloped dweller necessitates an emergence to the connection of
developed dweller for their everyday requirements.

Transports is backbone of country; good and quick transport mean increasing and strengthen
economy. This is related to heavy vehicles (HVs) and fine road system. As Pakistan is
underdeveloped country, very hard to maintain road for quick transportation.

Before going to the principal subject first we talk about equivalent single axle load as from
AASHTO Road Test, data was collected from which the ESAL concept was developed for
establishment of comparison of the effects of axles carrying different loads.
the loading that produces an amount of damage to the pavement structure equivalent to one pass
of a single 18,000-pound, dual-Tyre axle with all four Tyre

Although for design of highways and other urban roads, traffic is to be counted and on the
basis of this data analysis is carried out and finally after the accumulation of all the data a road is
design for the corresponding load of the traffic.

But when it is about the rural roads it is commonly seen in Pakistan that they are designed on
the basis of experience and previous knowledge but being a developing country traffic loads are
increasing each and every year very rapidly due to which rural roads are struggling to complete its
design life.

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 Pavements are intended to help the normal traffic loads for a particular atmosphere condition
however a large portion of the pavements don't finish the plan because in common observation it
is noticed that rural roads become under fatigue very soon and wide cracks appear also sometimes
railing occur due to heavy loads and leads to failure of the rural road. These issues lead us to the
calculation of realistic ESAL values for future design of the rural roads.

1.3. Scope of Work

Roads plays an important role in the infrastructure of Pakistan. Industry depends to a great
extent on the roads in a number of day-to-day actions that develop the country's economy. If you
want to be able to serve its function, pavement must be designed to sustain the everyday loads,
ecological conditions and also provide the required performance for its design life period.

Transportation and Highway Engineering is a vast field, but we are here only concerned about
the calculation of realistic equivalent single axle load values for future design of the rural roads.
This Study will provide realistic results which will be very helpful in future for the concerned
department of roads construction for the re-construction of these roads. So that these roads will
complete its design life without any failure under the future loads.

1.4. Problem Statement

Calculation of realistic Equivalent Single Axle Load values for future design of rural roads.

Selected rural Roads are following

1. Topi-Swabi Road, Swabi, kp Pakistan

2. KDA Road, Kohat, kp Pakistan
3. Nasir Bagh Road, Peshawar, kp Pakistan.

1.5. Aims and Objectives

The aim of this research work is to calculate realistic ESAL values for rural roads design. So,
results will be used in future by the department of construction and works, in order to re-
construct these rural roads. Due to design on these results these roads will have capacity to bear
the future loads of the traffic and will complete its design life without any failure.

2
1.6. Organization
In this section we will briefly discuss about chapter wise organization and orientation of these
Document.

In chapter 2, a brief discussion is provided about literature review. In this literature review we
discussed about those topics which were studied for the better understanding of this project. To
know about ESAL, Load Equivalency Factors, traffic data analysis, design of road and failure
modes of the road facing under heavy loads.

Chapter 3, concerned about methodology of this research work. It covers methodology and process
of traffic data (AADT) collection of Topi-Swabi Road, KDA Road Kohat and Nasir Bagh Road
Peshawar kp Pakistan. This chapter provides all necessary data required for design of these roads.

Chapter 4, related about results and design of Topi-Swabi Road, KDA Road Kohat and Nasir Bagh
Road Peshawar kp Pakistan. All the results obtained from the data and its analyzation is covered
in this chapter.

Chapter 5 is about conclusion of these document extract from the above all chapters and about
recommendations about these rural roads in order to prevent them from failure.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
In this chapter, a detailed overview of Equivalent single axle load (ESAL) and Load
equivalency factors has been done. The concept of ESAL was developed from the AASHO road
test. AASHO road test provided one of the equations, the load equivalency equation, which is still
being used in road design. From there, AASHO road test, the concept of generalized fourth power
rule was also developed. The load equivalency equation is difficult to remember so the generalized
fourth power rule is used as a rule of thumb.

This chapter enlightens the factors of heavy vehicle loading that proves to cause the damaging
effect to the roads. Heavy vehicles pose serious damage to the pavement in the form of raveling,
potholes, and rutting.

The structural design of road is done by using the concepts from AASHTO design guide 1993.
The data of Average daily traffic is collected and forecasted for the desired design period. Then
by using the AASHTO design equation the structural design is done by the iterative method.

2.2. Truck characteristics affecting pavements

2.2.1. Damage effect of dual versus wide base Tyres
Different types of deflectometers are used to measure the pavement response to the vehicular
loading. MDD (Multi-depth deflectometer) is measuring device for deflections, retrofitted in
pavement layers. Experimental data has shown that wide base Tyres proven to have more
damaging effect than the dual Tyres. Before wide base Tyres, single Tyres were used, that
distribute the axle load over small area resulting in the increased stress[2].

A research study was organized by the T. Akram and T. Scullion to study the effect of dual
Tyres versus wide base Tyres. Deflections were measured at several depths using MDD. Tests
were performed on the Tyres, at high inflation pressure and average speed of the truck was between
55 to 60 mph. It was found; wide base Tyres reduce the anticipated pavement life to more extent
than the dual Tyres[2].

With several surveys on the effect of single versus dual Tyres, Bauer (1994) summarized the
studies as:

4
 Sebaaly and Tabataee (1992) found rutting damage ration is varying between 1. And 1.6
for wide base and dual Tyre assemblies.

Bonaquist (1992), carried his research on the road simulator of the Turner-Fairbank
highway research center at McLean (Virginia), using the dual and wide base assembly, depending
on the road layers, the rutting ratio may vary from 1.1 to 1.5.

Although it is very much true that single base Tyre causes adverse effect on the pavement
structure, but it is also matter of great concern that unbalanced load between the two set of dual
Tyres can also deteriorate the pavement structure. Unbalanced Tyre pressure of the dual Tyre
assembly can occur due to the unequal Tyre pressure, unequal Tyre wear. In multi-axle group with
unequal Tyre pressure, as the load on the two Tyres of the dual Tyre become unbalanced the
pavement wears increases[2].

