M HRD GEO 0009 P20 335 A Wireline - Manual - Level - 1 - 5677966 - 01

WELL INTERVENTION SERVICES
WIRELINE TRAINING MANUAL

Table of Contents I
SUMMARY
SECTION 1 -- ORIGINS OF OIL AND GAS
SECTION 2 -- DRILLING OPERATIONS
SECTION 3 -- COMPLETIONS
SECTION 4 -- PRODUCTION OPERATIONS
SECTION 5 -- WIRELINE WINCH
SECTION 6 -- WINCH CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATION
SECTION 7 -- HOISTING DEVICES
SECTION 8 -- SURFACE EQUIPMENT
SECTION 9 -- TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS
SECTION 10 -- OPERATIONAL SAFETY

Table of Contents II
SECTION 11 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS OVERVIEW
SECTION 12 -- BASE/WORKSHOP
SECTION 13 -- SITE AND EQUIPMENT
SECTION 14 -- TOOLS
SECTION 15 -- RIG UP PROCEDURES
SECTION 16 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS
SECTION 17 -- WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS
SECTION 18 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVERS
SECTION 19 -- RIGGING DOWN
SECTION 20 -- HOUSEKEEPING
Table of Contents III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 -- ORIGINS OF OIL AND GAS
1.1 ORIGINS OF OIL AND GAS 1-3

1.2. DEPOSITION 1-3
1.3. BURIAL 1-4
1.4. TRANSFORMATION 1-5
1.4.1. Diagenesis 1-6
1.4.2. Catagenesis 1-7
1.4.3. Metagenesis 1-7
1.5. MIGRATION 1-8
1.6. ACCUMULATION 1-9
1.7. COMPOSITION OF FORMATION FLUIDS 1-10
1.8. SATURATED HYDROCARBONS 1-10
1.8.1. Paraffins 1-10
1.8.2. Cycloparaffins 1-10
1.9. UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS 1-11
1.10. NATURAL GAS 1-11
1.10.1. Occurrence and Composition of Natural Gas 1-11
1.10.2. Physical Properties of Natural Gas 1-12
1.11. CRUDE OIL 1-13
1.11.1. Occurrence and Composition of Crude Oil 1-13
1.11.2. Physical Properties of Crude Oil 1-13
1.12. NON-HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS 1-15
1.13. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 1-17
1.13.1. Breccia 1-18
1.13.2. Conglomerate or Pudding Rock 1-18
1.13.3. Sand 1-18
1.13.4. Sandstones 1-18
1.13.5. Siltstones 1-18
1.13.6. Clays 1-18
1.13.7. Shales 1-18
1.13.8. Limestones 1-18
1.13.9. Dolostones 1-19
1.13.10. Marl 1-19
1.13.11. Evaporites 1-19
1.13.12. Chert 1-19
1.13.13. Evaporites 1-19
1.14. RESERVOIR ROCK 1-19
1.15. RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS 1-22
1.15.1. Natural Drive 1-22
1.15.2. Solution Gas Drive 1-22
1.15.3. Water Drive 1-23
1.15.4. Gas Cap Expansion 1-23
Table of Contents IV
SECTION 2 -- DRILLING OPERATIONS
2.1. DRILLING OPERATIONS 2-3

2.2. WELL PLANNING 2-3
2.3. DECIDING WHERE TO DRILL 2-3
2.4. OBTAINING THE RIGHTS TO DRILL 2-4
2.5. WELL TYPES 2-4
2.6. ENGINEERING THE WELL 2-5
2.7. SELECTING THE SITE/LOCATION NOMENCLATURE 2-8
2.8. CONTRACTORS AND WELLSITE PERSONNEL 2-10
2.8.1. Contractors 2-10
2.8.2. Wellsite Personnel 2-10
2.9. THE DRILLING RIG 2-13
2.9.1. Drilling Rig Generalities 2-13
2.9.2. Onshore (land) Rigs 2-15
2.9.3. Offshore Rigs 2-16
2.9.4. Mobile Offshore Rigs 2-16
2.9.5. Fixed Offshore Rigs 2-20
2.10. RIG COMPONENTS 2-24
2.10.1. Mast and Substructure 2-24
2.10.2. Power System 2-26
2.10.3. Hoisting System 2-27
2.10.3.1. The Drawworks 2-27
2.10.3.2. The Blocks and Drilling Line 2-29
2.10.3.3. Heave Compensators 2-30
2.10.4. Rotating Equipment 2-32
2.10.4.1. The Swivel 2-33
2.10.4.2. The Kelly and Rotary Table 2-33
2.10.4.3. Pipe Handling Equipment 2-35
2.10.4.4. The Drill String 2-37
2.10.4.5. Bits 2-39
2.10.5. The Circulating System 2-42
2.10.5.1. Drilling Fluids 2-42
2.10.5.2. Circulating Equipment 2-43
2.10.6. Well Control System 2-45
2.11. NORMAL DRILLING OPERATIONS 2-50
2.11.1. What ‘Normal’ Drilling Consists Of 2-50
2.11.2. Drilling According To Plan 2-50
2.11.3. Balancing Formation Fluid Pressures 2-53
2.11.4. Monitoring The Drilling Process 2-53
2.11.5. Drilling Surface Hole 2-56
2.11.5.1. Spudding In 2-56
2.11.5.2. Making a Connection 2-56
2.11.5.3. Tripping Out 2-58
2.11.6. Surface Casing 2-59
2.11.7. Cementing 2-62
2.11.8. Tripping In 2-64
2.11.9. Drilling Intermediate Hole 2-65
2.11.9.1. Leak-Off Test 2-65
2.11.9.2. Drilling Ahead 2-66
Table of Contents V
2.11.9.3. Running and Cementing Intermediate Casing 2-67

2.11.10. Drilling To Total Depth (T.D.) 2-67
2.12. EVALUATING FORMATIONS AND THE WELL 2-68
2.12.1. Mud Logging 2-68
2.12.2. Electric Logging 2-70
2.12.3. Measurement-While-Drilling 2-72
2.12.4. Coring 2-75
2.12.5. The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) 2-77
2.12.6. Drill Stem Testing 2-78
2.13. COMPLETING THE WELL 2-82
2.13.1. Setting Production Casing 2-82
2.13.2. Perforating 2-82
2.13.3. Installing the Production Wellhead 2-83
2.14. SPECIAL DRILLING OPERATIONS 2-84
2.14.1. Drilling From a Floating Offshore Rig 2-84
2.14.2. Directional Drilling 2-87
2.14.2.1. Directional Engineering 2-87
2.14.2.2. Directional Drilling Tools 2-89
2.14.3. Deviation Survey Tools 2-92
2.14.4. Horizontal Drilling 2-95
2.15. DRILLING PROBLEMS 2-96
2.15.1. Stuck Pipe 2-97
2.15.2. Prevention of Stuck Pipe 2-99
2.15.3. Fishing and Junk Recovery Tools 2-100
2.15.4. Special Well Completion Operations 2-104
2.15.4.1. Acidising 2-104
2.15.4.2. Fracturing 2-104
2.16. SUMMARY 2-105
SECTION 3 - COMPLETIONS
3.1. COMPLETIONS 3-3

3.2. TUBING CHARACTERISTICS 3-4
3.2.1. Steel Grade and Tensile Strength 3-4
3.2.1.1. Buckling Effect 3-4
3.2.1.2. Ballooning Effect 3-6
3.2.1.3. Hardness 3-6
3.2.1.4. Well Fluid Composition Effect 3-7
3.2.2. Tubing Lengths 3-7
3.2.3. Tubing Thickness 3-7
3.2.4 Tubing Metallurgy 3-7
3.2.5. Tubing Connections 3-8
3.2.5.1. Standard API Coupling Connections 3-8
3.2.5.2. Alternative Types of Tubing Connections 3-9
3.2.6. Tubing Accessories 3-11
3.2.6.1. Bull Plugs and Bull Caps 3-11
3.2.6.2. Handling Plugs 3-12
3.2.6.3. Stabbing Guides 3-12
3.2.6.4. Seal Rings 3-12
Table of Contents VI
3.3. WELL COMPLETION EQUIPMENT 3-14

3.3.1. Wireline Re-Entry Guide 3-15
3.3.1.1. Bell Guide 3-15
3.3.1.2. Mule-Shoe 3-15
3.3.2. Tubing Protection Joint 3-13
3.3.3. Wireline Landing Nipple 3-16
3.3.3.1. Selective 3-18
3.3.3.2. No-Go or Non-Selective 3-18
3.3.4. Perforated Joints 3.20
3.3.5. Blast Joints 3-20
3.3.6. Packers 3-21
3.3.6.1. Permanent Packer 3-23
3.3.6.2. Retrievable Packer 3-24
3.3.6.3. Permanent/Retrievable Packer 3-25
3.3.6.4. Mechanically Set 3-25
3.3.6.5. Hydraulically Set 3-25
3.3.6.6. Electric Wireline Set 3-25
3.3.7. Permanent Packer Accessories 3-26
3.3.7.1. Tubing Locator Seal Assembly 3-26
3.3.7.2. Seal Bore Extension 3-27
3.3.7.3. Tubing Anchor Seal Assembly 3-27
3.3.7.4. Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR) 3-28
3.3.7.5. Tubing Seal Receptacle (TSR) 3-29
3.3.8 Retrievable Packer Accessories 3-30
3.3.8.1. Travel Joint 3-30
3.3.8.2. Adjustable Union 3-31
3.3.8.3. Snap Latch 3-31
3.3.8.4. Safety Joint 3-31
3.3.9. Sliding Side Door 3-32
3.3.10. Flow Couplings 3-34
3.3.11. Side Pocket Mandrels 3-34
3.3.11.1. Gas Lift valves 3-36
3.3.11.2. Dummy Valves 3-36
3.3.11.3. Chemical Injection Valves 3-37
3.3.11.4. Circulating Valves 3-37
3.3.11.5. Differential Dump Valves 3-37
3.3.11.6 Equalising Valves 3-38
3.3.12. Sub-Surface Safety Valves 3-39
3.3.12.1. Sub-Surface Controlled Safety Valves 3-39
3.3.12.2. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves 3-41
3.3.12.3. Control Line 3-47
3.3.12.4. Annulus Safety Valves 3-48
3.4. WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT 3-49
3.4.1. Wellhead Spool 3-49
3.4.1.1. Tubing Hanger System 3-50
3.4.1.2. Ram Type Tubing Head 3-50
3.4.1.3. Tubing Head Adapter 3-51
3.4.1.4. Tubing Hanger 3-51
3.4.2. Xmas Tree 3-53
3.4.2.1. Lower Master Valve 3-54
Table of Contents VII
3.4.2.2. Upper Master Valve 3-54

3.4.2.3. Tee Section 3-55
3.4.2.4. Kill Wing Valve 3-55
3.4.2.5. Production Wing Valve 3-55
3.4.2.6. Swab Valve 3-55
3.4.2.7. Xmas Tree Cap 3-55
SECTION 4 - PRODUCTION OPERATIONS
4.1. PRODUCTION FACILITIES 4-3

4.2. INITIAL PRODUCTION HOOK-UP 4-3
4.2.1. Surface Safety Valve 4-4
4.2.2. Production Choke 4-4
4.2.3. Flowline 4-5
4.3. EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEM (ESD) 4-6
4.3.1. Wireline Control Panel 4-7
4.4. PRODUCTION PROCESS 4-9
4.4.1. Production Recovery Methods 4-10
4.4.2. Artificial Lift 4-13
SECTION 5 - WIRELINE UNIT
5.1. WIRELINE UNIT 5-3

5.2. OPERATING PROCEDURES 5-4
5.2.1. Winch Unit 5-4
5.2.2. Power Pack 5-5
5.3. MAINTENANCE 5-5
5.4. ENGINE STARTING MECHANISMS 5-6
5.4.1. Manual Starter 5-6
5.4.2. Spring Starter 5-6
5.4.3. Pneumatic Starter 5-7
5.4.4. Hydraulic Starter 5-8
5.4.5. Electric Starter 5-9
SECTION 6 - WIRELINE WINCH CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATION
6.1. WIRELINES 6-3

6.1.1. Carbon Steel Wirelines (API-9A) 6-4
6.1.2. Stainless Steel and Special Alloys 6-5
6.1.3. Braided Wireline 6-5
6.1.4. Bending Stresses 6-7
6.1.5. Handling and Storage 6-7
6.1.6. General Safety Procedures 6-7
6.1.7. Slickline Testing 6-8
6.1.7.1. Torsion or Twist Test 6-8
6.1.7.2. Wrap Test (Ductility Test) 6-11
6.1.7.3. Tensile Test 6-12
6.2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 6-14
6.2.1. Open Loop 6-14
6.2.2. Closed Loop 6-15
Table of Contents VIII
6.2.3. Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Hydraulic System 6-17
6.2.4. Summary of Open Loop-Closed Loop Hydraulic System 6-19
6.3. WIRELINE ODOMETER 6-21
6.4. WIRELINE MEASURING HEADS 6-21
6.4.1. Conventional Measuring Head 6-21
6.4.2. Asep Measuring Head 6-22
6.5. WEIGHT INDICATOR 6-24
6.5.1. Charging Procedure 6-25
6.5.2. Wireline Angle Correction Factors 6-25
6.5.3. Calculation of Line Stretch 6-28
SECTION 7 - HOISTING DEVICES
7.1. HOISTING DEVICES 7-3

7.2. GIN POLE 7-3
7.2.1. Fixed Unit 7-3
7.2.2. Movable Unit 7-3
7.2.3. Rope Blocks 7-3
7.3. WIRELINE MAST 7-5
7.4. WIRELINE MAST/CRANE 7-6
7.5. CRANE 7-7
7.6. “A” FRAME 7-7
7.7. LIFTING GEAR 7-7
7.7.1. Shackles 7-8
7.7.1.1. Round Pin 7-8
7.7.1.2. Screw Pin 7-8
7.7.1.3. Bolt Type 7-9
7.7.2. Slings/Strops 7-10
7.7.2.1. Visual Inspection 7-11
7.7.3. Chain Blocks 7-12
7.7.4. Chain Hoist 7-13
SECTION 8 - SURFACE EQUIPMENT
8.1. SURFACE EQUIPMENT 8-3

8.2. SEALING DEVICES 8-5
8.2.1. Stuffing Box 8-5
8.2.1.1. Manual Stuffing Box 8-5
8.2.1.2. Hydraulic Stuffing Box 8-6
8.2.1.3. Combined Stuffing Box 8-8
8.2.1.4. Liquid Seal Slickline Control Head 8-8
8.2.1.5. Eziload Stuffing Box 8-9
8.2.1.6. Stuffing Box Checks and Maintenance 8-9
8.2.1.7. Packing Replacement 8-10
8.2.2. Hydraulic Line Wiper 8-11
8.2.3. Swabbing Head 8-12
8.2.4. Grease Injection Control Head 8-13
8.3. QUICK UNIONS 8-14
8.4. LUBRICATOR/RISER 8-15
8.5. WIRELINE VALVE/BOP 8-17
Table of Contents IX
8.5.1. Manual Wireline Valve Operation 8-18

8.5.2. Hydraulic Wireline Valve Operation 8-20
8.5.3. Ram Assembly Configuration 8-22
8.5.4. Equalising Valve 8-23
8.6. TREE CONNECTION 8-24
8.7. LUBRICATOR LIFTING CLAMP 8-25
8.8. WIRELINE CLAMP 8-25
8.9. HAY PULLEY 8-26
8.9.1. Hay Pulley Line Wiper 8-28
8.10. MARTIN DECKER WEIGHT INDICATOR 8-28
8.11. ANCILLARY PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT 8-28
8.11.1. Check Valve Union 8-28
8.11.2. Chemical Injection Sub 8-29
8.11.3. Hydraulic Tool Catcher 8-30
8.11.4. Hydraulic Tool Trap 8-30
8.11.5. In-Situ Test Sub 8-31
8.11.6. Quick Union Crossover Adaptors 8-32
8.11.7. Side Entry Sub/Pump-In Tee 8-33
SECTION 9 -- TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS
9.1. TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS 9-3