2.2.2. Effect of Tyre pressure on road pavement

When AASHTO tests were conducted, to estimate the damaging effect of heavy vehicular loads,
the vehicles were of resemblance to the vehicles that were used in late 1950s: they were of bias-
ply construction with the inflation pressure of 75 to 80 pounds per square inch (psi). As the time
passed by, the bias-ply Tyres were replaced by radial Tyres and the inflation pressure has also been
increased. A research study was organized by the Bartholomew (1989), the survey period was
arranged in seven states from 1984 to 1986, the studied show that 70 to 80 percent of the trucks
were using the radial Tyres and that average Tyre pressure was about 100 psi. As a result of this
survey, concern was raised that the pavement damage in the form of wear has also been increased
due to increased Tyre pressure[2].

Higher Tyre pressure tends to reduce the Tyre

area. The increased pressure tends to increase the pavement wear, increasing both rate of rutting
and rate of cracking[2].

During operation of the road, the rolling of the Tyre on the surface can increase the inflation
pressure. Inflation pressure of hot Tyres, for bias-ply Tyres, can be greater up to 15 to 20 psi than
the cold Tyres. Similarly, for the radial Tyres: the inflation pressure of hot Tyres can be 5 to 15
psi greater than cold Tyres[3].

5
2.2.3. Axle Spacing:
Rutting and fatigue are the two primary load effects in the flexible pavement. For rutting, If the
axles are brought closer together it is possible to effect the critical stress and pavement
performance. For fatigue, when the two separated axles are brought closer together, the stresses
that are being imparted to the road will not tend to act as separate entities. When the axle spacing
is decreased, the deflection of the pavement surface increases. However, when the spacing is
decreased, the stresses at the underside of the layer of the pavement actually tend to decrease.
When the axles are brought closer together, the loading contours overlap which tend to increase
the loading duration.

In short, the reduction of axle spacing to determine the pavement wear is complex and dependent
on the structure of the pavement[3].

2.2.4. Axle weights

The concept of load equivalence factor is the measure of relative effect of different type of loadings
on the pavements. For this purpose, the concept of equivalent single axle load (ESAL) is being
introduced. By convention, 1ESAL is load carried by a vehicle of 18,000-pound. The ESAL value
for the other type of vehicle is expressed in terms of relative damage to the pavement caused by
18,000-lb single axle load e.g., a vehicle on a given pavement of ESALs means that one pass by
this type of vehicle has the same effect as the four passes by the 18,000-lb vehicle.

In 1950, American association of state highway officials (AASHTO) conducted road tests and
provided various sets of ESAL values for single and tandem on various different types of
pavements. Then in 1986, the concept of ESAL was extended to load equivalent effect for tridem
axles. The load equivalence factors depend on weight and vary sharply with weight, following
roughly fourth power relationship. On both flexible and rigid pavements, the load equivalence
factor for 20,000-lb single axle is (20/18)4 i.e., almost equal to 1.5. This means that, one pass by
the 20,000-lb vehicle would have same effect on the pavement as 150 passes of the 18,000-lb
vehicle.

American association of state and highway officials provide separate sets for the rigid and flexible
pavement. The reason is that the difference between the ESALs value of flexible and rigid
pavement were found to have greater effect on the rigid pavement[3].

6
2.3. Heavy vehicles roadway loading
Now-a-days, we are mostly dependent on our roadways. We rely mostly on roads to travel from
one place to the other, to transport goods from one place to another. In short words we can say that
roads are the heavy lifter of the society. As we know that, road damages and deteriorate over time.
But what are the factors contributing to the cause? In this section we will have a comprehensive
but brief overview of the heavy vehicle roadway loading.

2.3.1. Loading mechanics

When a heavy vehicle drives over a pavement, it induces bending stresses in the layers of the
pavement. The nature of the induced stress depends on the relative location of the load subjected
to the pavement. The phenomena are like, bending a pencil in your hands, wood on one side of the
pencil is pushed together while on the other side, it is pulled apart. Same as a simple beam, having

in the bottom layer. As the load on the road pavement is repetitive is a continuous phenomenon of
loading and unloading so, the damage occurs due to the repetitive cycles of loading and unloading.
As a result of the tensile stresses, the pavement is pulled apart leaving voids (cracks). In flexible
pavement, the base layers and the asphalt concrete provides resistance to the compressive and
tensile loads. While in rigid pavement, the tensile load is resisted/carried by any reinforcement in
the pavement and the concrete[6].

2.3.2. Vehicle type

Personnel vehicles make up most of the vehicular traffic on the roads. However, these types of
vehicles contribute very less to the road deterioration. The main damage that is caused to the road
is from the heavy vehicles. The damage effect to road is generally calculated by taking ratio of
load magnitude to the fourth power. Several repetitions of small personnel vehicle will cause the
same damage as of only one pass or one rep of the heavy vehicle. Because of this, heavy
trucks/vehicles represent the heavy lifting of our roadways. In fact, load from motorcycle, cars and
vans is negligible and is generally not factored into the pavement design[6].

2.3.3. Equivalent single axle load

As different type of vehicle contributes differently to the pavement, so the engineers developed
the concept of equivalent single axle load (ESAL) so that one number represents these different
sources. This number is then used for the design of the pavement structure. One ESAL is defined

7
as the vehicle downwards force of 18,000-lbs. Other value of ESAL represents the different effect
caused to the road compared to this load i.e., 18,000-lbs. When the ESAL value of one is compared
to the other values; it is load equivalency factor (LEF). The calculation of LEF depends upon the
strength of the pavement as well as type of the pavement. Designers then use this value and forecast
it for the design life to determine how strong the pavement is used to be in future[7].

2.3.4. Axles and Tyres

In addition to the weight of the vehicle, assembly of the axle and Tyre have a significant effect on
the pavement damage. Generally, the more contact points the vehicle Tyre make, the smaller will
be the individual load and hence, damage to the road pavement will be less.

There is a classification for vehicle axle as single, tandem and tridem. Tandem axles are the tiers
spaced close together. For the same axle load, they generally cause less damage to the pavement.

In addition to the single and tandem axle, Tiers are also classified into single and dual tiers,
corresponding to the number of Tyres on each side of the vehicle. For instance, dual Tyre causes
less damage to the pavement as the single axle does. It is due to the less stress induced in the
pavement due to larger contact area of the dual Tyres[2].

2.3.5. Load distribution

If there is a multilane highway then, in addition to the number of vehicular loads on a given
pavement; the pavement engineer should also consider the load distribution in different lanes. If
you work out all day with your arms, then its going to get Tyred more quickly than you rest of the
body. The same thing happens with the roads and the designer should take this into the account.
So, for the design of the multi-lane roads, the design lane is selected as the one which carry great
volume of traffic (more load). It is not always necessary that in a multi-lane road, the opposite lane
will be carrying the same amount of load as one lane does. In most of the cases, the heavy vehicle
tends to move in the slower lanes. As a result, the outer lanes are subjected to more loads than the
inner lanes.

2.4. Pavement distresses

2.4.1. Alligator (Fatigue) Cracking
These types of cracks result from the repetitive loading of the vehicles on the pavement structure.
As the magnitude and the number of the loads become great, longitudinal cracks begin to form.

8
Due to the repetitive loading the cracks inter-connect forming the shape of back of the alligator or
crocodile.

The possible reason for these types of cracks is due to the fact that is pavement is loaded more
heavily than it is designed for, or the pavement structure is designed too thin for the anticipated
load[4].

Figure 2.1 Alligator Cracking

2.4.2. Corrugation and shoving

This type of cracks shows resemblance with the ripple (corrugation) or an abrupt wave across
pavement. The distortion is at right angle to the traffic flow. It usually occurs at places where
traffic stops or starts i.e., intersections etc.

It is also caused due to poor mix design of the asphalt pavement layers[4].

Figure 2.2 Shoving at busy intersection

2.4.3. Potholes
Potholes are the depression in the pavement that extends all the way down to the base course.
Potholes are mostly likely to occur in the thin asphalt surfaces i.e., 1 to 2 inch thick and it rarely
occurs in the surfaces that are thick i.e., Inches.

9
Potholes are actually the final result of fatigue cracking. The sharp edges in the fatigue cracks
extend down to the base course due to repetitive vehicular load from the traffic[4].

Figure 2.3 Pothole Cracks

2.4.4. Raveling
It is the slow integration of the surface of the asphalt layer due to the dislodgment of the aggregate
materials. It tends to roughen the road surface, resulting to expose the other layers of the pavement
to deterioration.

It generally occurs due to loss of bond between the asphalt binder and the aggregate materials due
to the process known as asphalt binder aging[4].

Figure 2.4 Raveled Area

2.4.5. Rutting
Rutting is the surface depression along the wheel path. The rutting surface is more evident in the
rainy seasons when the depression surface is filled with water. It generally occurs due to the lateral

10
movement of the pavement materials due to repetitive loading of the traffic. It also occurs due to
the improper mix design or manufacture[4].

Figure 2.5 Rutting

2.5. The concept of Load equivalency and Generalized Fourth power rule
2.5.1. The AASHO road test
American association of state highway and transportation officials conducted AASHO road test in
order to determine that how traffic contributes to the deterioration of the highway. Officially, the
test was performed on the pavement structure of known thickness under the moving traffic loads
of known magnitude and frequency. The experiment/test was carried out in late 1950s in Ottawa
Illinois, test act as primary source to consider vehicle wear in highways, for the purpose of road
design.

The road test was conducted, where the facilities were built in six two lane loops. Specific vehicles
of different weight and type moved on these roads.

AASHO interim guide for design of rigid and flexible pavement, issued in 1961, was made from
the results obtained from the test. Then modifications were made in the guide and major updates
were released in 1972 and 1993. The version of 1993 is still used in United States. Another guide
was planned to be released in 2002 yet still under development. It will be the first AASHTO design
guide which will not be based on the results obtained from the AASHO road test. The load
equivalency concept was first developed from the results obtained from the AASHO road test. The

11
concept of generalized fourth power rule was also developed from the results obtained from the
AASHO road test[1].

Figure 2.6 AASHO Road test

2.5.2. Equivalent single axle load

In the design of road, it is not difficult to calculate and determine the wheel load for the individual
vehicle rather, it is default to determine that what kind and type of axle the particular pavement
will be subjected over the design life. Further the wheel load is of not primary concern rather it is
the damage to the pavement, it is of primary concern. The most classic and historic method is to
convert the load from the mixed axles to the standard 18,000-lb equivalent single axle load. In its
early stages, at the time of its development (early 1950s and 1960s AASHO road test), it was easy
to represent the whole traffic from a single number.

Two standard ESALs where derived from the AASHO road test in 1960s, one for flexible
pavement and one for rigid pavement[6].

2.5.3. Load equivalency factors

The output of the ESAL equation is nothing but the Load equivalency factors (LEFs) or ESAL
factors. The main function of the factor is that it relates various load combinations to the standard
18,000-lb single axle load. The AASHO design guide 1993 suggests using a multiplier of 1.5 for
the conversion of flexible ESALs to the rigid ESALs. In the same way, in order to convert rigid
ESALs to flexible ESALs, use a multiplier of 0.67.

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Some of the typical LEF for various axle load combinations is given below[8].

Table 2.1 LEF for various load combinations [1]

2.5.4. Generalized fourth power law

The equation proposed by AASHTO is very complex and cumbersome and is very difficult to
remember. It was observed that damage caused by the particular load was approximately equal to
the fourth power for strong pavement surfaces. So as a rule of thumb, the generalized fourth power
law is used in most cases instead the formula proposed by the AASHTO. For example, we have a
particular flexible pavement with SN=3 and pt=5 the load equivalency factor for 18,000-lb single
axle is, LEF=1. Similarly, the load equivalency factor for 30,000-lb single axle is, LEF=7.9. By
comparing the two, ratio is 7.9/1.0=7.9. Now, by using the fourth power rule of thumb,
(7.9/1)4=7.9. Thus, the two results are approximately same.