9.1.1. Rope Socket 9-5
9.1.1.1. Disc Spring 9-5
9.1.1.2. Wedge 9-5
9.1.1.3. Pear Drop 9-6
9.1.1.4. Time Delay Releasable Rope Socket 9-7
9.1.1.5. Releasable Rope Socket 9-8
9.1.1.6. Slip 9-9
9.1.2. Swivel Joint 9-10
9.1.3. Accelerator 9-12
9.1.4. Stem 9-12
9.1.4.1. Leaded Stem 9-13
9.1.4.2. Roller Stem 9-15
9.1.5. Connections/Crossovers 9-16
9.1.5.1. Quick-Lock System 9-17
9.1.5.2. Petroline Quick-Lock System 9-17
9.1.5.3. Trinity Quick Lock System 9-18
9.1.5.4. BDK QRJ Quick Lock System 9-19
9.1.6. Jars 9-20
9.1.6.1. Hydraulic Jar 9-21
9.1.6.2. Petroline Spring Jar 9-23
9.1.6.3. Flopetrol Spring Jar 9-25
9.1.6.4. Spang Jar 9-26
9.1.6.5. Tubular Jar 9-27
9.1.6.6. Linear Jar 9-28
9.1.6.7. Knuckle Jar 9-28
9.1.7. Knuckle Joints 9-29
9.1.8. Centraliser 9-30
9.1.8.1. Fluted Centraliser 9-30
Table of Contents X
9.1.8.2. Bow Spring Centraliser 9-30

9.1.8.3. Adjustable Spring Centraliser 9-31
9.1.8.4. Spring Roller Centraliser 9-32
SECTION 10 -- OPERATIONAL SAFETY
10.1. OPERATIONAL SAFETY 10-3

10.1.1 Toolstring Make-Up 10-3
10.1.2. Toolstring Handling 10-4
SECTION 11 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS OVERVIEW
11.1. OPERATIONS OVERVIEW 11-3

11.1.1. Completions 11-3
11.1.2. Well Intervention 11-4
11.1.3. Workover 11-5
11.1.4. Fishing 11-5
SECTION 12 -- BASE/WORKSHOP
12.1. BASE/WORKSHOP 12-3
SECTION 13 -- SITE AND EQUIPMENT
13.1. SITE AND EQUIPMENT 13-3

13.1.1. Moving Equipment 13-3
13.1.2. Wireline Unit Checks 13-3
13.1.3. Personnel Safety 13-4
13.1.4. Well Site Safety 13-4
13.1.5. Wire Handling 13-5
SECTION 14 -- DOWNHOLE TOOLS
14.1. DOWNHOLE TOOLS 14-3

14.2. INVESTIGATIVE TOOLS 14-3
14.2.1. Gauge Cutter (Gauge Ring) 14-3
14.2.1.1. Uses 14-4
14.2.2. Lead Impression Block (LIB) 14-4
14.2.2.1. Uses 14-5
14.2.3. Blind Box 14-5
14.2.3.1. Uses 14-5
14.2.4. Tubing Swage 14-5
14.2.4.1. Uses 14-6
14.2.5. Tubing End Locator (TEL) 14-6
14.2.5.1. Uses 14-7
14.2.6 Tubing (Wire) Scratcher 14-7
14.2.6.1. Uses 14-7
14.2.7. Tubing (Wire) Brush 14-8
14.2.7.1. Uses 14-9
14.2.8. D & D Holefinder 14-9
Table of Contents XI
14.2.8.1. Uses 14-9

14.3. STANDARD RUNNING/PULLING TOOLS 14-11
14.3.1. Otis ‘R’ and ‘S’ 14-12
14.3.1.1. Otis ‘R’ Series 14-13
14.3.1.2. Otis ‘S’ Series 14-16
14.3.1.3. Otis ‘SSJ’ Double Shear Down Adapter 14-18
14.3.2. Camco JU and JD Series Tools 14-19
14.3.2.1. Camco ‘JU’ Series 14-20
14.3.2.2. Camco ‘JD’ Series 14-22
14.3.3. Fishing Necks 14-24
14.3.3.1. External Fishing Neck 14-24
14.3.3.2. Internal Fishing Neck 14-25
14.3.4. Otis ‘G’ Series 14-26
14.3.4.1. Otis ‘GS’ 14-26
14.3.4.2. Otis ‘GR’ 14-28
14.3.5. Petroline ‘DU’ Pulling Tool 14.29
14.3.5.1. Sequence of Operation 14-30
14.3.6. Camco ‘PRS’ Pulling Tool 14-31
14.4. SPECIFIC RUNNING/PULLING TOOLS 14-33
14.5. LOCK MANDRELS 14-33
14.5.1. Slip Locks 14-33
14.5.1.1. ‘W’ Slip Lock 14-33
14.5.2. Collar Locks 14-36
14.5.2.1. ‘D’ Collar Lock 14-36
14.5.3. Nipple Locks 14-39
14.5.3.1. AVA Lock Mandrels 14-39
14.5.3.2. Baker Lock Mandrels 14-42
14.5.3.3. Camco Lock Mandrels 14-51
14.5.3.4. Otis Lock Mandrels 14-54
14.5.3.5. Petroline Lock Mandrels 14-60
14.6. PROBES AND SHANKS 14-62
14.6.1. Baker Model ‘A’ and ‘AC’ Probes 14-62
14.6.2. Baker Model ‘B’ Probe 14-63
14.6.3. Baker Model ‘M’ Probe 14-63
14.6.4. Baker Model ‘M-1’ Probe 14-64
14.6.5. Baker Model ‘MA’ Adjustable Probe 14-65
14.6.6. Baker Model ‘N-1’ Probe 14-66
14.6.7. Baker Model ‘A’ Shank 14-66
14.6.8. Baker Model ‘N-1’ Shank 14-67
14.7. PRONGS 14-68
14.7.1. WRSCSSSV Prong 14-68
14.7.2. Plug Manipulation Prongs 14-69
14.7.3. Sealing Prongs 14-70
14.8. SHIFTING TOOLS 14-71
14.8.1. Otis ‘BO’ Shifting Tool 14-71
14.8.2. Otis ‘BO’ Selective Shifting Tool 14-72
14.8.3. Otis ‘X’ Selective Shifting Tool 14-73
14.8.4. Baker ‘D-2’ Shifting Tool 14-74
14.9. KICKOVER TOOLS 14-75
14.9.1. Camco ‘K’ Series Kickover Tool 14-75
Table of Contents XII
14.9.2. Camco ‘R’ series Kickover Tool 14-76

14.9.3. Camco ‘L’ and ‘L-2D’ Kickover Tool 14-77
14.9.4. Camco ‘OK’ Kickover Tool 14-78
14.9.5. Camco ‘OM’ Kickover Tool 14-80
14.9.6. Merla ‘TMP’ Positioning Tool (Kickover Tool) 14-82
14.9.7. Merla ‘TP’ Positioning Tool (Kickover Tool) 14-84
14.9.8. Kickover Tool Summary 14-86
14.10. FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 14-87
14.10.1. Plugs 14-87
14.10.2. Safety Valve (SV) 14-89
14.10.3. Seperation Tool 14-89
14.10.4. Sliding Side Door Choke 14-90
14.10.5. Test Tool 14-91
14.10.5.1. Otis ‘N’ Test Tool 14-91
14.10.5.2. Otis ‘X’ Selective Test Tool 14-92
14.10.6. Back Pressure Valve (BPV) 14-93
14.10.6.1. Cameron Type ‘H’ BPV 14-93
14.10.6.2. Cameron Type ‘H’ Two-Way Check Valve 14-94
14.10.6.3. Cameron Type ‘H’ BPV Running/Pulling Tool 14-94
14.10.6.4. Petroline ‘ABC’ Back Pressure Valve 14-96
SECTION 15 -- RIG UP PROCEDURES
15.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT (PCE) RIG-UP 15-3

15.1.1. Rig-Up Checks 15-3
15.1.2. Installation Preperation 15-3
15.1.3. Xmas Tree Isolation and Pressure Bleed Down for Rig-Up 15-4
15.1.4. Removal of Wellhead Covers 15-5
15.1.5. Removal of Tree Swab Cap 15-5
15.1.6. Working at Heights 15-5
15.1.7. Crossovers, Risers and BOP Installation 15-6
15.1.8. Lubricator Rig-Up 15-6
15.2. PRESSURE TESTING PCE 15-8
15.2.1. Pressure Testing On The Well 15-8
15.3. PRESSURE TESTING BOP’s 15-9
15.3.1. Pressure Testing On Initial BOP Rig-Up 15-9
15.3.2. Pressure Testing After Complete PCE Pressure Test 15-11
SECTION 16 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS
16.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS 16-3

16.1.1. Wireline Winch Operation 16-4
16.1.1.1. Safety Procedures 16-4
16.1.1.2. Wireline Winch Checks 16-5
16.1.1.3. Power Pack Checks 16-5
SECTION 17 -- WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS
17.1. WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS 17-3

17.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 17-3
Table of Contents XIII
17.3. JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS 17-4

17.4. PRE-JOB SAFETY MEETING 17-5
17.5. DRIFTING THE WELL FOR OPERATIONS 17-6
17.5.1. Dummy Run 17-6
17.6. CHECKING SAND BUILD UP IN WELL 17-6
17.7. CLEARING DEPOSITS IN TUBING 17-6
17.8. RUNNING INVESTIGATIVE TOOLS 17-6
17.9. SETTING AND PULLING VARIOUS PLUGS 17-6
17.10. CHANGING OUT OF WRSSSV 17-8
17.11. LOCKING OPEN TRSSSV 17-8
17.12. SETTING INSERT VALVES IN TRSSSV 17-8
17.13. OPENING AND CLOSING SLIDING SIDE DOORS 17-8
17.14. CHANGING OUT OF GAS LIFT VALVES 17-9
17.14.1. Side Pocket Mandrels 17-9
17.15. RUNNING GAUGE SURVEYS 17-10
17.15.1. Suspended On Wire 17-10
17.15.2. Set In Landing Nipple 17-10
17.16. RUNNING MEMORY PRODUCTION LOGGING TOOLS 17-11
SECTION 18 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVERS
18.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVER 18-3

18.1.1. Geological Workover 18-3
18.1.2. Mechanical Workover 18-3
SECTION 19 -- RIGGING DOWN
19.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT RIG-DOWN 19-3

19.1.1. Working at Heights 19-3
19.1.2. Xmas Tree Isolation and Pressure Bleed Down for Rig-Down 19-3
19.1.3. Lubricator Rig-Down 19-4
19.1.4. BOP Rig-Down 19-5
19.1.5. Removal of Wellhead Temporary Safety Barriers/Covers 19-5
19.1.6. Riser and Xmas Tree Crossover Rig-Down 19-5
19.1.7. Pressure Test 19-6
SECTION 20 -- HOUSEKEEPING
20.1. HOUSEKEEPING 20-3

20.1.1. Hand Tools 20-3
Wireline Level 1 Manual 1-1
SECTION 1
ORIGINS OF OIL & GAS
ELEMENT 1.1
1-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
1.1 ORIGINS OF OIL & GAS

Oil and gas are most likely of organic origin, and are derived mainly from certain compounds
found in marine plankton and terrestrial plants. The most important organic compounds with
respect to formation of petroleum are lipids, which make up fats, steroids, and pigments,
proteins, and carbohydrates. In addition, some organisms include small amounts of
petroleum in their chemical makeup.
The creation of a petroleum and gas reservoir from the original organic source is a complex
and geologically slow process. The main requirements are as follows:
• Deposition of organic matter in large quantities
• Burial with finely divided clastic sediments in a quiet, non-oxidising marine

environment
• Transformation of the organic matter to hydrocarbons, through diagenesis
• Primary Migration of the hydrocarbons, from source to other rocks
• Secondary Migration to the hydrocarbon reservoir, and Accumulation of the

hydrocarbons below a barrier or trap.
1.2. DEPOSITION
Figure 1-1 THE ORGANIC CARBON CYCLE
Of the total organic carbon produced in the earth’s history, nearly all is recycled by
organisms (Fig. 1-1). No more than 0.1% of the estimated organic carbon budget has been
preserved in sediments, with perhaps as much as 25% of this amount available for
conversion to hydrocarbons.
1-4 M HRD GEO 0009
The four most important sources of organic carbon for deposition are phytoplankton,
zooplankton, higher plants, and bacteria. Higher plants have become important only in
geologically recent times, and today make up about 50% of the material deposited.
The most favourable environments for deposition appear to be:
• Shallow marine (i.e. continental shelf) areas, where plankton exist in great
quantities
• Deltaic zones, where rivers drop their burden of sediment and plant remains
from the interiors of the continents.
If there is relatively little disturbance from wave or current action, the organic materials can
build up without erosion, and little is lost due to decay.
Some hydrocarbons are deposited directly in the form of geochemical fossils. These are
molecules of oil produced by certain plants or animals and added directly to sediments with
little or no change in composition. Geochemical fossils make up only a small fraction of crude
oils, but are of great geological interest.
1.3. BURIAL
The fats, carbohydrates, and proteins of the plants and animals deposited must be protected
from decay due to exposure to oxygen, and from being destroyed by aerobic (free oxygen-
consuming) organisms. This protection can occur when the organic material is deposited in a
mixture with finely divided clastic sediments, such as clays and silts (Fig.1-2).
Figure 1-2 PRESERVATION OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SEDIMENT

In general, the more finely graded the sediment is, the more organic matter is preserved, but
there must be a significant amount of organic carbon content to start with. At least 5% Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) is considered the minimum for a good source rock. The sediments
will usually be clays and shale’s, but in some areas, carbonates can be source rocks as well.
Microscopic examination of source rocks can show visible bands or layers of dark brown or
black organic matter, representing seasonal deposition cycles.
1.4. TRANSFORMATION
The organic fraction of the sediments goes through three phases of conversion:
• Diagenesis
• Catagenesis
• Metagenesis.
The first two phases are important in petroleum formation. The process is shown graphically
in (Fig. 1-3), and explained in sections 1.4.1-1.4.3.
Figure 1-3 HYDROCARBON EVOLUTUION

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1.4.1. Diagenesis
When first deposited, marine clays contain as much as 80% water by volume. Diagenesis
describes the chemical changes that occur as the sediments become consolidated and water
volume and circulation decrease. Diagenesis affects the organic content of the rock, as well
as the rock itself.
During diagenesis, the oxidising environment at shallow burial depth (<40 m) gradually
changes to a reducing environment. In the reducing environment, anaerobic organisms
obtain oxygen from carbohydrates in buried organic material, and by breaking down sulphate
compounds available in the sediments. The organisms obtain energy by consuming proteins
from the buried organic matter.
The chemical processes involved in liberating oxygen from carbohydrates also produce
methane (CH4), the most common of the hydrocarbon gasses. Reduction of sulphate
compounds produces hydrogen sulphide (H2S), which is normally destroyed by aerobic
sulphur-reducing bacteria (Fig. 1-4). In an oxygen-poor environment, however, some of the
H2S produced will remain in place.
Figure 1-4 FORMATION OF H2S IN SEDIMENTS
Proteins from the buried organic matter degrade into amino acids and sugars that serve as
food for various kinds of anaerobic life. The residue, by polymerization and condensation,
eventually forms various geopolymers.
Depending on their composition, geopolymers may be further condensed into kerogen,

considered the direct source material for hydrocarbons; or condensed to form bitumen.
Kerogen is broadly defined as a family of compounds that are insoluble by organic solvents.
Bitumen, however, may be dissolved by solvent action. The average proportions in rock
between the original organic matter, kerogen, and bitumen are shown in (Fig. 1-5).
Diagenesis usually occurs in the first few hundred meters of burial, but in rare cases may
continue to as much as 2000 m. At such depths, temperature and pressure will usually have
little to do with the process.
Figure 1-5 RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SEDIMENTS
1.4.2. Catagenesis
As depth of burial increases, temperature and pressure have an increasing effect on

kerogen, causing gradual breakdown and liberation of hydrocarbons from complex polymers.
The process can result in the formation of more complex molecules as well. The term
catagenesis has been proposed for this process (Tissot and Welte, 1978).
Hydrocarbon formation takes place mainly from 1500 m. to 6000 m of vertical depth. In
progressive stages the kerogen is cracked to produce crude oil, wet gas, and condensate,
along with some methane. Thousands of different specific kinds of molecules may be
formed in this way.
With higher temperatures, the process accelerates. Eventually, only carbon-rich residue will
be left; this may be in the form of bituminous materials or as so- called dead oil.
1.4.3. Metagenesis
In the final phase of hydrocarbon evolution, high temperature and pressure cause kerogen to
be directly cracked into light hydrocarbons, with methane the most important or only
component. This is known as the dry gas zone. H2S also may be produced, if the source
material is rich in sulphur compounds. Under certain conditions, carbon dioxide is created,
mostly from continuing bacterial activity.
The end of the cycle is metamorphism, where the remaining organic material, nearly pure
carbon, is converted to graphite by great heat and pressure.
1-8 M HRD GEO 0009
1.5. MIGRATION
As described previously, hydrocarbons usually derive from fine-grained clastic sediments