2.5.5. Estimating ESALs

The basic step in the design of pave structure is to estimate the ESALs that it is going to encounter
through its design life. Estimating ESALs help in structural design of the pavement structure. The
basic question comes in one mind, how many ESALs the particular pave is going to be subjected

13
throughout its design life. This is done by forecasting the present traffic into future ESALs. Typical
ESAL estimate consist of:

1. Traffic Count. This is the starting point or first step of the ESAL calculation. Most of the
urban areas have the past traffic count. If still it is not available simple use traffic tube can be used
that is relatively simple, less expensive, and easy to use. If it is not available, the manual method
of traffic count can be adopted i.e., tally sheet method.

2. Count of or estimate of heavy vehicle. For this, some sort of vehicle classification is
required. Vehicles are classified into heavy vehicles and passenger vehicles. Generally, passenger
cars are of no primary concern because the damage to the pavement is mainly due to the heavily
loaded vehicles.

3. Growth rate for traffic over its design life of pavement. For a particular area there is a
growth rate for the traffic. Present day traffic of one year (AADT) is forecasted to determine how
much traffic particular road is going to encounter throughout its design life.

4. Select appropriate LEF to convert truck traffic into the ESALs. The particular LEF, given
by the AASHTO design guide 1993, is for the United States regions only, particularly for Ottawa
Illinois. However other regions may have high traffic but most trucks maybe empty, resulting in
lower LEF.

5. An ESAL estimate. The ESAL estimate is dependent and can be made based on the
preceding steps. Depending upon the circumstances these results may vary widely[1].

2.6. Structural design of the flexible pavement

2.6.1. Structure of the pavement
Hot mix asphalt pavements are known to be flexible pavements. The flexible pavements are named
so as flexible, it is because flexible pavement upon loading, it deflects or bends. The flexible
pavement structure consists of several layers which receive load from the top layer, spreads the
load over an area, and then pass that load to the layer lying below. So, one can conclude, the further
down the layer is the fewer loads it is going to receive.

14
2.6.2. Basic structural elements of flexible pavement
The layers in the flexible pavement are arranged in order of their decreasing load bearing capacity
with the highest load bearing capacity material on the top and lowest load bearing capacity material
in the bottom. Similarly, the most expensive material is placed on the top and the less expensive
material being placed at the bottom.

Surface course. This is the layer of flexible pavement that in direct contact with the traffic
loads. This layer helps in providing the characteristics such as drainage, rut resistance, noise
control, smoothness, and friction. In addition, it also protects the underlying base, subbase, and
subgrade by hindering the movement of water into these layers. This surface course is sometimes
further into wearing course (top) and binder course (bottom).

Base course. It is the layer place directly below the surface course. The load from the
surface course is distributed more by this layer and it also helps in drainage. This layer is usually
constructed of crushed aggregate.

Subbase course. This is the layer present in between the subgrade and base course. The
main function of this layer is to support the structure, but it also helps in drainage. This layer
generally contains the material of lower quality than the base course but of better quality than the
subgrade.

Figure 2.7 Basic Flexible Pavement Structure

15
2.6.3. AASHTO empirical equation for structural design of flexible pavement
The primary purpose of the empirical equation is to relate the measurable and observed phenomena
with particular outcomes. The empirical equation given by the AASHTO design guide is widely
used and has the following parameters:

W18= predicted number of 18,000-lb ESALs

ZR= standard normal deviate

So=combined standard error of traffic prediction and performance prediction

SN= structural number

i.e.,
-pt

MR= subgrade resilient modulus

There are certain sub-sections associated with the AASHTO flexible pavement design equation
that are assumptions, input, and outputs.

2.6.4. Assumptions
The equations from the AASHO road test were related to pavement thickness, loss in serviceability
and traffic. The equations advised and developed by AASHTO are based on specific conditions of
AASHO road test, so these equations have some limitations:
During the AASHO road test specific road materials were used. So, these equations are for
those specific materials.
AASHO road test was performed in Ottawa Illinois for which the region had some specific
temperature. So, these equations were developed based on the environment of specific region.
The test was performed, and result was extracted based on the two years data. Therefore,
the environmental conditions were difficult to be extrapolated for the design period which is
normally taken as 20 years.
The loads from the vehicle are of mixed type as there is variety of loads from the mixed
traffic. However, AASHO road test was performed on the known axle loads.

16
The equation obtained as a result of AASHTO road test cannot be used directly due to the
limitations. In order to use the equation, some of the assumptions are made:
As known loads were applied to the pavement structure in AASHO road test so the loads
from these known axle loads can be extended to the mixed traffic by use of ESALs.
By using appropriate layer coefficient, the above equation can be extended to base,
subbase, and subgrade.
As AASHO road test was performed for the two years, the 2-year period can be extended
to the longer period.
2.6.5. Inputs
In order to execute and utilize the AASHO road test equation, certain inputs are required as
pavement structure, loads and subgrade support.
The predicted loading. It is simply the 18,000-lb load, the ESALs that a particular road is
going to experience over its design life.
Reliability. It is the probability that the particular pavement designed using the process is
going to perform satisfactory under the traffic loadings and environmental effects over its design
life. In other words, we can say that it is an assurance that the particular pavement is going to
perform satisfactory under the loading and environmental effects.
Pavement structure. The pavement structure performance is characterized and evaluated
based on its pavement structural number (SN). The pavement structural strength is expressed using
SN, for the given combination of ESALs, environment, serviceability, and soil support (MR). The
layer thickness is then calculated from the structural number by using a layer coefficient.
Serviceability life. The condition of the pavement structure at the start of the construction
and at the end of the construction is the serviceability life. The equation of AASHO road test
compares the serviceability life value to be 4.2 at the start of the construction and 1.5 for the end
life.
Subgrade support. It is characterized by the subgrade resilient modulus (MR).

2.6.6. Outputs
The AASHO design equation, as can be seen, can only be solved for one variable if the other
variable is known. Usually, the known is either the SN or the required ESAL. Generally, the
process is iterative, the equation is solved simultaneously by varying the structural number and
solve for ESAL.
The design process of iteration usually proceeds as follow:
1. First of all,
2. Then gather ESAL equation inputs.