that are rich in kerogen. Commercially useful amounts of oil and gas, however, usually are
found in coarse-grained, permeable rocks that show no signs of organic source material.
This implies movement (migration) from source to reservoir. Migration occurs in two forms
(Fig. 1-6):
• Primary Migration refers to the movement of hydrocarbons through the tiny, water
saturated pores and passages of the source rock, or via micro fractures in the rock.
Most of the hydrocarbons will be in liquid or gas phase; fluid pressures range from
about 100 kg/cm2 to 1400 kg/cm2, while temperatures range from 50° C to 250° C.
Oil and gas may migrate under any of the following conditions: as a continuous fluid
phase (most likely), as globules or bubbles suspended in the water phase, or as
solutions in water.The primary cause of fluid movement is probably hydrodynamic
pressure, from heating of pore water. A secondary factor is greater compaction of the
sediments as the overburden increases, squeezing water, oil, and gas from the
pores.
• Secondary Migration concerns the movement of the oil or gas through the relatively
larger pore spaces of carrier or reservoir rocks. This movement may be due to
buoyancy of the hydrocarbons, relative to water; or due to capillary or hydrodynamic
pressures.
Figure 1-6 MIGRATION OF HYDROCARBONS
Large accumulations of oil and gas require large areas of drainage from the source rock.
Thus, secondary migration may take place over distances of ten to one hundred kilometres,
or even more. Migration may be helped by fracturing in the carrier or reservoir rocks.
1.6. ACCUMULATION
Migrating hydrocarbons may eventually reach a barrier to further upward movement; this will
be a relatively impermeable (‘tight’) rock positioned by deposition, faulting, or other causes.
Over a period of time, the fluids in the reservoir rock will segregate according to density (Fig.
1-7). This forms, from top to bottom:
• A free gas cap
• An oil-gas interface (GOC)
• An oil zone
• An oil-water interface (OWC)
• And a water zone.
Hydrocarbon traps are classified as:
• Structural traps (formed by deformation or faulting)
• Stratigraphic traps (formed by deposition or erosion)
• Combination traps (containing elements of both).
Figure 1-7 RESERVOIR NOMENCLATURE
The actual composition of the reservoir fluids depends on the tightness of the reservoir seal,
the hydrocarbons derived from the source, and such factors as reservoir temperature and
pressure. A hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir may have little or no free gas; or may be almost
entirely gas with little or no oil zone.
Many reservoirs are quite complex, with multiple layers of gas, oil, and water, separated by
thin layers of tight rocks. The term cap rock is often used to denote the reservoir seal.
Closure refers to the total vertical section that is enclosed by the reservoir seal. The amount
of closure determines the maximum area of the reservoir, and by extension the total volume
of fluids in the reservoir. Most of the time, however, hydrocarbons do not fill the entire fluid
column in the zone of closure.
1-10 M HRD GEO 0009
The spill point is defined as the lowest point at which closure still exists, and thus is the
bottom of any potential reservoir.
The pay zone usually is defined as the vertical section or sections of the reservoir that
contains recoverable hydrocarbons.
The cap rock of a reservoir is only a relative barrier to the passage of fluids. At some time,
the seal will break down through erosion, fracturing, or displacement of the rock and the
reservoir will be lost.
1.7. COMPOSITION OF FORMATION FLUIDS
Most of the fluid content of the earth’s crust is fresh or brine water, with a density of from 1 to
1.1 SG (density). There are, however, trace amounts of numerous gasses derived from
mineral or organic sources, as well as fluids from the hydrocarbon family.
Oil or gas reservoirs are usually not made up only of hydrocarbons. The oil or gas may be in
solution, and reservoirs may have up to 50% interstitial (or connate) water content; that is,
water bonded to the surfaces of the rock grains. Other compounds, such as H2S, also may
make up the reservoir fluids.
There are many different types of hydrocarbons. The general classification based on the
arrangement of atoms, and number of carbon atoms (i.e. C1, iC4, C18, etc.), in each
molecule.
1.8. SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Saturated hydrocarbons have single bonds between carbon atoms.
1.8.1. Paraffin’s
Also known as alkanes are the most common types of hydrocarbon which include Methane,
Ethane, Propane, Butane and Pentane.
Physical properties of the Paraffin’s:
• At standard temperature and pressure (25° C, 760 mm of Hg), the Alkanes are:
• Gaseous from C1 to nC5

• Liquid from iC5 to C17
• Solid from C18 on.
• The density (SG) of the Alkanes at 20° C. varies from 0.626 for Pentane to 0.769 for
Pentadecane.
1.8.2. Cycloparaffins
These hydrocarbons, also known as napthenes, form ring structures, again with single bonds
between carbon atoms. Each component is given the name of the corresponding paraffin,
with the prefix cyclo-.
Physical properties of the Cycloparaffins:
• Cyclopropane and Cyclobutane are gaseous at standard temperature and pressure.

• Cyclopentane and heavier molecules are liquid.
1.9. UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one carbon atom connected with another by a double or
triple bond.
Due to chemical instability, unsaturated hydrocarbons are less common than saturated types
and they include, Alcenes, Polyenes, Cyclenes, Alcynes and Aromatics.
Oilfield classifications also refer to density or phase behaviour of the hydrocarbons, at depth
and at surface. Thus a well may produce Natural Gas, Crude Oil and/or Condensate
(retrograde gas), which is gaseous at depth but liquid at surface.
1.10. NATURAL GAS
1.10.1. Occurrence and Composition of Natural Gas
Methane is the primary component of natural gas, usually making up 70 percent or more of
the mixture of fluids found in a gas reservoir. Other hydrocarbons may be present, but exist
in small and variable amounts. The most common of the secondary components will be the
first members of the alkane series: ethane, propane, iso- and normal-butanes, pentanes,
and hexanes. Other elements and compounds may be present in trace amounts.
Methane is always present as a gas, since it is not condensable under any known reservoir
conditions. The critical temperatures of the other components are such that they may be
either liquid or gaseous in the reservoir.
The natural gas found in a certain area will be a unique mixture of hydrocarbons and may be
classified as Associated, when they occur with crude oil, or Non-Associated, when they
occur alone. In the reservoir, gases may be present in one or more of the following forms:
• Free Gas - occupies the upper part of the reservoir; it may be underlain by crude oil
(associated gas) or by water (non-associated gas).
• Gas dissolved in oil - nearly always present in an oil reservoir. The amount of gas
in solution depends on the overall composition of the hydrocarbons, and on reservoir
temperature and pressure. A reservoir is considered under saturated when all the
gas is dissolved in crude oil, and saturated when an excess of gas forms a free gas
cap. When the percentage of gas in solution is relatively small, normal production
practice is to separate and burn it, use it as a source of energy for operation of oilfield
equipment, or re-inject it to help maintain reservoir pressure.
• Gas dissolved in water - may be important when there is a large percentage of

interstitial water in the reservoir.
• Liquefied gas - Under conditions of high temperature and pressure (over 6000 psi),
natural gas and crude oil become physically indistinguishable.
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1.10.2. Physical Properties of Natural Gas
Gas Production - The recovery of gas from a well will be measured in cubic feet (API) or
cubic meters of volume, per hour or per day. Most successful gas wells produce in many
thousands (Mcf) or millions (MMcf) of cubic feet per day.
Gas Gravity - This is the ratio of the density of a gas to the density of air, at the standard
temperature and pressure described previously. This term is expressed as specific gravity.
Gas Law - This term describes the behaviour of a gas under changing temperature and
pressure, and is fundamental to production calculations.
The gas law may be expressed as:
PV = ZnRT
where: P = Absolute pressure

V = Volume
n = Number of moles of gas
R = So - called ‘Gas Constant’
T = Absolute temperature
Z = Deviation (compressibility) factor
The term Ideal Gas Law is in the form described above, but dispenses with the ‘Z’ factor.
A number of different unit systems may be used in expression of the gas law; they are
summarized in the table below:
P V T R
Atmospheres cc °K 82.1
Atmospheres litres °K 0.0821
mm of Hg cc °K 62369.0
g/cm2 cc °K 8.315
psi ft3 °R 10.7
psi ft3 °R 1545.0
Atmospheres ft3 °R 0.73
The ‘Z’ factor is necessary to adjust the gas law for the different gas compositions found in
nature, since, at high temperatures and pressures, they show considerable difference from
ideal behaviour.
1.11. CRUDE OIL
1.11.1. Occurrence and Composition of Crude Oil
Crude oil represents a small fraction of the fluids found in a reservoir, and until less than two
hundred years ago was of little commercial importance. Since that time, however, this small
fraction has become a major part of the world economy.
There are no particular rules as to where crude oil may be found, except for the fact that it
usually accumulates in porous sedimentary rocks, behind some sort of permeability barrier.
Crudes can be found in the form of surface seepage in some locations, or as deep as 6000
m. (approx. 20,000 ft.). Producible oil reservoirs have sometimes been found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Crude oils are composed of various combinations of hydrogen and carbon. Most of the time,
a variety of other elements and compounds will be present, in trace amounts.
As with natural gases, each crude will be unique in composition for a certain area, and will be
made up of varying amounts of literally thousands of different molecular forms. Since it
would be very difficult to classify a crude oil by the composition of each component, simpler,
less technical definitions have evolved.
For the purposes of this article, condensate is considered in the same way as crude oil. The
general composition of crudes is defined by percentage of hydrocarbons in the basic
structures, as described previously:
• Paraffin (alkane) series - Alkanes are usually the most common components in a
given crude. These are so-called ‘paraffin-based’ oils.
• Cycloparaffin (napthene) series - Crudes containing a significant percentage of these

members are referred as ‘asphalt-based’ oils.
• Aromatic (Benzene) Series - While aromatics are present in all petroleums, they are
minor components, making up from 10 to 39% of most crudes. Other unsaturated
hydrocarbons will be present in trace amounts.
Most oil reservoirs will have some associated gas, as a free gas cap and/or gas dissolved in
oil. For any oil reservoir, there will be some associated water, most of which is connate
(original formation water wetting the rock surface).
1.11.2. Physical Properties of Crude Oils
Oil Production - The volume of oil extracted from a well is expressed in barrels (API) or
cubic meters, per hour, per day, or per month. The amount of oil produced in the first 24
hours after completion of a well will be used as a reference value, called ‘initial production’.
Oil Gravity - The most basic classification of a crude oil is by the relative proportions of
hydrocarbons of different weights. This value can be expressed in a simple way: by means
of the weight, or gravity, of a unit of oil compared to the same unit of water at standard
temperature and pressure.
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Two slightly different gravity scales are used in the industry; API (American Petroleum
Institute) gravity or the European Baumé gravity scale. Oil gravity scales are arbitrary and
work in opposition to the specific gravity scale—thus high API or Baumé gravity will
correspond to low specific gravity, and vice versa.
Oilfield gravity scales can be related to specific gravity by the following formulae:
Degrees API = (141.5 / SG) - 131.5
OR:
Degrees Baumé = (140 /SG) - 130.0
Measurements must be taken at a standard temperature and pressure, because oil density
will vary depending on these two conditions. The gravity of two crude oils can be very
different, even though the oils seem to be similar.
Fluorescence - Certain forms of organic matter, and certain minerals, emit light (fluoresce)
when exposed to light at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. Crude oils share this feature; in fact,
this is one of the reasons for the assumption that oil has an organic origin.
Fluorescence is often used as a field test for the presence of crude oil during drilling. In
samples of rock cuttings from the borehole, oil will show direct fluorescence under UV light
as specks, droplets or sheets of blue, blue-green, green, yellow, or gold.
If direct fluorescence is not visible, a solvent such as chloroform or 1,1,1 Trichloroethane

may be added to the sample. The resulting cut fluorescence can be seen under UV light as
streaks of colour streaming away from the sample, or as a residual ring when the solvent
has evaporated.
The cut test is very sensitive. Visible fluorescence will occur with as little as one part per
hundred thousand of oil in solvent.
The intensity of oil fluorescence depends on several factors:
• Concentration of oil in solvent solution
• Intensity and wavelength of the existing light
• pH and temperature of the solution
• Nature of the solvent
• Interference from other materials in the sample.
It is important to note that bitumen, asphalt and some minerals, such as calcite, will fluoresce
under certain conditions, but only crude oil will show both direct and cut fluorescence.
Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR) and Volume - The gas-oil ratio, also known as formation gas ratio, is
the volume of gas per unit volume of oil recovered from the reservoir. GOR is expressed in
cubic feet of gas per barrel of oil (API) or cubic meters of gas per cubic meter of oil. This
may be free or dissolved gas.
Bubble Point - This is related to the above value, and describes the reservoir temperature
and pressure at which dissolved gas begins to come out of solution. Heavy crudes will have
much lower capacity for dissolved gas than light crudes, at the same temperature and
pressure.
Viscosity - The viscosity of a crude oil governs its flow properties. Viscosity is a function of
the density of the oil, its temperature, and the amount of dissolved gas. This factor has an
important influence on the ease with which the oil can be produced from a reservoir.
Coefficient of Expansion - For an increase in temperature of 1° F., the volume of a given

crude will increase by 0.00036 to 0.00096. In general, the heavier the crude oil, the lower
the coefficient of expansion.
Colour - When transmitted light is used, crude oil varies in colour from light yellow to red;
heavy crudes may be opaque. If viewed by reflected light, crude oil is usually greenish, due
to its fluorescence.
Cloud and Pour Points - Low temperature has a great influence on crude oils, due to their
paraffin content. For a given crude, the cloud point is the temperature at which solid
paraffins first begin to settle out. The pour point, usually 2 to 5 degrees below the cloud
point, is the temperature at which the oil is least fluid and ceases to flow. Depending on the
composition of the crude, the pour point ranges from -70° F. to +90° F.
Calorific Value - The calorific value of crude oil is measured in calories or British Thermal
Units (BTU’s). The lower the API or Baumé gravity of a crude, the lower its calorific value.
The BTU value for one pound of a given crude will be about 18,300 to 19,500, compared with
10,200 to 14,600 for one pound of bituminous coal.
1.12. NON-HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS
A number of other elements and compounds may occur in association with hydrocarbons.
Some of these non- hydrocarbon components are listed below, in order of importance.
Sulphur Compounds - Significant amounts of this element are nearly always present in oil
and natural gas, and oil is often spoken of as low-sulphur or high-sulphur. Low-sulphur oils
are in the majority and contain less than one percent sulphur by weight.
Sulphur mainly occurs in either of the following forms:
• Free sulphur
• Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).