17
3. Then assume appropriate Structural number SN.
4. After assuming appropriate SN find out Load equivalency factor by solving the ESAL
equation from the assumed SN value.
5. Estimate the traffic count and multiply it with the already calculated ESAL to obtain the
ESALs expected on the pavement structure over the design life.
6. Plug the assumed SN in the ESAL equation and calculate the total number of ESALs, the
pavement is going to support over the design life.
7. Compare the values of ESALs obtained from step no.5 and step no.6. If there is 5%
difference or close use assumed SN. Otherwise go to the step no.4 and repeat the above process[1].

18
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
Traffic Studies are carried out to find and to analyze the traffic volume characteristics. Which helps
us in the design of traffic volume control for safe and efficient movement of traffic.
Various methods are used for counting the flow of traffic volume.
3.2. Methods of Traffic Counting
3.2.1. Manual Method
This method is typically used to add data for determination of vehicle at any given location.
These types of methods are essential when automatic equipment is not available. Manual counts
are used for a period of day or less than a day. Normal intervals for counting of traffic are 5, 10,
15 or 30 minutes. In manual counting all the vehicles are counting passing from a specified location
on a road for a known period of time. Counting is done by a person or a group standing at the
roadside and counting the passing vehicles. The person records the vehicles in a category and in
the travelling direction. No. of required persons depends on No. of lanes.

More efficient to count traffic in each direction of road by standing individual persons for
each direction. For all day counting, three shifts can be arranged for working. Data is recorded inn
form of five-
rubber, sharpener, and data sheet.

3.2.2. Automatic Method

In this method, a tube or a loop are placed across a road connected to a box containing for storing
of traffic counting. Vehicles are counted automatically without the involvement of human.
Mainly two techniques of automatic counting.
i) Contact system, which is based on pneumatic, mechanical, magnetic methods.
ii) Contactless system, which is based on electrical, ultrasound/infrared Radar, microwave,
CCTV/video image processing methods etc.
This method provides large amount of traffic data. The traffic data are usually taken in 1-hour of
time period for each 24-hour time period. Some automatic methods are explained below.

19
Portable Counters:
This method serves the same purpose as
The data collection period of this method is longer than that of manual counts. This counter method
is mainly used for 24 hours counts.
For conducting of this method pneumatic road tubes are used.
Permanent Counters:
For long term counts this method will be conducted. The counts could be performed every day for
a year or more period. The data collected may be used to monitor and evaluate traffic volumes and
for a long period of time they should be trend.
Videotape/Videography:
In this method, traffic data collection can be done by video tapping traffic. At collection site,
counting of traffic volumes can be counted by viewing videotapes. A digital clock present in video
image can prove useful in noting of time intervals.
Equip
Pneumatic tube
Weigh-In-Motion Sensor types
Vehicles counting by video camera
Traffic Counters
Bending Plate
Automatic Traffic Recorders
therefore, we done our traffic counting manually.
3.3. Data Collection by Manual Counting Method
There were three rural roads selected that are Topi-Swabi Road, KDA Road Kohat, and Nasar-
Bagh Road Peshawar because of Covid 19 pandemic situation lockdown was imposed by the
government authority. The data was collected manually for three days for the duration of 12 hours
from 07:AM to 07: PM. directions.

20
3.3.1. Topi Swabi Road
The observer collected the data in the following way.
Table 3.1 Day wise Summary of Topi-Swabi Road

S/No Vehicle type Monday Wednesday Friday

1 Passenger cars 2656 2092 894
2 Buses 73 54 -
3 2 AX Single(Bedford) 356 245 123
4 2 AX Single (Nisan/Hino) 118 122 55
5 3 AX Tandem 241 176 67
6 3 AX Single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem 1 - 1
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single 1
10 5 AX Sigle-Tridem 1 1 1
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem 3 - 1
12 5 AX Single-Single-Tandem 1
13 5 AX Tandem-Single-Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem 1 1
15 6 AX Tandem-Single Tandem

21
3.3.2. KDA Road, Kohat
Data of this road was also calculated manually
Table 3.2 Day Wise Summary of KDA Road Kohat

S/No Vehicle Type Monday Wednesday Friday

1 Passenger cars 1535 1412 1257
2 Buses 7 6 6
3 2 AX single(Bedford) 217 257 230
4 2 AX single(Nisan/Hino)
5 3 AX Tandem 4 4 3
6 3 AX single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single
10 5 AX Single-Tridem
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem
12 5 AX Single-Single-Tandem
13 5 AX Tandem-Single-Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem
6 AX Tandem-Single-
15 Tandem

22
3.3.3. Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar
The data obtained from the traffic counting are the following
Table 3.3 Day wise Summary of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

S/No Vehicle type Monday Wednesday Friday

1 Passenger cars 5239 4956 4567

2 Buses 07 11 14
3 2 AX Single(Bedford) 27 23 19
4 2 AX Single (Nisan/Hino)
5 3 AX Tandem
6 3 AX Single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single
10 5 AX Sigle-Tridem
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem
12 5 AX Single-Single-Tandem
13 5 AX Tandem-Single-Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem
15 6 AX Tandem-Single
Tandem

23
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DESIGN
4.1. Introduction
In this chapter, we will discuss the results obtained from our traffic data calculations for the
three selected ru First, we go through the average and peak values comparison and then
ESAL calculations also SN and each layer thickness calculations.

4.2. Graphical Representation of Day Wise Summary:

4.2.1. Topi-Swabi Road

24
 Figure 4.1 Day wise Summary Bar charts of Topi Swabi Road

The data obtained from the traffic count for Topi Swabi road was plotted against each day. It was
found that, for passenger cars, the traffic was greatest, 2656 passenger cars, than the other days of
week. The lowest traffic was observed on Friday, traffic count for passenger cars was 894.

Similarly for other enTyre vehicle types the greatest number of vehicles observed on Monday and
the lowest traffic was found on Friday.