1-16 M HRD GEO 0009
H2S is a colourless, flammable gas with a characteristic foul odour. It is generally more
soluble in hydrocarbons than in water. It has a corrosive effect on metals, whether as free
gas or in solution. H2S is extremely toxic; concentrations as low as 0.005% can cause
poisoning when breathed for an extended time.
H2S is often associated with natural gas (so- called ‘sour gas’) and may make up as much
as 10% of the gas produced in some areas. Natural gas containing even very small amounts
of H2S is unsuitable for home use, and expensive treatment equipment must be used when
producing gas in H2S- prone areas.
The hydrogen sulphide found in oil and natural gas is believed to result from the reduction of
natural sulphates to sulphides by organic and inorganic means. Various micro organisms
form H2S as part of their life processes.
Nitrogen compounds - Nitrogen is a non- commercial component of both crude oil and
natural gas. There are at least two possible sources for the presence of nitrogen in a
reservoir:
• It may represent the nitrogen content of air that was trapped in the sediments at the
time of deposition, with additions from igneous sources, and from the decomposition
of nitric organic compounds.
• Natural gases rich in helium usually have a high nitrogen content as well. In such
cases, the two gases are believed to have a common organic origin, being derived
from various proteins found in plant matter.
Oxygen and High molecular Weight N,S,O Compounds -Acids make up the most
important component of this group, being common in young or immature crude oils. These
include various steroids and fatty acids, of organic origin.
Crude oils often contain high molecular weight N, S, and O compounds, which go by the
collective names of resins and asphaltenes. They may make up as much as 20% of crude
oils. Resins and asphaltenes are probably formed by oxidation and polymerization as the oil
matures.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Carbon dioxide is often present in minor amounts in oil and gas
reservoirs. It is non-flammable, and inert at standard temperature and pressure.
Reservoir CO2 may be formed:
• By action of acids on carbonates and bicarbonates in igneous, sedimentary or

metamorphic rocks
• By oxidation of hydrocarbons through contact with mineralized waters
• By heating of carbonates and bicarbonates
• By the action of certain anaerobic bacteria on hydrocarbons.
In some locations, CO2 is produced for the purpose of re-injection elsewhere, to increase
reservoir pressure in depleted zones.
Helium (He) - It is believed that most helium originates from disintegration of natural
radioactive isotopes. Some may be liberated from organic materials buried in sediments.
When it exists in sufficient amounts, helium may be produced from wells as a commercial
product.
Miscellaneous Substances - Crude oil often contains a variety of other substances of

organic and non-organic origin. Organic materials may include the skeletons, spines, shells
and spore coats of micro organisms, insect scales, coal and lignite fragments, algae and
other items.
Inorganic elements found in oil include metals, such as iron and aluminium, among others.
They may have originated from seawater in the depositional environment, or as material
secreted by algae and other marine organisms.
1.13. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Rocks may be hydrocarbon sources, in other words the storehouses of organic material
from which hydrocarbons are created; or reservoirs, the zones where hydrocarbons
accumulate. For oil and gas exploration, therefore, geoligists also classify rocks according to
their hydrocarbon potential.
Oilfield geology is mainly, but not exclusively, concerned with sedimentary rocks, because of
their importance as sources and reservoirs of hydrocarbons.
Organically-based Sedimentary Rocks result from the accumulation of the bodies or

skeletons of various organisms and include rocks of similar composition to the precipitates,
as well as important energy sources, such as coal and petroleum.
In petroleum exploration, most classifications are by these rock types. Standard lithology
symbols have evolved for use in charts and logs; some of these are shown in (Fig. 1-8).
Figure 1-8 STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR SEDEMENTARY ROCKS
A geologic description of sedimentary rocks uses the classifications listed above, integrated
with a listing of the source material for the sediment. Often sediments are a combination of
types, such as silty sand, dolomitic shale, and so on.
1-18 M HRD GEO 0009
1.13.1. Breccia
Breccia is rocks composed of angular fragments of other rocks, of any type, cemented
together. The cement can be calcite (crystalline calcium carbonate), silica, iron oxide, or
clays. Breccia is rarely a reservoir rock.
1.13.2. Conglomerate or Pudding Rock
Conglomerate or pudding rock is composed of the same materials as breccia, but the
fragments have been rounded by wear during transport from the source location. These
rarely make reservoir rocks.
1.13.3. Sand
Unconsolidated (loose) masses of grains, rounded or angular in shape. The grains are
mainly silica or feldspar, but also could be calcite, glauconite, pyrite, fragments of igneous
rock or other materials. Sands are usually highly porous and make excellent reservoirs.
1.13.4. Sandstones
Consolidated (cemented) sand. The cement bonding the grains together may be calcite,
silica, iron oxide, or clays. Sands usually make good to excellent reservoirs.
1.13.5. Siltstones
Made up of very small grains, from the same sources as sandstones, plus clays. They are
usually seen as a transition between sand and shale. Siltstones have little porosity and
permeability, so are poor reservoirs, unless fracturing has taken place.
1.13.6. Clays
These minerals easily break down into extremely fine particles, carried in suspension in
water. Clays form much of seabed sediments. They can be source rocks, but their
composition and shallow depth of burial mean that clays do not usually make reservoirs.
1.13.7. Shales
Clays compacted under pressure to form a rock. Shales are usually fissile; that is, they split
easily along the bedding plane. Rocks of similar composition that are not fissile are clay
stones or mudstones. Shales are often rich in organic material and are the prime source
rocks for hydrocarbons. Shales do not make reservoirs, unless highly fractured.
1.13.8. Limestones
Composed mainly from calcium carbonate, supplied by precipitation from sea water or from
organic matter, such as the shells and skeletons of calcareous plants and animals. There are
many different limestones, such as:
• Chalks - fragments of the shells of micro organisms, cemented together

• Reef Limestones - fossilized corals
• Coquina - Cemented shells and shell fragments.
Some limestones make excellent reservoirs. Development of porosity usually is a secondary

process, occurring from fracturing or chemical action. In a few cases, limestone also may be
a source rock.
1.13.9. Dolostones
Primarily made up of the mineral dolomite (magnesium carbonate), and usually the result of
chemical conversion from limestone, a process called diagenesis. Rarely, dolomite may
precipitate after sea water evaporation. The conversion process may create additional
(secondary) porosity, thus some dolostones make good reservoirs.
1.13.10. Marl
Intermediate between limestone and shale. Defined as 35 to 65% calcareous material, with
most of the rest composed of clays.
1.13.11. Evaporates
Residues left from the evaporation of sea water. These may include:
• Salt (Sodium Chloride, Calcium Chloride)

• Gypsum and Anhydrite (Calcium Sulphate, in hydrated and anhydrite form).
1.13.12. Chert
Made of hard, compact, dense silica, precipitated from sea water. Chert occurs as nodules in
beds of other rocks, or, less commonly, as thin, distinct beds.
1.13.13. Organics
Different forms of carbon-based minerals, mainly coal. Coals are described by degree of
compaction and mineral alteration, as lignite, bituminous (‘soft coal’) and anthracite (‘hard
coal’).
1.14. RESERVOIR ROCK
Three main features create a reservoir rock:
Porosity – Which is the fraction of the bulk volume of the rock not occupied by solids,
expressed in percent (Fig. 1-9).
The term “Absolute Porosity” refers to the total void space in the rock, while “Effective
Porosity” is the percentage of interconnected void space, compared to the total volume of the
rock.
For hydrocarbon production, effective porosity is the most important factor; if the pore spaces
are not connected the oil or gas cannot flow (Fig. 1-10).
1-20 M HRD GEO 0009
Porosity can be expressed in the following ways:
Percent Porosity = 100 (bulk volume - grain volume) / bulk volume
OR:
Percent Porosity = 100 (pore volume / bulk volume)
Figure 1-9 VARIATION OF POROSITY WITH INCREASED PACKING
Figure 1-10 TYPES OF POROSITY
Porosity may be primary or secondary. Primary porosity is the original pore space in the rock,
at the time of creation or deposition. Secondary porosity is created at a later time, due to
fracturing, solution dissolving of minerals, or other causes.
Permeability - This is the measure of the ease with which fluids can flow through a porous
rock (Fig. 1-11).
Figure 1-11 EXAMPLES OF PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a value expressed in millidarcies (md). Rocks with fair to good permeability
measure 100 md or more, while less than 50 md of permeability means the rocks are ‘tight’.
Reservoir Seal - This is some relatively impermeable barrier that restricts the movement of
oil or gas to surface.
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1.15. RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
1.15.1. Natural Drive
Natural drive is the ability of the reservoir to produce oil or gas to surface without any
assistance.
1.15.2. Solution Gas Drive
In a solution gas drive reservoir, there is no change in reservoir volume, reservoir pressure
declines, two phase flow exists ( fluid flows under “bubble point” pressure) and gas is now
produced at surface out of the oil. Low recovery factor ( RF ). (Fig. 1-12)
Figure 1-12 SOLUTION-GAS DRIVE RESERVOIR

1.15.3 Water Drive

In a water drive reservoir the water replaces the oil being produced, pressure stays relatively
constant giving optimum output (recovery). High recovery factor (RF). (Fig. 1-13)
Figure 1-13 WATER DRIVE RESERVOIR
1.15.4. Gas Cap Expansion
In a gas cap expansion reservoir there are two distinct zones, oil and gas. Gas expands to
push oil to surface during production. Pressure declines and fluid lightens. (Fig. 1-14)
Figure 1-14 GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIR
To maintain the production, water and gas can be re-injected into reservoir.
Pressure and temperature are the dominant parameters influencing the flow quality
1-24 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 2
DRILLING OPERATIONS
ELEMENT 1.2
2-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
2.1. DRILLING OPERATIONS

Some of the material in this section has been adapted from the book “A Primer of Oil-Well
Drilling”, published by the University of Texas at Austin, U.S.A.
2.2. WELL PLANNING
Drilling for oil or gas is a highly complex and expensive process that requires strict planning if
it is to be successful. As much as possible, the engineers in charge of well construction try
to anticipate problems and determine the best ways to deal with them. Their efforts result in
a written drilling plan that describes in detail the equipment, procedures, and type of
completion to be used on the well to be drilled.
The objective of well planning is to make a drilling program that takes the following
considerations into account:
1. Safety for personnel and equipment
2. Minimum drilling cost
3. Maximum production (if successful).
Personnel safety is the highest priority.
2.3. DECIDING WHERE TO DRILL
Today, oil companies decide to drill only when they have fairly certain evidence of a reservoir
structure. The expense and danger of deep drilling have made obsolete the old “wildcatter’s"
method of drilling a hole based on little or no subsurface information.
Seismic exploration is the most popular method for detection of a reservoir structure.
Seismic surveys are made by creating a shock wave at surface; as the shock wave passes
downward through the crust, it is partially reflected by the various formations it encounters.
The surveyors measure seismic transit time for each reflection, and correlate the values with
surveys made in other locations, along a straight line or grid pattern. The surveyors,
assisted by computer processing, then construct a graphic plot showing the geologic
structure of rocks below the surface. This plot may be displayed in two or three dimensions,
depending on the level of detail in the original data.
Other methods of subsurface exploration use sensitive gravity meters or magnetometers to

detect changes in rock density.
The surveyors carefully interpret and correlate the subsurface information with other data.
Examples include surface outcrops, position of faults, formation data from nearby wells (if
any) or satellite mapping of the surface.
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2.4. OBTAINING THE RIGHTS TO DRILL
In many parts of the world, the government holds all rights to exploit minerals in a particular
area. In North America, private owners may also have this privilege. The owners lease
these mineral rights to an operating company, which is the oil company that wishes to drill
a well into a certain geologic structure.
Leases may be exclusive contracts with a single oil company, or may be auctioned to the
highest bidder. Usually the lease is valid for a fixed period, such as five years. The lease
may require specific operations to be performed, such as seismic surveys or a specific
minimum number of exploration wells; the operating company may suffer financial penalties
or lose the lease prematurely if these are not carried out.
To spread out the risk and expense of drilling on the lease, the operating company may sell
percentage shares of any possible production to partners made up of other oil or financial
companies. In many countries, the government automatically becomes a partner, with a 20-
40 percent share of potential production.
Sometimes the structure found on the lease is not large enough to justify the cost of
exploration. The operating company may then allow the lease to lapse, or farm out (sublet)
the lease to another operator with lower costs.
2.5. WELL TYPES
Oil and gas wells have been drilled in nearly every country in the world, onshore or offshore,
but all the wells drilled can be classified into a few general types:
• Wildcat - Little or no known geological foundation for site selection.
• Exploratory - Site selection based on seismic or other subsurface surveys, but no

known drilling data in the prospective zone.
• Step-out or Delineation - Drilled to determine boundaries of a reservoir discovered

during exploratory drilling
• Infill or Development - Drills the known productive portions of the reservoir; site
selection is based on drainage radius in the reservoir, reservoir shape, cost of
recovery, etc.
• Re-entry or Workover - Existing well re-entered to deepen, sidetrack (drill a new

wellbore starting from the old one), rework, or re-complete.
2.6. ENGINEERING THE WELL
In most operating companies, a strict drilling plan governs the design of the proposed well.
As engineers develop the drilling plan, they compile an Account for Expenditure (AFE) that
estimates the costs for each part of the program. Senior management then uses the AFE to
determine whether to approve the plan.
The AFE costs are based on the costs of materials and transport (which can be estimated
fairly accurately) and the number of drilling days required (which is less certain). The drilling
days required are basically a function of expected bit performance in the formations to be
encountered, and the possibility of various types of drilling problems in the region where the
well is to be drilled.
The engineers in charge of designing the proposed well must consider a number of potential
engineering problems. Some of the considerations include:
• Expected formation fluid pressures
• Formation fracture pressures (fracture gradient)
• Formation stability
• Hole geometry
• Directional planning
• Surface conditions.
Control of formation fluid pressures is a prime consideration. During drilling, fluids of various
densities (drilling muds) must be circulated to balance pressures and bring cuttings to
surface. Since the fluid density adequate to control pressures at one depth may be
incompatible with formation strength at a shallower depth, the engineers will plan to run one
or more strings of protective casing to isolate troublesome zones.
The need for casing requires drilling different sizes of hole at different times. Each time a
casing string is run, the new hole size is reduced, so that the drilling tools can fit through the
casing.
(Fig. 2-1) illustrates the planning progression for a typical well. The hole geometry and
directional engineering requirements determine the type of drilling tools and equipment used.
In addition, the well plan is affected by the distribution of work among the various companies
involved in the well construction process. Current practice involves the hiring of numerous
specialised service companies to perform these tasks. This may be arranged through
individual contracts negotiated directly with the operating company, or by a general
contractor as part of an integrated services contract.
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Figure 2-1 THE WELL PLANNING PROCESS

The finalised well plan lists the depths and hole sizes to be drilled, as a series of drilling
phases. The proposed well may be a straight hole drilled vertically, a deviated well turned
to a predetermined angle, or a so-called horizontal well. An extended reach well is a
deviated well with a particularly long deviated section .
Operators design deviated wells to deal with problems of rig location, to avoid problem
zones, or to bring unrestrained (blowout) wells under control. (Fig. 2-2) is a summary of
directional well profiles.
Figure 2-2 TYPES OF DIRECTIONAL WELLS
In general, operators specify horizontal wells when it is necessary to increase the amount of
reservoir exposed to the well bore. Due to the requirement of accurate reservoir information
in order to correctly place the horizontal section, this type of well is usually drilled for
development purposes. A summary of possible horizontal well profiles can be found in (Fig.
2-3); these include short, medium and long radius profiles, with differing equipment
requirements.
Deviated or horizontal drilling generally costs more (per meter drilled) than vertical drilling,
and requires special tools and techniques. The Operator or general contractor must decide
which method is most effective for the extra cost.
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Figure 2-3 TYPES OF HORIZONTAL WELLS
Some wells may test the entire sedimentary column in a given basin, but most wells
are drilled just deep enough to intercept the target zone or zones. This may range
from only a few hundred meters, to 5,000 or more meters of vertical depth.
2.7. SELECTING THE SITE / LOCATION NOMENCLATURE
After deciding to drill, constructing a well plan, raising the money, and clearing any legal
problems, the operating company determines a suitable site for drilling.
On land, the operator looks for a location that is fairly level, accessible for heavy equipment,
and with good drainage. This may be as easy as a flat site next to a highway, or as difficult
as a jungle location reachable only by helicopter.
Offshore, the operator hopes that the weather is reasonably good and that the water is not
too deep. The location is precisely surveyed, sometimes by satellite positioning, and marked
with buoys.
The proposed location is mapped as a set of surface co-ordinates. The location of an

example well in the North Sea may be described as below, using latitude and longitude:
Neerg Oil Co. Remote #1 Location: 57° 56' 44.3" North

1° 26' 26.9" West
The oil industry, however, most often uses the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
system for well positioning. The UTM system divides the earth into a series of sectors, each
6 degrees wide and 8 degrees high. Each sector is assigned:
• A number from 1-60 for its location east of the 180 meridian
• A letter (C to X, excluding I and O) for its position north of 80° South.
Co-ordinates within each sector are measured in meters north or south of the Equator, and
meters east of a line 500km to the west of the central meridian running through the sector.
(Fig. 2-4) shows the sector containing the example well.
Figure 2-4 UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR SYSTEM
Sectors 31U and 31V cover most of the North Sea. The location of our example well in UTM
co-ordinates is expressed as:
Sector 31V: 6423868 N

407697 E
In addition to surface location, it is necessary to agree on the starting point for depth
measurements. At the time of drilling, depth is measured from the drill floor; this will be some
distance above sea level for nearly all wells, including offshore. From this starting point, hole
depth may be expressed as:
• Total Measured Depth (TMD): The total distance from start to a given point in the
well, measured along the centreline of the well bore
• Total Vertical Depth (TVD): The vertical distance from start to the elevation of a
given point in the well.
• Total Depth (TD): The ending point of the well. This is usually the measured depth
value at the well end point.
2-10 M HRD GEO 0009
2.8. CONTRACTORS AND WELLSITE PERSONNEL
2.8.1. Contractors
After selecting the drilling site, the operator chooses a suitable drilling rig. A drilling rig is
the assembly of tools, machinery, and other equipment used to drill an oil or gas well. Most
of the time, a drilling contractor supplies the drilling rig and the people to operate it.
The operating company pays the drilling contractor for the number of days the rig is needed
(day-rate contract), for the amount of hole depth needed (footage contract), or simply for a
well completed to the operator's specifications (turnkey contract). As of 1996, the
proportions of each contract type for wells drilled world wide were as follows:
• Day rate: 54%