4.2.2. KDA Road Kohat

Figure 4.2 Day wise Summary Bar Charts of KDA Road Kohat

The data obtained from the traffic count for KDA road Kohat was plotted against each day of
week. It was found that, except for Bedford vehicle, traffic count for passenger cars, Buses and

25
three axle tandem was found to have the greatest value and traffic count for Friday was found
lowest values.

4.2.3. Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

Figure 4.3 Day wise Summary Bar Charts of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

The data obtained from the traffic count for Nasir Bagh road was plotted against each day. It was
found that, for passenger cars, the traffic was greatest, 5239 passenger cars, than the other days of
week. The lowest traffic was observed on Friday, traffic count for passenger cars was 4567 .

While for Buses the highest value to traffic count was found to be on Friday and the lowest one on
Monday. Similarly for Bedford the highest value is on Wednesday.

4.3. Comparison of Average and Peak values:

The data were obtained for three days and then first calculations are done with the day wise
summary and then for the averages and peak values.

26
4.3.1. Topi-Swabi Road
The table and graph of average and peak value for Topi-Swabi Road is below.
Table 4.1 Average and Peak Values of Topi-Swabi Road

Average Peak
S/No Vehicle type Monday Wednesday Friday
Value/day Value/day
1 Passenger cars 2656 2092 894 1881 2656
2 Buses 73 54 - 64 73
3 2 AX Single(Bedford) 356 245 123 241 356
2 AX Single
4 118 122 55 98 122
(Nisan/Hino)
5 3 AX Tandem 241 176 67 161 241
6 3 AX Single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem 1 - 1 1 1
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single 1 1 1
10 5 AX Sigle-Tridem 1 1 1 1 1
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem 3 - 1 2 3
5 AX Single-Single-
12 1 1 1
Tandem
5 AX Tandem-Single-
13
Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem 1 1 1 1
6 AX Tandem-Single
15
Tandem

Figure 4.4 Comparison of Average and Peak values bar chart of topi-Swabi road

After traffic count against each category of vehicle type, for Topi Swabi road, the average
value of each vehicle category was calculated. For example, the average value for the passenger

27
car was calculated to be 1881 veh/day. The average value was calculated by dividing the traffic
count for the three days i.e. Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday by 3. The peak value for the
passenger car was greater than the average value i.e. 2656 veh/day. So in order to go on the safe
side, the peak value of passenger car was used in ESAL calculation. The same method of average
and peak value was applied to the other vehicle categories.

4.3.2. KDA Road, Kohat

Difference between the average and peak values of KDA road Kohat are given below.

Table 4.2 Average and Peak values of KDA road Kohat

S/No Vehicle Type Monday Wednesday Friday Average/day Peak/day

1 Passenger cars 1535 1412 1257 1401 1535
2 Buses 7 6 6 6 7
3 2 AX single(Bedford) 217 257 230 234 257
4 2 AX single(Nisan/Hino)
5 3 AX Tandem 4 4 3 4 4
6 3 AX single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single
10 5 AX Single-Tridem
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem
5 AX Single-Single-
12 Tandem
5 AX Tandem-Single-
13 Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem
6 AX Tandem-Single-
15 Tandem

28
 Figure 4.5 Comparison of Average and Peak values bar chart of KDA road Kohat

After traffic count against each category of vehicle type, for KDA road Kohat, the average
value of each vehicle category was calculated. For example, the average value for the passenger
car was calculated to be 1401 veh/day. The average value was calculated by dividing the traffic
count for the three days i.e. Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday by 3. The peak value for the
passenger car was greater than the average value i.e. 1535 veh/day. So in order to go on the safe
side, the peak value of passenger car was used in ESAL calculation. The same method of average
and peak value was applied to the other vehicle categories.

29
 4.3.3. Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar
Results obtained for the Nasir-Bagh Road are given below
Table 4.3 Average and Peak Value of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

Peak
S/No Vehicle type Monday Wednesday Friday Average Value
Value/day
/day
1 Passenger cars 5239 4956 4567 4921 5239
2 Buse 07 11 14 11 14
s
3 2 AX Single(Bedford) 27 33 19 26 33
4 2 AX Single (Nisan/Hino)
5 3 AX Tandem
6 3 AX Single
7 4 AX Single-Tandem
8 4 AX Tandem-Single
9 4 AX Single
10 5 AX Sigle-Tridem
11 5 AX Tandem-Tandem
12 5 AX Single-Single-Tandem
13 5 AX Tandem-Single-Single
14 6 AX Tandem-Tridem
15 6 AX Tandem-Single
Tandem

Figure 4.6 Comparison of Average and Peak Values Bar charts for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

Similarly for Nasir Bagh road Peshawar, traffic count against each category of vehicle type
was converted into average values. For example, the average value for the passenger car was

30
calculated to be 4921 veh/day. The average value was calculated by dividing the traffic count for
the three days i.e. Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday by 3. The peak value for the passenger car
was greater than the average value i.e. 5239 veh/day. So in order to go on the safe side, the peak
value of passenger car was used in ESAL calculation. The same method of average and peak value
was applied to the other vehicle categories.

4.4. Calculation of ESAL

For calculation of equivalent single axle load for 18 kip, the analysis period should be kept for 10
years. For all the three rural roads, the equivalent single axle load calculation is given below.
4.4.1. ESAL calculation for Topi-Swabi Road
Maximum ESALs was obtained for this road
Table 4.4 Calculation of ESAL for Topi-Swabi Road

Current Growth
Design ESAL Factor Design
Vehicle Type Traffic Factors
Traffic C D ESAL E
A B

Passenger cars 2656 14.49 14047186 0.0007 9833.03

Buses 73 14.49 386086.1 1.8500 714259.2

2 AX Single(Bedford) 356 14.49 1882831 1.0000 1882831

2 AX Single (Nisan/Hino) 122 14.49 645239.7 1.0000 645239.7

3 AX Tandem 241 14.49 1274613 6.8109 8681252

4 AX Single-Tandem 1 14.49 5288.85 11.4879 60757.57

4 AX Single 1 14.49 5288.85 14.2373 75298.91

5 AX Sigle-Tridem 1 14.49 5288.85 13.1080 69326.33

5 AX Tandem-Tandem 3 14.49 15866.55 13.4154 212856

5 AX Single-Single-Tandem 1 14.49 5288.85 16.1648 85493.35

6 AX Tandem-Tridem 1 14.49 5288.85 15.0356 79520.77

Design ESAL 12516667

31
Column A of table 4.4 represents the peak values of the traffic count. Column B of table 4.4
represents the growth factor. Growth factor for KPK is usually taken around 8% as per the
statistical data. It can be calculated by referring to the appendix D of AASHTO design guide. By
looking into the table D.20 of appendix D, for 10 year design period and 8% growth rate the growth
factor is 14.4. The design traffic, column C of table 4.4, can be calculated by multiplying the
column A and column B. The ESAL factors or LEF factors can be calculated by the power fourth
rule. The design ESAL, column E of table 4.4, can be calculated by multiplying the column C
with column D.