• Footage: 37%
• Turnkey: 9%
The main job of the drilling contractor is to drill a hole to the depth required by the operating
company. Usually, the operating company sends out invitations to bid to several contractors
(the ‘bid list’) who have the proper equipment, and have proven their abilities in the past.
The contractor with the best combination of price, equipment, and proven skill gets the job,
not necessarily the lowest bidder.
It takes various expendable supplies such as drilling mud and bits, and specialised technical
services, to drill a well. The most common practice currently is for the operating company to
award contracts to a number of service and supply companies. Each contract specifies
the scope of the services, the equipment required, performance standards, prices and
payment terms, and the legal responsibilities of the contractor.
Integrated services contracts essentially replace the system of separate bids and contract
awards with a single detailed contract for well construction, with a general contractor (which
may or may not be the drilling contractor) supervising the selection and management of the
well services. Numerous companies can and have operated under all three conditions listed
above: as an independent service and supply contractor, within the framework of an
integrated services contract, and as general contractor.
2.8.2. Wellsite Personnel
Once begun, drilling normally proceeds 24 hours a day, seven days a week, until the well is
completed or abandoned. The drilling program may require fewer than twenty, or more than
one hundred people on location at a given time. Where the location is easy to reach, most of
these people may commute to work each day, with only a few critical supervisors and
technicians living at the site.
When the well is offshore, or in a remote land area, everyone lives in a "camp" or
accommodation near the rig. The camp is more like a hotel, with a cafeteria or galley,
showers, bedrooms and laundry facilities. On camp jobs, the workers live on location for
several weeks at a time, and then are relieved so that they can return home for a similar
period.
The people who work on today’s rigs are responsible for the safe and efficient operation of
millions of dollars worth of complex equipment. Drilling a well is very much a team effort; the
more co-operation there is between the various operators and contractors, the more trouble-
free the drilling operation. (Fig. 2-5) shows a typical drilling operations structure.
Figure 2-5 DRILLING OPERATIONS STRUCTURE
The operating company normally has two levels of supervision for the proposed well.
• At headquarters (or a temporary regional base) an Exploration Manager and a Drilling

Superintendent monitor the geological and mechanical progress of the well. Often
they simultaneously follow the progress of other drilling projects and co-ordinate
operations between them.
• The operating company will usually have a representative on location at all times.
The company representative, or Company Man, supervises the entire drilling
operation and makes sure that the contractors follow the well plan. He decides
whether the various people on location are doing their jobs properly. The company
man can run off (dismiss) anyone he believes is doing substandard work.
Expensive exploration wells often have a Well Site Geologist and/or well Site engineer, so
that critical decisions affecting the well plan can be made quickly.
Although the number of persons on a drilling rig varies from rig to rig, most crews working on
land rigs include a Tool Pusher, a Driller, Derrickman, and two to four rotary helpers
(roughnecks). Sometimes the crew includes a motorman, rig mechanic, or rig electrician.
All these people work for the drilling contractor, with the Tool Pusher as supervisor.
Offshore rigs are more complex and require more people for the operations. In addition to
the people listed above, several Roustabouts provide general labour under the direction of
the head roustabout, who often is a Crane Operator as well.
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Roustabouts handle the equipment and supplies that are almost constantly being shuttled to
the rig from a shore base. The Crane Operator has the skills to operate the large cranes that
are used on most offshore rigs, to load and unload supplies.
Offshore rigs also require a marine crew, headed by a Barge Master or Captain, and may
include a Barge Engineer, Radio Operator and Diving Crew, among others.
As for personnel who work for the service and supply companies, their jobs vary according to
the nature of the service they provide to the operator and contractor.
For example, mud companies, who supply the components for the drilling fluid used on the
rig, almost always have a Mud Engineer on duty. He formulates the drilling fluid to the
specifications of the operator, runs a regular test on it, and reports on its chemical properties,
under the supervision of the Company Man.
Mud Loggers monitor the drilling operation, and interpret the geology of the well by
examination of the drilled cuttings (Fig. 2-6). The portable lab used by the mud loggers often
becomes a ‘control tower’ for the rig, with the company man and geologist spending much of
their time there.
Figure 2-6 THE MUD LOGGING SERVICE

Directional Drillers supervise the use of directional drilling tools and help with the
engineering of directional wells.
Electric Loggers operate specialised downhole tools for formation evaluation, either during
drilling (measurement while drilling, or MWD) or afterward (wire line logging).
Casing Crews come to location when needed, to operate the special tools needed to place
casing in the hole.
Cementers supply the material and operate the equipment to cement casing in place.
Safety Contractors provide monitors, alarms, and breathing equipment on wells where
dangerous gases, like H2S, may be released at surface.
Catering Crews, supervised by a Camp Boss, provide the food and hotel services on camp
jobs and offshore locations.
The Company Man, Tool Pusher, Well Site Geologist and some of the service personnel are
on call at all hours. The drilling crew and most of the service personnel usually work in
twelve-hour shifts called tours (pronounced ‘towers’). In some locations they will only work
during daylight hours.
2.9. THE DRILLING RIG
Nearly all rigs employed in oil field drilling use the rotary drilling method, in which hollow drill
pipe, with an attached drill bit, is rotated from surface to make the hole.
Rigs come in many different sizes and types, rated mainly by maximum depth (and water
depth offshore) and lifting capacity. The rig selected by the operator must be able to drill to
the desired depth, be able to lift the heaviest string of pipe that may be needed in the well,
and be suitable for the drilling location.
2.9.1. Drilling Rig Generalities
All types of rotary drilling rigs have roughly the same components; these can be broken down
as follows:
• Power Supply System - to operate all the machinery
• Hoisting System - to raise and lower the drill pipe or string
• Rotating System - to rotate the drill pipe or string
• Circulating System - to circulate fluid down the drill pipe or string and through the
hole.
• Well Control System - to maintain safety by controlling pressure imbalances in the

well.
2-14 M HRD GEO 0009
(Fig. 2-7) shows the layout of a typical land rig. Offshore rigs have more or less the same
components, adapted for the limited space of a platform, ship or barge. The various systems
are discussed in detail in the following sections.
Figure 2-7 THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A DRILLING RIG

2.9.2. Onshore (land) Rigs
There is no single manufacturer of complete rigs. Usually the drilling contractor assembles a
new rig from interchangeable components supplied by many different specialist companies.
The location where a new land rig is first set up and tested is known as a rig-up yard.
Occasionally the rig returns to the rig-up yard for major servicing. As the rig becomes older,
the drilling contractor modernises or replaces many of the parts, removing some of the
subsystems while adding others.
Land drilling rigs must be more or less portable. Most can be broken down into modules
small enough that all their components fit on a few dozen flatbed truck trailers.
Some smaller rigs are mounted on a powered truck chassis that can be driven from location
to location (Fig. 2-8). Some desert locations allow the use of large rigs mounted on huge
wheels. These can be moved in one piece for short distances. Long-distance moves still
require that the rig be broken down into separate components.
Some drilling contractors have created special lightweight heliportable rigs for use in areas
with no convenient road or water access. The term 'heliportable' means that no single
component weighs more than the maximum load that can be carried under a medium-lift
helicopter. (800 Kgs)
Figure 2-8 TRUCK-MOUNTED DRILLING RIGS

2-16 M HRD GEO 0009
2.9.3. Offshore Rigs
Offshore, the way in which the rig is moved to the site depends on whether the well is for
exploration or development. If the well is exploratory, the operator uses some type of mobile
offshore rig. Mobile rigs include jack-ups, submersibles, semi submersibles, and drill
ships. Development drilling is usually done from some type of fixed platform. For small or
marginal fields, a mobile rig may pre-drill the development wells for later use with a subsea
completion system, eliminating the expense and complexity of the fixed platform.
2.9.4. Mobile Offshore Rigs
A jack-up rig consists of a barge mounted on enormous steel legs, and is floated or towed to
the location (Fig. 2-9). Once at the site, electric motors and a rack-and-pinion system cranks
the legs until they contact the sea floor. The barge is then raised on the legs until it is
completely out of the water. Tanks in the hull are then filled with water to pre-load the barge
and ensure that it does not suddenly settle during drilling (known as a punch-through).
Figure 2-9 MOBILE JACKUP DRILLING UNIT
The drilling rig itself is usually mounted on a sliding cantilever platform, so that drilling takes
place off the side of the barge. This also allows the barge to provide drilling or workover
services for fixed platforms that are too small to support a rig of their own. Jack-up rigs are
limited to drilling in water depths of up to approx. 100m (328 ft).
A submersible inland barge rig (Fig. 2-10) may be used in swampy areas, where the water is
shallow and quiet. The rig mounts on an elevated platform, well above the top deck of the
barge. On location, the barge is flooded and rests on the bottom. Inland barge rigs are
limited to 30.5m (100 ft) of water depth.
Figure 2-10 SUBMERSIBLE DRILLING BARGE
Submersibles, like jack-ups, are limited to drilling in relatively shallow waters. Nevertheless,
both provide a very stable platform from which drilling operations can be conducted.
2-18 M HRD GEO 0009
A semi submersible rig (Fig. 2-11) has two or more hulls upon which the rig floats as it is
being towed to the location (some rigs of this type have their own propulsion system as well).
The hulls are designed to be partially ballasted (flooded) so that they submerge just below
the water's surface. A computer-controlled ballast management system automatically keeps
the rig level.
Figure 2-11 SEMISUBMERSIBLE DRILLING BARGE
In reality, a semi submersible (or simply, “semi”) floats, but not on the water’s surface; within
certain limits, rough seas have relatively little effect on barge stability. Operators generally
use semi submersibles for drilling in water depths from 90-760m (295-2493ft).
A drill ship is also a floater (Fig. 2-12). Essentially, a drill ship is shaped just like any ocean-
going ship; drilling equipment (and other modifications) makes a drill ship distinctive. Drill
ships are the most mobile of offshore rigs and are often used to drill wildcat wells in deep,
remote waters, far from land. Drill ships have operated in water depths in excess of 3000m
(9843ft).
Figure 2-12 DRILLSHIP WITH DYNAMIC POSITIONING
Semi submersibles and drill ships must have some means of keeping station over the well
head while drilling. This may be done by the use of anchor lines, or by dynamic
positioning. Dynamic positioning means that the rig is equipped with hull-mounted
propellers, or thrusters, that are switched on and off as needed (by computer control) to
adjust the vessel’s position.
Wells drilled from deepwater floating rigs have the well head and well control equipment
mounted on the seabed. Large diameter tubing called riser connects the well head to the
rig.
2-20 M HRD GEO 0009
2.9.5. Fixed Offshore Rigs
Much of the time, more than one well must be drilled to exploit an offshore field. If the field is
small and near other producing facilities with excess capacity, one option is to drill the wells
from a mobile rig, then complete them using special subsea equipment, with a tieback via
pipeline to the producing facility.
If the field is not reasonably close to other production, but the produced fluids need little or
no treatment, a floating production facility may be anchored over the production site and
connected by umbilicals to the subsea well heads. The floating production barge may be a
jackup or semisub with the drilling equipment removed, or a de-commissioned oil tanker.
The tanker system, usually known as a Floating Production Storage and Offloading unit
(FPSO) is an increasingly economical solution.
If the field is large and/or remote from other production, the operator must then commission
the design and construction of some type of fixed production platform.
The proposed platform will be placed to provide the most advantageous means of exploiting
the field. This generally means the directional drilling of multiple wells from the platform.
Most fixed drilling platforms currently are of steel jacket construction (Fig. 2-13), although
they also may be made of cast, steel-reinforced concrete. Platforms made in this way are
limited to about 300m (984ft) of water depth. The actual size of the platform depends on the
number of wells drilled, water depth, maximum wave height and the size and complexity of
the surface equipment.
Small structures of a few hundred tons may be found in shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico
or offshore West Africa, for example. These facilities, many of which are unmanned, contain
little more than the well head equipment and production valves.
Larger facilities, such as many of those found in the North Sea, may weigh hundreds of
thousands of tons and support two drilling rigs as well as high temperature / high-pressure
gas processing equipment. Several large platforms may be linked together and require
hundreds of personnel on location, becoming veritable offshore 'cities'.
The supporting structure and the surface production facility, or 'topsides', are constructed on
land, then floated or towed to location. This is the only time that a platform is mobile. Steel
jacket structures are towed while on their sides, and then carefully ballasted until they tilt
upright into the correct position on the sea bed. In such a case, the topsides and base are
mated at location. Huge cranes, mounted on barges, are employed to hoist the drilling
equipment into place once the platform has been erected. When made ready for drilling, up
to fifty wells may be drilled from a single platform.
Figure 2-13 LARGE STEEL JACKET PLATFORM
Concrete gravity bases (Fig. 2-14) use tapered cylindrical legs to support the topsides. The
platform is held down on the seabed by means of large tanks which can be ballasted with
seawater or used for storage of produced fluids.
As an example of the size and complexity of a large offshore development project, consider
the Troll 'A' concrete platform, widely considered the heaviest man-made object ever moved.
Construction of the concrete base started in 1991 and the base and topsides were mated in
early 1995. The combined structure was then towed approx. 300 km (200 miles) from its
construction site to the field location in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Height of the
structure is 471m (1548 ft) and the combined weight of base, topsides and ballast during the
tow was greater than a million metric tons. Eight large oil field supply boats, each producing
13000 horsepower, were used to move the structure to its location at an average speed of 1-
2 knots.
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Figure 2-14 CONCRETE GRAVITY BASE PLATFORM
Approx. 450m (1476ft) of water depth probably represents the depth limit for conventional
fixed offshore structures. Technology is advancing to allow for development drilling in
deeper waters by other means, however (Fig. 2-15). Methods of construction that are
gaining in popularity include guyed towers, tension-leg platforms (TLP), and so-called
spars. Guyed towers reduce the weight of the supporting structure by use of anchor lines
arranged radially around the relatively lightweight steel platform. A TLP uses a semi
submersible barge as the drilling and production platform; it is connected to sea bottom by
vertical steel tendons kept under tension by the buoyancy of the platform. A spar is another
form of semi submersible platform, configured as a long cylinder that is ballasted to rest
vertically and held in place by anchor lines, as with a guyed platform.
Figure 2-15 PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION FOR DEEP WATER

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2.10. RIG COMPONENTS
2.10.1. Mast and Substructure
Offshore rigs are more or less permanently assembled, and preparations to drill take
relatively little time. On land, however, the rig usually must be reassembled from several
truckloads of separate components. This process is known as rigging up.
For land rigs, first the substructure—the girder-like framework that rests on the ground
directly over the hole - - is brought in and assembled. The substructure supports the mast or
derrick, the miles of pipe that will be used to drill the hole, and the drawworks, the
machinery used to raise and lower the drill string in the hole. Sometimes, depending on the
design, the engines for powering the rig machinery are also placed on the substructure.
With the substructure in place and assembled, and with the drawworks and engines in place,
the next step is to get the derrick or mast up. Strictly speaking, a derrick is a tower-like
structure that is assembled piece by piece, requiring a rig-building crew to fasten the pieces
together with bolts (Fig. 2-16). On the other hand, a mast is assembled once at the place
where it is manufactured and never taken apart again; it is portable. Nevertheless, a mast is
often referred to as “the derrick”, even though it really is not. Most modern rigs are equipped
with masts, although a few rigs, especially offshore platforms, still have standard derricks.
Standard Derrick Folding Mast
Figure 2-16 DERRICK and FOLDING MAST

The derrick or mast supports all the hoisting equipment, but also has the important function
of providing racking space for drill pipe. Periodically during drilling, the pipe must be pulled
out of the hole (‘tripped’) to change bits or for other purposes. This process will go much
faster if it is not necessary to unscrew every length of pipe (joint) as it comes out of the hole.
Lengths of two or three joints of drill pipe, screwed together and racked in the derrick, are
called stands.
The height of the derrick or mast depends on how many stands of drill pipe must be stacked
vertically. A joint of drill pipe is about 30 feet long (9.14 metres) . Most masts or derricks are
‘doubles’ (one stand = two joints screwed together) or ‘triples’ (one stand = three joints
screwed together).
Masts and derricks have to be as strong as possible, yet still be portable. Consider that on a
deep well the drill string may weigh as much as 250 tons (560000 pounds). After finishing up
one hole, however, the rig may be moved many kilometres to start another hole.
Manufacturers of derricks and masts usually rate their products in terms of the vertical load
they can carry and the wind load they can stand from the side. Derrick or mast capacities for
vertical loads vary from 0.25 million on up to 1.5 million API pounds. Most derricks and
masts can withstand a wind load of 140 to 200 km/hr (87 to 124 miles per hour).
At the start of the rig-up, the mast is lying flat on the ground. Truck-mounted cranes
manoeuvre the mast into position in a special cradle on the substructure. The rig hoisting
equipment is then arranged in a way that allows it to slowly raise the mast to vertical by
reeling in cable. The raising process is summarised in (Fig. 2-17).
Figure 2-17 RAISING A FOLDING MAST

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Meanwhile, other rigging-up operations continue. Steel pits, in which the drilling fluid will be
placed, are trucked into position and connected together. The crew installs stairs and
walkways to allow access to the many components. Auxiliary equipment for the supply of
electric power, compressed air, and water is put into operation.
The large pumps (mud pumps) that will circulate the drilling fluid are put into place. Storage
racks, bins, and living quarters are trucked in for the use of the drilling crew. Drill pipe, bits,
mud components, wire rope, and other needed items are brought to the location. Depending
on the size and complexity of the land rig, rigging up may be completed in a few hours or as
much as three days.
Getting ready to drill offshore varies with the type of rig. For a platform rig, all the
components must be barged out to location, and then assembled on the platform. Usually, a
standard derrick is used, so it will be assembled piece by piece. Living quarters, storage
spaces, and other equipment are lifted by barge-mounted cranes. After assembly, the rig
can drill one hole after another, through predefined 'slots' designed into the platform. The rig
is 'skidded' from one slot to the next.
Mobile offshore rigs require less rig-up time than platforms because most of the equipment is
already in place and assembled. Floaters, such as semi submersibles and drill ships, simply
have to be anchored or positioned on location, and drilling operations can begin. Jackups
and submersibles must be planted on the seabed. Often jackups have the drilling rig
mounted on a sliding platform that must be cantilevered out over the side of the barge before
the start of drilling.
2.10.2. Power System
Practically every rig uses diesel internal combustion engines as its prime power source, or
prime mover, although a few land rigs are equipped to operate from line electric (grid) power
on those rare occasions when it is available.
A rig, depending on its size and maximum depth rating, will have one or more prime movers.
Large rigs have three or four engines, each developing up to 3,000 or more horsepower. Of
course, the power developed must be sent to the other rig components to be put to work.
Two common methods are used to transfer the power:
• Mechanical Power Transmission - diesel-mechanical power systems are found

mostly on older, smaller rigs. The power coming out of the engines is compounded;
that is, the engines are linked or coupled together through hydraulic couplings or
torque converters, with chains and pulleys used to transfer the power to the various
moving parts of the rig. With this arrangement, all or part of the engine power can be
diverted to the components that need it. Power for rig lighting and electric line power
are usually supplied by a separate, smaller diesel generator.
• Electrical Power Transmission - diesel-electric power is the method used to drive

most of today’s land rigs, and effectively all offshore rigs. Diesel engines, which on
land rigs are usually located at ground level some distance away from the rig, are
used to drive large alternators. The alternators, in turn, produce AC power that is
sent through cables to electric switch-and-control gear. From here, most of the
generated power is rectified to DC and sent via cable to electric motors that are
attached directly to the equipment involved.
Drilling rigs, in fact, generally use the same drive train equipment found in heavy construction
machinery and railway locomotives.
The diesel-electric system has a number of advantages over the mechanical system. The
diesel-electric system eliminates all of the heavy, complicated compound and chain drive.
Also, the engines can be placed well away from the rig floor so that engine noise is reduced
for the crew. Naturally, the diesel-electric generators also supply the lighting and line power
for the rig and supporting facilities.
2.10.3. Hoisting System
The hoisting system is made up of the drawworks (sometimes called the hoist), a mast or
derrick, the crown block, the travelling block, and heavy-duty wire rope (the drilling line).
2.10.3.1. The Drawworks
The drawworks is basically a large winch (Fig. 2-19 & 2-20). It consists of a revolving drum
around which the drilling line is spooled or wrapped. A second, smaller drum, called the
catworks drum or sand reel used for small, light down hole tools, may be located just
behind the main drum.
A main brake allows the Driller to control downward movement of the drill string without the
need to maintain power to the drawworks. An auxiliary hydraulic or electric brake is available
to help absorb the momentum created by lifting or lowering an especially heavy load.
The drawworks also has a catshaft on which smaller winches, or catheads, are mounted,
and it has several other shafts, clutches and drives for speed and direction changes.
One cathead is mounted on each end of the catshaft, which turns constantly when power is
applied to the drawworks. By wrapping a large fibre rope (called the catline) around one of
the rotating spools, crew members can hoist pieces of equipment that have to be moved
around the rig floor. This is a rather dangerous procedure, and most rigs are now equipped
with smaller air-powered hoists, separate from the drawworks, that are more versatile and
much safer to use.
Another type of cathead is a mechanical one that can be engaged or disengaged as needed.
It is used for making up and breaking out the drill string when it is being taken out of or put
into the hole, or when a length of drill pipe is added as the hole deepens.
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Figure 2-19 THE DRAWWORKS AND ITS COMPONENTS
Figure 2-20 THE DRAWWORKS AND ITS COMPONENTS

2.10.3.2. The Blocks and Drilling Line
A drilling line is made of wire rope that generally ranges from 1"1/8 to 1"1/2 in diameter.
Wire rope is a fairly complex device. It looks very much like what most people call “cable”
but is designed especially for the heavy loads encountered on the rig.
During the rig-up, the drilling line must be strung through the hoisting system. The first step
in stringing up the drilling line is to take the end of the line off the supply reel and raise the
end to the very top of the mast or derrick, where a large, multiple pulley is installed. This
large set of pulleys is called the crown block. The pulleys are called sheaves (pronounced
“shivs”).The drilling line is reeved (threaded) over a crown- block sheave and lowered down
to the rig floor. On the rig floor rests (only temporarily for now) another very large set of
pulleys or sheaves called the travelling block. There the end of the line is reeved through
one of the travelling-block sheaves, and is raised again, up to the crown block. There the
line is reeved over a sheave in the crown block, lowered back down, reeved again through
the travelling block, taken back up to the crown block, brought back down to the travelling
block, and so on, until the correct number of lines has been strung up (usually 8, 10 or 12)
dependant on how much weight must be supported.
Once the last line has been strung over the crown-block sheaves, the end of the line is
lowered to the rig floor and attached to the drum in the drawworks. Several wraps of line are
then taken around the drawworks drum. The part of the drilling line running out of the
drawworks up to the crown block is called the fast line—fast because it moves 8 to 12 times
as fast as the travelling block. The end of the line that runs from the crown block down to the
wire-rope supply reel is then secured. This part of the line is called the deadline—dead
because it is clamped in place and does not move during normal operations. The clamp is
known as the deadline anchor and is usually mounted in the rig's substructure. Now the
travelling block can be raised from the rig floor into the derrick, by using the drawworks to
take in line. To lower the travelling block, line is let out of the drawworks drum. Attachments
to the travelling block include a spring to act as a shock absorber and a large hook to which
the equipment for suspending the drill string is attached.
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Figure 2-18 HOISTING EQUIPMENT USED ON ROTARY DRILLING RIGS
2.10.3.3. Heave Compensators
Offshore floating rigs heave (rise and fall) with waves and the tide, requiring that the rig be
free to move independent of the drill string and riser (Fig. 2-19). Several types of heave
compensation system exist to deal with this problem.
Heave compensators for the drill string may be travelling block-mounted or crown-mounted.
In either type, the hoisting equipment is suspended from hydraulic rams that automatically
contract and expand as the rig rises and falls. A separate compensation system maintains
the heavy riser sections under tension to keep them from buckling (Fig. 2-20). The riser
tensioners are usually arranged radially around an open area inside the substructure, known
as the moon pool. The tensioners connect to the top section of riser by wire rope. A slip
joint mounted within the top joint of riser provides a fixed connection for the return of the
circulated fluids.
Figure 2-19 PRINCIPLE OF HEAVE COMPENSATION
Figure 2-20 RISER TENSIONING SYSTEM

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2.10.4. Rotating Equipment
The most common system of rotating equipment (Fig 2-21), from top to bottom, consists of a
device known as the swivel, a short piece of pipe called the Kelly, the rotary table, the drill
string, and the bit. The largest and most modern rigs, however, are gradually replacing the
Kelly/rotary table system with a so-called ‘top drive’ that has certain benefits in drilling.
Figure 2-21 COMPONENTS OF THE ROTATING SYSTEM
Officially, the assembly of members between the swivel and the bit, including the Kelly, drill
pipe, and drill collars, is termed the drill string. The term 'drill string' properly refers simply
to the drill pipe; in the oil patch, however, ‘drill string’ is consistently used to mean the entire
assembly.
2.10.4.1. The Swivel
The swivel provides a rotating, pressure-tight sealant passageway for drilling mud to be
pumped down the inside of the drill string.
The swivel has a large bail, similar to the bail or handle on a bucket but much larger, which
fits inside the hook at the bottom of the travelling block. The rotary hose (also called the
Kelly hose) is attached to a gooseneck at one side of the swivel. It is through this hose that
drilling mud enters the swivel.
2.10.4.2. The Kelly and Rotary Table
Immediately below the swivel is attached a square or hexagonal piece of pipe called the
Kelly. Why it is called the Kelly is unclear. The Kelly, like the swivel, is also a unit through
which the drilling mud is pumped on its way down to bottom.
The reason the Kelly is four or six sided is because it serves as a way of transferring rotating
motion to the drill string. The Kelly fits inside a corresponding square or hexagonal opening
inside a device called a Kelly bushing. The Kelly bushing, in turn, fits into a central part of
the rotary table called the master bushing.
Thus, as the master Kelly bushing rotates, the Kelly bushing also rotates. Since the Kelly
mates with the Kelly bushing, the Kelly rotates. And finally, since the drill pipe is connected
to the bottom of the Kelly, the pipe rotates when the Kelly rotates. The bit also rotates
because it is attached to the drill string; thus drilling proceeds.
The rotary table, of course, is what gives rotary drilling its name. It is powered by the
mechanical power transmission or by its own electric motor.
Each time the Kelly reaches the bottom of its travel, another length of drill pipe must be
added to the string. This is known as making a connection.
In contrast to the Kelly system, a top drive, sometimes called a power swivel (Fig 2-22)
rotates the string via a drive mechanism attached directly to the hook. On most top drive-
equipped rigs, the Kelly / rotary table system remains in place, but is not used to rotate the
pipe during normal drilling.
A top drive reduces the time spent on connections, because an entire stand (3 joints, or
lengths, of pipe) can be drilled down at a time instead of a single joint. In addition, use of a
top drive reduces the chance of stuck pipe by allowing the Driller to rotate the string while
raising or lowering it; this cannot easily be done with a Kelly system.
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Figure 2-22 TOP DRIVE (Power Swivel) ASSEMBLY

2.10.4.3. Pipe Handling Equipment
(Fig. 2-23) shows the relationship between the various pipe handling tools.
Figure 2-23 RIG EQUIPMENT USED FOR PIPE HANDLING

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The Kelly must be broken out (disconnected) each time a length of drill pipe is added to the
drill string, as the hole is drilled deeper. The Kelly also must be broken out when the pipe is
'tripped' in or out of hole.
During a trip, the Kelly is set over to one side of the drill floor, in a receptacle called the rat
hole. A smaller receptacle, adjacent to the rotary table, is called the mouse hole. It holds
the next length of pipe to be added to the drill string.
Elevators are clamps that fasten around the top of a length of pipe. They are used during
trips and allow the Driller to raise or lower the pipe without having to make screw-thread
connections. The elevators can be swung out of the way when the Kelly is attached to the
travelling block.
Tongs are large wrench-like devices used by the drilling crew to screw together and unscrew
the drill string. Two tongs are needed in this operation; one to hold the drill string in place,
the other to tighten or loosen the pipe. The tongs are suspended on cables so that they can
easily be moved around, and are attached by chain or cable to the mechanical catheads, so
that they can be power-assisted when necessary.
Two or three air-operated hoists may be scattered around the drill floor. The rig crew uses
them to lift drilling tools, hoist pipe into and out of the mouse hole, and to lift men into the
mast or derrick to maintain the blocks and other lifting equipment.
Two-thirds of the way up the mast or derrick is a frame with finger-like racks to hold the top
ends of sections of the drill string. During a trip, the Derrickman climbs into the mast or
derrick, and stands on a small platform called the monkeyboard. As lengths of pipe are
hoisted out of the hole and disconnected from the string, he manoeuvres them into the finger
racks. Handling pipe with the equipment listed above takes much time, and is the most
dangerous job on the rig; huge numbers of roughnecks have lost fingers, or worse, during
this operation. Because of this, more and more rigs are using powered slips, tongs, pipe
spinners, and (on some new rigs) automatic pipe racking equipment.
The master bushing is designed to accept several kinds of slips. A set of slips is a tapered
device lined with strong, toothed gripping elements that, when placed around drill pipe, keep
pipe suspended in the hole while the Kelly is disconnected (Fig. 2-24).
Figure 2-24 HOW ROTARY SLIPS SUPPORT PIPE

2.10.4.4. The Drill String
From the top of the hole, the drill string (Fig. 2-25) consists of:
• Drill Pipe
• A Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA)
• A Bit.
Figure 2-25 BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE DRILL STRING
The makeup of the drill string is a product of the well plan. The operating company specifies
the size and strength of the drill pipe to be used, but the type of formation being drilled and
other factors determine the size and composition of the BHA.
A length of drill pipe is about 30 feet long and each length is called a joint of pipe. Drill pipe
is made to be reused, and is considered part of the rig equipment. A typical string of drill
pipe can drill about 120,000m (approx. 393,720 ft) before it is worn out.
Each end of each joint is threaded. One end has threads cut inside (the 'box'), and the other
end is threaded on the outside (the 'pin'). When pipe is made up (joined together), the pin is
stabbed into the box and the connection tightened.
These threaded ends are called tool joints. Tool joints on drill pipes are usually welded
onto the outside of the drill-pipe body by a manufacturer who then cuts the threads to
industry specifications.
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For strength, the tool joints usually are larger than the pipe body, and have thicker walls.
The change in diameter between pipe body and tool joint is called upset. Drill pipes may be
internal upset, external upset, or both.
The BHA is made up of:
• Drill Collars
• Heavyweight Drill Pipe
• Stabilizers
• Bit subs and crossover subs.
In addition, a host of other tools may be added to the BHA to perform special functions.
Drill collars are the main components of the BHA. They are very heavy, thick-walled drill
pipes, used for the following reasons:
• To put weight on the bit
• To keep the drill string in tension, reducing bending and wear
• To stiffen the drill string near the bit.
The partial weight of the drill collars presses down on the bit to get it to drill, while the
stiffness of the drill collars and the tension in the rest of string tend to keep the hole from
deviating ('walking') away from vertical. Intentional deviation requires special tools that are
not discussed here.
Tool joints are not added to drill collars, since the walls of drill collars are so thick that it is not
necessary. Like drill pipe, drill collars also have a box and pin.
Drill collars often have spiral grooves cut into them, a strategy that helps reduce the chance
that they might become wedged (differentially stuck) against the side of the hole. Others
have a square cross section, for the same purpose.
Heavyweight drill pipe is used as a transition between drill collars and regular drill pipe, and
serves the same function as drill collars in the BHA. Heavyweight drill pipes have thicker
walls than regular drill pipe, to give them added weight. Common features include a third or
central upset in the middle of the pipe body, and hard facing, a coating of protective material
on the surface of the tool joints.
Stabilizers brace the BHA against the walls of the hole. Because of formation conditions and
the physics of drilling, holes tend to deviate from vertical. Depending on where they are
placed in the BHA, stabilizers can reduce or enhance this tendency as needed.
Bit subs and crossovers are short lengths of pipe used to adapt the threads of one drilling
tool to another.
The string rotates clockwise during drilling, so the threads of all the tubulars are arranged so
that they tighten in that direction.
Sometimes (usually during directional drilling operations) downhole motors or turbines rotate
the bit, instead of the rotary table. Motors and turbines obtain their power from the
circulating drilling mud.
2.10.4.5. Bits
Rotary bits have hundreds of variations. Years of research have gone into bit design, and
new designs constantly appear as technology improves.
Bits are manufactured in many different sizes, with the bit gauge (diameter) being the
assumed minimum hole size for each phase of drilling. The actual hole gauge measured
after drilling will usually be somewhat larger than the bit size, due to caving and fluid erosion.
Roller-cone (rock) bits have two or three bearing- mounted cones that are free to turn as
the bit rotates. Bit manufacturers either cut teeth out of the cones (mill-tooth bits) or insert
very hard tungsten carbide buttons into the cones (insert bits). The teeth are responsible for
actually cutting into or gouging out the formation as the bit rotates. (Fig. 2-26 and 2-27)
illustrate typical tooth and insert bits.
All bits have passages drilled through them to permit drilling fluid to exit. Jet bits have
nozzles that direct a high-velocity stream or jet of drilling fluid to the sides and bottom of
each cone, so that rock cuttings are swept out of the way as the bit drills.
Figure 2-26 STEEL-TOOTHED TRICONE ROCK BIT
Figure 2-27 CARBIDE INSERT ROCK BIT