4.4.2. ESAL calculation for KDA road Kohat

ESAL calculation obtained for KDA Kohat road are as follows
Table 4.5 Calculation of ESAL for KDA Road Kohat

Current Growth Design Design

ESAL Factor
Vehicle Type Traffic Factors Traffic ESAL
D
A B C E
Passenger cars 1535 14.49 8118385 0.0007 5682.869
Buses 7 14.49 37021.95 1.8500 68490.61
2 AX Single(Bedford) 257 14.49 1359234 1.0000 1359234
2 AX Single (Nisan/Hino) 0 14.49 0 1.0000 0
3 AX Tandem 4 14.49 21155.4 6.8109 144087.2
4 AX Single-Tandem 0 14.49 0 11.4879 0
4 AX Single 0 14.49 0 14.2373 0
5 AX Sigle-Tridem 0 14.49 0 13.1080 0
5 AX Tandem-Tandem 0 14.49 0 13.4154 0
5 AX Single-Single-Tandem 0 14.49 0 16.1648 0
6 AX Tandem-Tridem 0 14.49 0 15.0356 0
Design ESAL 1577495

Column A of table 4.5 represents the peak values of the traffic count. Column B of table 4.5
represents the growth factor. Growth factor for KPK is usually taken around 8% as per the
statistical data. It can be calculated by referring to the appendix D of AASHTO design guide. By
looking into the table D.20 of appendix D, for 10 year design period and 8% growth rate the growth
factor is 14.4. The design traffic, column C of table 4.5, can be calculated by multiplying the
column A and column B. The ESAL factors or LEF factors can be calculated by the power fourth

32
rule. The design ESAL, column E of table 4.5, can be calculated by multiplying the column C
with column D.

4.4.3. ESAL calculation for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

The design ESAL can be calculated by same method as been done for KDA road Kohat and Topi
Swabi road
Table 4.6 Calculation of ESAL for Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

Vehicle type Current Growth Design traffic ESAL Factor D Design ESAL E
Traffic Factors C
A B
Passenger cars 5239 14.49 27708285 0.0007 19395.8
Buses 14 14.49 74043.9 1.8500 136981.2
2 AX Single(Bedford) 33 14.49 174532.1 1.0000 174532.1
2 AX Single
(Nisan/Hino)
3 AX Tandem
3 AX Single
4 AX Single-Tandem
4 AX Tandem-Single
4 AX Single
5 AX Sigle-Tridem
5 AX Tandem-
Tandem
Design ESAL 330909.1
4.5. SN and Each Layer Thickness Calculation
After getting ESALs next step was to find SN and each layer thickness. The AASHTO design
equation for SN is

Following is the SN, for our rural roads[1]

4.5.1. Topi-Swabi Road

W18= 12516667
MR (Asphalt) = 400,000 Psi
MR (Base) = 250,000 Psi
MR (Sub-Base) = 100,000 Psi
MR (Sub-Grade) = 14,000 Psi

33
So= 0.45
Zr= -0.524 (Table 19.8 AASHTO design guide 1993)
Reliability =70%
CBR = 9.3%
Drainage Time = 01 Week
Moisture = 25%
So, m2 = m3 = 0.90 (Table 19.6 AASHTO design guide 1993)
Equation of flexible pavement design

Putting values in above equation

After calculation, SN comes out to be:

SN=3.57
a1= 0.42 (from figure 19.5 )
a2 = 0.249log(250,000) 0.977 = 0.37
a3 = 0.227log(100,000) 0.839 = 0.30
Now as we know that,
SN= a1D1 + a2m2D2 + a3m3D3
3.57= 0.42D1 + 0.37(0.90)D2 + 0.3(0.90)D3
By trial and error method
D1 = 4 in D2 = 6 in D3 = 10 in

4.5.2. KDA Road Kohat

W18= 1577495
MR (Asphalt) = 400,000 Psi
MR (Base) = 250,000 Psi

34
MR (Sub-Base) = 100,000 Psi
MR (Sub-Grade) = 14,000 Psi

So= 0.45
Zr= -0.524
Reliability =70%
CBR = 9.3%
Drainage Time = 01 Week
Moisture = 25%
So, m2 = m3 = 0.90 (Table 19.6 AASHTO design guide 1993)
Equation of flexible pavement design

Putting values in above equation

After calculation, SN comes out to be:

SN=2.55
a1= 0.42 (from figure 19.5 )
a2 = 0.249log(250,000) 0.977 = 0.37
a3 = 0.227log(100,000) 0.839 = 0.30
Now as we know that
SN= a1D1 + a2m2D2 + a3m3D3
2.55= 0.42D1 + 0.37(0.90)D2 + 0.3(0.90)D3
By trial and error method
D1 = 2 in D2 = 4 in D3 = 6 in

4.5.3. Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

W18 = 330909.1

35
MR (Asphalt) = 400,000 Psi
MR (Base) = 250,000 Psi
MR (Sub-Base) = 100,000 Psi
MR (Sub-Grade) = 14,000 Psi

So= 0.45
Zr= -0.524
Reliability =70%
CBR = 9.3%
Drainage Time = 01 Week
Moisture = 25%
So, m2 = m3 = 0.90 (Table 19.6 AASHTO design guide 1993)
Equation of flexible pavement design