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Diamond bits (Fig. 2-28) do not have cones, nor do they have teeth. Instead, dozens of
industrial diamonds are embedded into the bottom and sides of the bit. Diamond bits are
used to efficiently drill hard formations. The weight of the bit on the diamond cutters is
enough to crush the rock; the cuttings are then swept away by the mud.
Figure 2-28 DIAMOND DRILL BIT
A variation of the diamond bit type is the polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit. (Fig.
2-29) The cutting surface of the bit is made up of a number of disks (compacts) that contain
many small diamonds embedded in a tough matrix. PDC bits cut by shearing the rock away
in layers; they are intended mainly for soft, plastic formations.
Figure 2-29 POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND COMPACT (PDC) BIT

Core bits usually use diamond bit technology. The bit has a circular opening to admit the
core. Core bits are used with a core barrel that has an inner, non-rotating section. The inner
barrel allows the string and bit to rotate while the core remains stationary.
Some drilling operations require that hole be drilled to a certain diameter (pilot hole), then
enlarged during a second, later bit run. Drillers use hole openers and under reamers (Fig. 2-
30) for these operations.
A hole opener has a fixed diameter and may only be run when the inside diameter of casing
is large enough to allow its passage. Under reamers are run when the size of the passage is
restricted, or when a larger diameter chamber must be cut in an existing hole. The cones of
an under reamer mount on moveable arms that extend under the pressure of circulating
drilling fluid.
Figure 2-30 HOLE OPENERS AND UNDERREAMERS

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2.10.5. The Circulation System
2.10.5.1. Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids (muds) are essential to the completion of most wells. They serve several
important functions, some of which are listed below:
• Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string
• Clean the bottom of the hole
• Remove cuttings from the hole
• Resist formation fluid pressures
• Support the wall of the borehole.
Most drilling fluids are liquids. Water-based drilling mud uses fresh or salt water as the
continuous phase. Oil-based mud replaces most of the water with a refined oil, usually
diesel. Various chemical additives give the mud the properties needed to prevent or reduce
drilling problems. Depending on formation conditions, it is also possible to drill with air or an
aerated fluid.
Under certain conditions, the excess of pressure in the well bore, and the presence of
dispersed solids in the mud, may cause irreparable damage to the reservoir. In such cases,
the operator may elect to drill under balanced, that is, with a well bore pressure lower than
the formation pressure. This can be accomplished with special equipment, as described later
in this section.
Since a hole full of drilling mud exerts a certain pressure that increases with depth, the mud
pressure can be used to contain the pressure of fluids in a formation. The more dense
('heavier') the mud is, the more pressure it exerts. Weighting materials (barite being the
most popular) are added to the mud to make it exert as much pressure as needed to contain
formation pressures.
Bentonitic clays (sometimes called 'gel'), or synthetic polymers, increase the viscosity of the
mud so that it can keep the bit cuttings in suspension as they move up the hole. These
additives also provide the mud with the property of thixotropy, that is, the mud 'thickens'
when at rest. This useful property helps suspend the cuttings in the hole, rather than allow
them to fall back to bottom whenever circulation stops. The clay also sheaths the wall of the
hole. This veneer of clay, called 'wall cake', is intended to stabilise the hole so it will not cave
in or slough (pronounced "sluff"). The formation of wall cake over permeable formations also
prevents the loss of fluid to formation.
Oil-based muds are used primarily when water-based muds may react with certain clays that
can be found in sedimentary rocks, creating hole problems that can delay drilling. Oil-based
muds are far more expensive to mix than water-based muds, and more difficult to dispose of,
so they are used only when they will clearly save on drilling time.
The main benefits or drilling with air or aerated fluids are faster penetration rates (due to
more efficient hole cleaning), and as stated previously, less chance of damage to reservoir
formations.
2.10.5.2. Circulating Equipment
Even the simplest water-based drilling mud is very expensive to maintain, so mud is
circulated in a closed system and reused as much as possible. The equipment in the
circulating system consists of a large number of items (Fig. 2-31), and can be found in some
form on all drilling rigs.
Swivel
Hose
Kelly
Header Box
Flowline (Possum Belly)
Shale
Shakers
Blowout
Mud
Preventers
Pump
Annulus
Mud Pit
Lag Time
Drill String Total Hydrocarbon Gas
Cuttings
Lag
Bit Time
Lagged Actual
Depth Depth
Figure 2-31 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE CIRCULATING SYSTEM

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Two or more large mud pumps (Fig. 2-32) provide the hydraulic horsepower needed to
circulate mud through the system. Most rigs use either double-acting duplex (two cylinder) or
single-acting triplex (three cylinder) pumps. Triplex pumps are preferred because of higher
efficiency.
Figure 2-32 TYPICAL MUD PUMP (single-acting triplex)
The pumps take in mud from the mud pits, and send it out a discharge line to a standpipe.
The standpipe is a steel pipe mounted vertically on one leg of the mast or derrick. The mud
is pumped up the standpipe and into a flexible, very strong, reinforced hose called the rotary
hose or Kelly hose, which connects to the swivel. The mud enters the swivel, goes down
the Kelly, drill pipe, and drill collars, and then exits through the jets of the bit. It then does a
sharp U-turn and heads back up the hole, though the annulus, which is the space between
the outside of the drill string and wall of the hole. The amount of time the mud takes to return
to surface can be significant; this value is referred to as lag time and must be calculated
repeatedly during drilling as it changes with hole depth and flow rate.
Finally, the mud leaves the hole through a steel pipe called the mud-return line, or simply
flow line, and falls over a vibrating-screen device called the shale shaker (Fig. 2-33). On a
land rig, the shaker screens out the cuttings and dumps them into a reserve pit (an earthen
pit excavated when the site was being prepared).
Figure 2-33 SHALE SHAKER
When used offshore, the shaker also screens out the cuttings, but the cuttings are dumped
into a barge to be transported to a land site for disposal. In either case, the mud drains back
into the mud pits and is recycled back down the hole by the mud pumps.
The mud is circulated over and over again throughout the drilling of the well, except for light
water based fluids used when drilling near surface formations. Of course, from time to time
additions of water, clay, or other chemicals may have to be added. This is done to make up
for losses to formation, or to adjust the mud's chemical properties. Also, as drilling
continues, the hole volume increases, requiring periodic addition of new mud.
2.10.6. Well Control System
The drilling fluid that is pumped through the system also provides the first line of defence
against blowouts. A blowout can be an impressive sight. Gas, oil, or salt water spews into
the air with a tremendous roar. If gas is present, the blowout is likely to be on fire, and the
rig will lie as a melted, twisted mass of junk. Blowouts threaten human lives, cause pollution,
and waste natural resources; a single blowout can cause many millions of dollars worth of
damage.
Obviously, it is very desirable to prevent blowouts from occurring, and, in fact, they are rare
events in today's drilling. Rig crews go to great lengths to see that the well they are drilling
remains under control at all times. This implies that the pressure of the mud column in the
hole is always slightly greater than the formation fluid pressure, and is known as primary
well control.
2-46 M HRD GEO 0009
If primary well control is properly maintained, the well cannot blow out. But sometimes the
unexpected occurs, and fluid enters the hole. If this happens, the crew has a kick on its
hands. Kicks, while not considered part of normal drilling, are nevertheless treated in a
systematic, well defined way. When the correct procedure is followed, there is no particular
reason to expect that a kick will turn into a blowout.
When a kick occurs, it makes its presence known by certain things that happen in the
circulating system. For example, the level of mud in the pits may rise above the normal level,
or mud may flow out of the well even with the pump stopped, or shut down.
An alert crew can spot these unusual events (even though they are sometimes subtle) and
take action to prevent a blowout. It is here that the second line of defence against blowouts
is brought into play known as the blowout preventers (BOPs). Use of the blowout
preventer to control a kick is known as secondary well control.
On land rigs and on offshore rigs, such as platforms and jack-ups that are not floaters, BOPs
are attached to the top of the well beneath the rig floor (Fig. 2-34). The preventers are
nothing more than large, high- pressure valves. When closed, they form a pressure-tight
seal at the top of the well and prevent the escape of fluids. On floating offshore rigs, such as
semi submersibles and drill ships, the blowout preventers are attached to the well on the
seafloor, and connected to surface by the riser.
Figure 2-34 TYPICAL BLOWOUT PREVENTOR (BOP) STACK

The two basic types of blowout preventers are:
• Annular type preventers
• Ram type preventers.
The annular preventer is usually mounted at the top of the BOP stack. It is called an annular
because it seals off the annulus between the drill pipe or Kelly and the side of the hole. An
annular BOP can also seal off a hole that has no pipe in it. Annular preventers are generally
rated for surface pressures up to 5000 psi.
Below the annular preventer in the BOP stack are mounted two to four ram type BOPs. Ram
type preventers include blind rams (Fig. 2-35), which seal off open hole, pipe rams (Fig. 2-
36), which seal off the hole when drill pipe is in use, and shear rams (Fig. 2-37), which are
equipped with metal blades that can cut through drill pipe if necessary. Ram type
preventers, because of their method of construction, can close on higher surface pressures
than annular BOPs: generally up to 15000 psi. Usually, however, only the annular preventer
will be closed if the well kicks, with the ram type preventers used as a backup.
Figure 2-35 BLIND RAMS
Figure 2-36 PIPE RAMS
Figure 2-37 SHEAR RAMS

2-48 M HRD GEO 0009
The BOPs operate via a hydraulic system that is kept charged up at all times. Operating
rules require that enough hydraulic pressure and fluid are available to close, open and close
all BOPs and hydraulic valves without additional charging. The Driller operates the system
from a special console on the drill floor. A remote BOP console located some distance from
the well head is available in case it is impossible to operate the well control system from the
Driller's station.
Of course, closing in the well with one or more of the blowout preventers is only the first step
that must be taken. In order to resume drilling, the kick must be circulated out and mud of
the proper weight circulated in. Therefore, a series of valves called the choke manifold is
installed as part of the system (Fig. 2- 38).
Figure 2-38 LAYOUT OF WELL CONTROL SYSTEM

A choke is a valve whose opening can be precisely adjusted. It can be fully closed or fully
open, and it may be infinitely variable in size between open and closed. In order to circulate
the kick out of the well and pump heavy mud in, the choke is fully opened and the mud pump
started.
The well control operation is monitored from a choke console located on the drill floor (Fig.
2-39). This enables the well control personnel to carefully monitor the pressures and pump
parameters as the kick is circulated out.
Figure 2-39 SCHEMATIC CHOKE CONSOLE
As the kick starts moving up the hole, the choke opening is reduced in order to place back
pressure on the circulating fluid. Just enough back pressure is maintained to allow the mud
and kick fluid out, but prevent further entry of formation fluid. Once the kick is circulated out
and the heavier mud in, the well is checked for additional flow. If there is no further flow the
well is 'dead' and normal drilling operations can resume.
So-called 'underbalanced' drilling is essentially drilling under controlled blowout conditions.

This is quite safe as long as the well bore is closed off so that produced fluids are diverted
away from the rig. The regular BOPs are present, but are not used during drilling because
they are not configured to allow easy rotation and vertical movement of the string. In such
cases, a special rotating BOP (usually rated up to 1500 psi) is used.
2-50 M HRD GEO 0009
2.11. NORMAL DRILLING OPERATIONS
This section describes operations from the start of drilling to the completion of a typical land
well. Offshore drilling procedures are basically the same, although the preparations are
more complex (see Section 2.13).
2.11.1. What 'Normal' Drilling Consists Of
Normal drilling operations include any and all of the following:
• Keeping a sharp bit on bottom, drilling as efficiently as possible
• Adding new joints of pipe as the hole deepens
• Tripping the drill string out of the hole to put on a new bit, and running it back to
bottom (making a round trip)
• Running and cementing casing, the large-diameter steel pipe that must be put into
the hole at various predetermined intervals.
Usually, special casing crews, and a cementing company, actually run the casing and
cement it in place in the hole, with the rig crew assisting.
2.11.2. Drilling According To Plan
A well is spudded when the first bit begins to drill, and the end of drilling takes place when a
well is either completed for production, suspended for later completion or plugged and
abandoned as a dry hole.
The well plan describes the bit and casing program for the well; although this can be
modified to fit drilling conditions. (Fig. 2-40) shows the general evolution of well operations
and the primary services used. Please note, however, that the operation of the various
services will vary depending on operating company requirements. For example, although the
electric loggers' equipment may be permanently on location, they are required only at the
end of a phase of drilling, and perhaps for special operations during production testing.
The hole diameter must be reduced after each casing string is run. Except for a few special
projects, operators use API standard hole and casing diameters, measured in inches. To
provide safe clearance, each casing string has an outside diameter (O. D.) about 20%
smaller than the open hole drilled to accept it. In turn, each new open hole size will be about
20% smaller than the inside diameter of the previous casing.
Drilling engineers prefer using the smallest hole and casing sizes possible. This practice
reduces the costs of bits, drilling fluids, casing, and cement. The smallest hole size, though,
must still be able to pass production tools and tubing if the well is successful. For
conventional drilling, the minimum usable hole size is about 4 1/2 inches. Smaller diameters
are used in some unconventional operations.
Figure 2-40 TYPICAL DRILLING PHASES

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The limited minimum hole size means that the engineering staff plans the hole from the
bottom up. A typical well plan specifies 20" to 36" open hole at surface. Hole size
decreases to 6" or 8 1/2" open hole at T.D., depending on the number of casing strings
required. The table below shows some of the API standard hole sizes, with the
corresponding casing sizes generally used:
Hole size drilled. . . To fit casing size

(O.D.). . .
36" 30"
26" 20"
17 1/2" 13 3/8"
12 1/4" 9 5/8"
8 1/2" 7"
6" 4 1/2"
Drilling may be interrupted for various reasons as the well progresses, but many of these
events are also part of normal drilling. Examples include trips to change bit, normal servicing
of the hoisting and rotating rig equipment, and casing and cementing operations. The well
plan proposes a drilling time curve. This shows the projected time required for each major
operation, including allowances for possible problems based on previous experience in the
area. As the well continues, the operator monitors the actual time taken for each operation,
and plots this value against the projected time.
Another way of expressing this data is to list the number of hours spent on various
operations, as seen in the table below for the same well (interval 90 - 9460ft):
Operation Hours % Operation Hours %