Putting values in above equation

After calculation, SN comes out to be:

SN=1.63
a1= 0.42 (from figure 19.5 )
a2 = 0.249log(250,000) 0.977 = 0.37
a3 = 0.227log(100,000) 0.839 = 0.30
Now as we know that
SN= a1D1 + a2m2D2 + a3m3D3
1.63= 0.42D1 + 0.37(0.90)D2 + 0.3(0.90)D3
By trial and error method
D1 = 2 in D2 = 4 in D3 = 6 in

36
Table 4.7 Calculated SN

Name of road Calculated SN

Topi-Swabi Road 3.57

KDA road Kohat 2.55
Nasir Bagh road Peshawar 1.63

The D1, D2, and D3 obtained for each road are the following.
Table 4.8 Calculated Each Layer Thickness

Name of road D1 D2 D3
(in) (in) (in)
Topi-Swabi Road 4 6 10
KDA road Kohat 2 4 6
Nasir Bagh road Peshawar 2 4 6

4.6. Cross sectional view of each road

4.6.1. Topi-Swabi Road

Figure 4.7 Typical Cross section of Topi Swabi Road Designed by Shahbaz Khan

37
4.6.2. KDA road Kohat

Figure 4.8 Typical Cross section of KDA Road Kohat Designed by Osama

4.6.3. Nasir Bagh road Peshawar

Figure 4.9 Typical Cross section of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar Designed by Inam Ullah

38
4.7. Quantities and Rate Analysis
4.7.1. Quantities and rate analysis of Topi-Swabi Road per 1km
Table 4.9 Rate Analysis of Topi Swabi Road

Layer Item Materials Quantity Rate Total Cost

code CFT (per 100 CFT)
1 16-14-b Asphalt waring 26,246.00 52,928.25 13,891,548
coarse
2 16-05-a Base course 61,242.00 7,764.30 4,755,013
3 16-04-b Sub base 87,490.00 6,044.55 5,288,377
23,934,938

4.7.2. Quantities and rate analysis of KDA road Kohat per 1km
Table 4.10 Rate Analysis of KDA Road Kohat

Item Quantity Rate* (Per 100

Layer Materials Total cost Pkr
code CFT CFT)

Asphalt wearing
16-14-b 12,981.67 54,516.10 7,077,100
1 course

2 16-05-a Base Course 44,863.75 7,997.23 3,587,857

3 16-04-b Sub base 63,954.86 6,225.89 3,981,757

14,646,714

4.7.3. Quantities and rate analysis of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar per 1km
Table 4.11 Rate Analysis of Nasir Bagh Road Peshawar

Item Quantity Rate* (Per 100

Layer Materials Total cost Pkr
code CFT CFT)
Asphalt
16-14-
wearing 12,981.67 52,928.25 6,870,971
b
1 course
16-05-
Base Course 44,863.75 7,764.30 3,483,356
2 a
16-04-
Sub base 63,954.86 6,044.55 3,865,783
3 b
14,220,110

39
 4.8. Comparison Chart
Table 4.12 Comparison Chart

Road ESAL SN Thickness (in) Quantities CFT Cost per Km

(Million Pkr)
D1 D2 D3 D1 D2 D3
Topi-Swabi 3.57 4 6 10 23.93
road 12,516,667 26,246 61,242 87,490
KDA road 2.55 2 4 6 14.64
Kohat 1,577,495 12,981 44,863 63,954
Nasir Bagh 1.63 2 4 6 14.22
road 330,909 12,981 44,863 63,954
Peshawar

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS
5.1. Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss all the results mentioned in chapter 4. A summary will be
discussed to understand all the results obtained and will give recommendations on the discussed
results.

From the analysis and study of the traffic data we concluded that:

The percentage composition of traffic for the roads under consideration follow that

For Topi-Swabi Road,

Percentage composition of passenger cars=76.71%

Percentage composition of Buses=2.61%
Percentage composition of Bedford=9.83%
Percentage composition of 2Ax-Single=4%
Percentage composition of 3Ax-Tandem=6.57%

For KDA road Kohat,

Percentage composition of passenger cars=85.17%

Percentage composition of Buses=0.36%
Percentage composition of Bedford=14.22%

For Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar,

Percentage composition of passenger cars=99.25%

Percentage composition of Buses=0.22%
Percentage composition of passenger cars=0.52%

Heavy vehicles cause more damage to the pavement structure. The evidence is that for-example,
for Topi-Swabi Road, the percentage composition for passenger cars is 76.71% and that of buses
is 2.61%. The percentage composition for buses is less than that for passenger cars. But the design
ESAL for buses is 714259.2 and that for passenger cars is 9833.03. So, the pavement structure is
more prone to damage by the heavy trucks than passenger cars.

41
The cumulative design ESALs for Topi-Swabi is 12,516,667, For KDA road Kohat is 1,577,495
and that for Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar is 330909.

The depths for different layers of road i.e., surface course, base course and sub-base for Topi-
Swabi Road is 4,6 and 10 inches and that for KDA road Kohat and Nasir-Bagh Road Peshawar is
2,4 and 6 inches respectively.

Usually all the rural roads in KP are widely design on the basis of thumb rule i.e. 2, 6, 6 in however
this will not always be the case because after this research on rural roads we found that for Topi-
Swabi road the total depth of road is 20 in but according to the rule of thumb it should be 14 in.
So it does not fulfill the strength criteria. Similarly for KDA Road Kohat and Nasir Bagh road
Peshawar the total depth of the pavement is 12 in which is less than 14 in so it fulfills the strength
criteria but it becomes uneconomical.

From the analysis we concluded that heavy vehicles cause more damage to the pavement. There
are certain weight/load limits set by the authorities. However, the heavy vehicle drivers, in order
to save time, overload the vehicle that exceeds the limits set by the authorities. So there should be
proper monitoring, enforcement, inspection and punishment as a complete.

42
REFERENCES
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[10] Kubo, P., Paiva, C., Ferreira, A., & Larocca, A. (2015). Influence of shock absorber
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