Drilling 987 61.3 Surveys 17 1.0
Reaming 72 4.5 E. Logs 65 4.0
Circulation 25 1.6 Csg/Cmt 77 4.8
Tripping 139 8.6 Test BOPs 36 2.2
Service Rig 20 1.2 Well Test 80 5
Repair Rig 12 0.7 Other 78 5.1
The Driller is responsible for keeping track of the time spent on each task. The hours spent
on each operation are kept in a standard daily log, the Daily Drilling Report, which must be
approved and signed by the oil company representative on location. This becomes the
official record of well operations, which is then used for accounting and reporting purposes.
From the Driller's standpoint, a successful well is one that is 'on the curve'; that is, completed
on time and within budget. From the operator's standpoint, the faster the well is drilled the
better, as each operating day saved results in significant savings, whether or not the well is
eventually productive.
2.11.3. Balancing Formation Fluid Pressures
One of the main technical concerns while drilling is the balance between mud column
pressure and formation fluid pressure. Too low a pressure (underbalance) means that the
hole is in danger from a kick or blowout. Too high a pressure (overbalance) and the mud will
open fractures in the formation, resulting in loss of mud and formation damage.
In exploration drilling, it is generally necessary to maintain a slight pressure overbalance, to

support the borehole wall and prevent kicks from occurring. Well site personnel use a set of
fundamental equations to calculate the proper balance between mud and formation fluid.
In most areas, the hydrostatic (stationary) pressure of mud at each point in the hole must
always equal or exceed the formation fluid pressure at the same point. The hydrostatic
pressure for any fluid depends on vertical depth and mud density:
Most well site depth measurements start from the rotary table (RT) or Kelly bushing (KB).
Pressure calculations, however, start from the top of the fluid column. For pressure
calculations in the annulus, the top of the fluid column is usually, but not always, the level of
the flow line.
The term circulating pressure describes the pressure necessary to pump the drilling fluid
through the surface lines, drill string and bit, then back to surface via the annulus. In the
field, the term 'standpipe pressure' describes this value, in other words the pressure
measured on a gauge mounted on the standpipe. Circulating pressure should remain
relatively constant for a given flow rate, mud density and depth, although it will increase
slowly as depth increases. A sudden increase or decrease in standpipe pressure is
generally an indicator of mechanical problems (in the drill string or at surface), or of formation
problems (for example, annulus blocked by cuttings of mud loss to formation).
When circulating, friction effects in the annulus mean that the mud exerts a pressure slightly
higher than hydrostatic. The dynamic pressure increases as friction increases; this may
occur due to increased mud density, increased hole length, or decreased hole diameter.
The apparent mud density while circulating is known as Equivalent Circulating Density
(ECD) and is expressed as a mud density equivalent.
2.11.4. Monitoring the Drilling Process
The Driller keeps track of the progress of the bit by watching a series of displays on his
control panel. When a value changes in an unexpected way, the Driller must take action to
maintain safety and prevent damage to the rig equipment.
Clients most often use mud logging services on exploration wells and 'difficult' development
wells (offshore and in remote areas). When the well has mud logging services on site, the
mud logging contractor supplies its own set of sensors and instruments. The mud loggers,
using instrument charts and/or a computer database, record the various parameters for later
use by the operating company. (Fig, 2-41)
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Figure 2-41 BASIC PARAMETERS MEASURED BY MUD LOGGING SERVICES
A partial list of recorded drilling parameters includes:
• Depth -- this is the most important single drilling parameter; all other well and
formation data is logged against hole depth, both measured depth (MD) and total
vertical depth (TVD).
During drilling, the rig crew keeps track of hole depth by measuring the length of each
drill pipe added to the string (pipe tally). For greater accuracy, the depth is monitored
continuously by measuring the travelling block movement (Geolograph, Drawworks
sensor). After drilling, depth is measured again by the amount of wire line run in the
hole by the electric loggers.
Each system has the possibility for error, thus two measurements of the same hole
often give different results. During drilling, the 'official' depth is usually taken from the
pipe tally, even though this is not necessarily the most accurate method.
• Rate of Penetration (ROP) -- indicates rock strength, formation porosity and

mineralogy, and relative bit efficiency. Bit motion is measured when off bottom as
well. For example, during a trip, the Driller will monitor bit position and string velocity,
to help prevent kicks.
• Hole Angle/Direction of Deviation -- Some wells tend to deviate when the operator
wants a straight hole, while others must be drilled to a pre-determined angle or
location. Drillers take periodic deviation surveys, using down hole tools, to ensure
that the hole is in the planned direction. Drilling must stop to run some survey tools,
while others can measure deviation while drilling. See Section 2.6. and 2.13.2. for
more about deviated drilling.
• Weight on Hook (WOH)/Weight on Bit (WOB) -- The weight on bit is the difference
between the weight on hook off bottom, and the weight on hook while drilling. Bit
efficiency greatly depends on having the correct weight on bit for the type of bit in use
(rotary speed also has an influence). Usually, the well plan specifies the
recommended weight on bit for each planned bit run.
• Rotary speed (RPM) and Torque -- Rotary speed, in concert with weight on bit,
help determine bit efficiency. As with weight on bit, the well plan lists recommended
RPM to use for each bit run.
Torque describes the resistance of the drill string to rotation. Torque occurs due to
friction; friction in the bearings of the bit, or between the drill string and the bore hole
wall.
• Surface Mud Volume (pit levels) -- As the mud circuit is a closed or semi-closed
system, changes in surface pit volume may indicate loss of mud to formation, addition
of formation fluid due to a kick. During a trip, the Driller must fill the hole with mud
from the trip tank as the pipe is removed, to maintain hydrostatic pressure.
• Pump Rate -- The mud must circulate at a flow rate that combines best hydraulics
with least energy waste. The well plan recommends the flow rate for each size hole;
the Driller adjusts the pump throttles to maintain the optimum rate.
• Standpipe (pump) Pressure/Well head (annulus) Pressure -- The pumping

pressure results from friction between the mud and the surfaces it passes over.
Changes in pressure, when the pump rate remains constant, may indicate pump
failure, drill string failure, unwanted mud changes, or the start of a kick.
• Gas Detection/Analysis -- The mud logging service company usually supplies the
necessary equipment. A small degasser is mounted on the header box (possum
belly) located at the exit of the flow line, just before the shale shakers. Gas extracted
from the mud is passed continuously to the mud logging unit. There, a total gas
detector (for continuous gas level) and chromatograph (for hydrocarbon components)
record the changes in level.
The operator may require measurement of many other parameters, many related to mud
conditions. Commonly measured mud parameters include:
• Temperature
• Density
• Resistivity/conductivity
• Flow Rate
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Mud logging data acquisition systems record or calculate several hundred parameters during
drilling. These are available to all the well site personnel, providing a high measure of
control to the drilling process.
2.11.5. Drilling Surface Hole
In this example, assume that rig-up is finished and the crew is ready to begin drilling the first
part of the hole. This surface hole section will be drilled through soft or unconsolidated
formations, or through freshwater-bearing formations, then cased off.
Usually, about 10 to 50 meters of hole has already been started and lined with conductor
pipe. In our example, the well plan calls for conductor pipe of 20" O.D. Therefore, the first bit
used will have to be smaller than 20" diameter. To provide clearance, the well plan specifies
a 17 1/2" bit for the phase. As the formations are expected to be fairly easy to drill, the bit is
a relatively inexpensive steel-toothed type.
2.11.5.1. Spudding In
The crew makes the bit up on the end of the first drill collar, and lowers both bit and drill
collar into the conductor hole. More collars and drill pipe bring the bit almost to bottom. The
roughnecks then set the slips to hold the pipe in place.
The crew attaches the travelling block to the Kelly. The driller hoists the Kelly up out of the
rathole and the crew attaches it to the topmost joint of drill pipe. With the Kelly made up, the
Driller starts the pump and begins circulating drilling mud.
The mud used in the surface hole is little more than treated water. Natural clays from
formation provide viscosity. Often during surface hole drilling, much of the mud is lost to
formation.
After establishing circulation, the Driller lifts the string slightly, and the roughnecks remove
the slips. The Driller lowers the Kelly until the Kelly bushing engages the master bushing in
the rotary table, and then starts the rotary table. He gradually releases the drawworks brake,
and the rotating bit touches bottom and begins making hole.
The Driller adjusts the weight on bit and rotary speed to obtain a good rate of penetration.
As the formation drills out from under the bit, he releases the drawworks brake slightly to
maintain the correct weight on bit. Since the Kelly is about 40 feet long, another joint of pipe
must be added to the string after about 40 feet of drilling. Each addition of pipe is known as
'making a connection'.
2.11.5.2. Making a Connection
To prepare for the connection, the crew first picks a joint of pipe up off the pipe rack, using a
lifting sling and air hoist (Fig. 2-42a). The air hoist drags the joint up the vee door and a
roughneck guides the joint into the mouse hole.
When he is ready to do so, the Driller stops the rotary, raises the Kelly a little, and stops the
mud pump. The crew sets the slips around the joint of pipe, and latches the large set of
pipe-handling wrenches, called tongs, around the base of the Kelly.
A tong pull line -- a length of strong wire rope -- runs from the end of the tongs to the
mechanical cathead on the drawworks. The Driller engages the cathead, and it starts pulling
on the line with tremendous force. The pulling force on the tongs breaks out, or loosens, the
threaded joint between the Kelly and drill pipe (Fig. 2-42b).
Figure 2-42 MAKING A CONNECTION

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Once the joint is loosened, the crew removes the tongs. Depending on the rig, the driller
then spins the rotary table, or uses an air-powered Kelly spinner, to rapidly unscrew the
Kelly from the drill pipe.
The crew moves the Kelly over to the mousehole, and stabs the pin of the Kelly into the box
of the drill pipe (Fig. 2-42c). The Driller then spins the Kelly to screw onto the pipe. The
crew grabs the tongs, latches them onto the Kelly and pipe, and torques up (tightens) the
joint to the correct tightness.
Next, the Driller uses the drawworks to raise the Kelly and attached joint out of the mouse
hole. The crew stabs the end of the new joint into the joint hanging in the rotary, and
connect the two together (Fig. 2-42d). The joint is spun up and the crew uses the tongs to
torque the connection up to final tightness.
The Driller raises the Kelly and attached string and the crew removes the slips. The Driller
then lowers the newly added joint and Kelly until the Kelly bushing engages the rotary (Fig.
2-42e).
The Driller starts the pump, sets the bit back on bottom, and drills ahead. Each time the
Kelly drills down, the crew must make another connection.
If the rig has a top-drive system, a full stand of pipe can be drilled continuously, instead of
adding pipe joint by joint as with the Kelly system. This saves time and reduces the drilling
cost. In such a case, the rig crew will make up stands of pipe in the mouse hole as drilling
continues, and rack them in the derrick for use as needed.
Near the surface, where the drilling is usually easy, the crew will probably make several
connections while they are on shift. At some predetermined depth, from as shallow as a few
hundred feet to as deep as two or three thousand feet, drilling stops. At this point, the drill
string and bit are tripped out of the hole, in preparation for the casing run.
2.11.5.3. Tripping Out
To trip out, the crew sets the slips, and then breaks out the Kelly. The Driller then sets the
Kelly back in the rat hole, with the swivel still attached to it. Thus, stored in the rat hole are
the Kelly, Kelly bushing, swivel and attached rotary hose.
Attached to the bottom of the hook are the clamps called elevators (they have been there all
time; they just aren't needed while the bit is on bottom drilling). After the Kelly has been set in
the rat hole, a roughneck closes the elevators around the tool joint of the pipe resting in the
slips. The Driller raises the travelling block, thus raising the elevators and pipe, and the
floormen remove the slips, the driller continues to raise the travelling block, elevators and
pipe until he has lifted one stand of pipe, the floormen then replace the slips.
Meanwhile, the Derrickman has climbed up into the mast or derrick to his position at the
monkeyboard. The monkeyboard is a small working platform at the same level as the top of
a stand of drill pipe. As the top of the pipe reaches the Derrickman's position, he unlatches
the elevators once the slips have been replaced, grabs the pipe, and moves it back into the
rack, or fingerboard. The fingerboard, as the name implies, has a number of metal fingers
sticking out to form several slots in which the top of the pipe is placed.
As the Derrickman handles the top of the stand, the roughnecks on the rig floor break out the
pipe and carefully swing the lower end of it off to one side.
The drill pipe is pulled out three joints at a time (stand by stand). This saves much time on
the trip. When the top of the BHA reaches surface, the floormen exchange the drill pipe slips
for special drill collar slips. The floormen add a short lifting sub to each stand of collars
before it is pulled out of the hole.
During the trip, the Driller, Derrickman, and Floormen must work together as a closely co-
ordinated team. Since the surface hole is relatively shallow, in a short time the drill string
and bit are out of the hole. The floormen unscrew the bit from the string and set it aside.
The bit may be saved for future drilling, or scrapped, depending on its condition.
2.11.6. Surface Casing
The well plan calls for a string of 13 3/8" O.D. surface casing. Casing is little more than
large diameter, heavy-wall pipe, with threads cut directly into the ends. Casing features are
described in the table below:
Casing Type Size OD Setting Function

(in) depths (ft)
Conductor pipe 16-30+ 40-1500 Protects rig foundation
Restrains unconsolidated formations
Confines circulating fluids Prevents
formation fluid flow and lost circulation
Surface Casing 7-16 to 4500 Supports BOPs and well head
Prevents contamination of fresh-water
zones Prevents
loss of circulation
Intermediate 7-11.75 Varies Prevents sloughing and hole
casing enlargement during deeper drilling
operations Protects
production string from corrosion
Protects hole from high formation
pressures Helps
prevent stuck pipe Prevents
loss of circulation
Production 2.375- Through Prevents migration of reservoir fluids
casing 9.625 producing Allows selective production of oil and
zone gas from reservoir Protects
down hole producing equipment
Helps provide well control if tubing
fails
Liner 5-7 Through Similar functions to production casing
Producing Limits need for full string of production
zone casing
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API- rated casing is described by mechanical characteristics, such as:
• Outside diameter
• Nominal Weight (in pounds per foot)
• Steel grade (a letter, plus a number indicating tensile strength)
• Type of coupling.
The surface casing used in the example well is thus described as 13 3/8" O.D., 48 lb/ft., C-
75, ST & C'. Each joint is stencilled with the relevant information. Before the run, the casing
will be laid out on the pipe rack, measured, inspected for defects, and numbered.
During the planning phase, the engineers for the well calculated such factors as the tension
load, expected inward (collapse) and outward (burst) pressures on the string. After including
a safety factor, the well engineers selected the weight and grade that would do the job. For
longer strings, it may be necessary to use two or more weights and/or grades of casing, with
the heavier weight used at the top (to support the weight suspended below) and perhaps at
the bottom (to resist collapse pressures).
Running the casing is much like running in with drill pipe, although the process is somewhat
slower. Once the drill string is out of the hole, the casing crew moves in to do its work. They
rig up special casing elevators, tongs, and other equipment, with the co-operation of the
drilling crew. When everything is ready, the casing crew begins picking casing up from the
pipe rack, screwing it together and gradually lowering the casing into the hole.
The casing crew adds several accessories to the first few joints of each casing string run in
the hole (Fig. 2-43). These include:
• Guide shoe -- a heavy steel and concrete piece attached to the bottom-most joint of
casing. The guide shoe helps guide the casing past small ledges or debris in the
hole.
• Float collar -- a valve device installed in the casing string two or three joints from
bottom. The float collar is made of aluminium, so that it can be drilled through at the
start of the next phase.
A float collar is designed to serve as a receptacle for cement plugs, and to keep the
drilling mud in the hole from entering the casing. Optionally, the well plan may
specify a float shoe, which simply combines the functions of float collar and guide
shoe.
The buoyant effect of empty casing helps relieve some of the weight carried on the
mast or derrick. On the other hand, a long string of empty casing may collapse from
external fluid pressure. Long casing strings are partially filled from the top as they
are run in the hole.
• Centralisers and Wall Scratches -- these go on the outside of the casing before it is
lowered into the hole. Centralisers have a bowed-spring arrangement, to keep the
casing cantered in the hole after it is lowered in. During the cement job, the liquid
cement will then fill the annulus all around the centralised casing.
Figure 2-43 COMMON CASING AND LINER ACCESSORIES
As the casing string moves downward in the hole, wall scratchers strip off the wall cake
formed by the drilling mud. The cement (in theory) then makes a better bond with the wall of
the hole.
In the case of a liner, drill pipe is used to convey the casing section to the setting depth. A
liner hanger tool is used to set the top of the string within the previous casing, and allows
removal of the drill pipe. Otherwise, the same types of accessories are used.
2-62 M HRD GEO 0009
2.11.7. Cementing
After the casing is run, the next task is cementing the casing in place. The operator calls in
an oil-well cementing service company for this job, although the rig crew is available to lend
assistance.
Operators classify cement jobs as primary or secondary cementing. Primary cementing

has the following functions:
• Bond and support casing
• Prevent fluid movement between formations
• Protect casing from corrosion
• Protect casing from shock loads while drilling
Secondary cementing, also known as squeeze cementing, is the process of forcing a

cement/water mixture, under pressure, into holes or cavities in formation or casing. Squeeze
cementing is done to:
• Seal off lost circulation zones
• Abandon non-productive zones
• Repair faulty primary cementing jobs or casing
• Isolate a zone in preparation for testing and production
A single-stage cement job means that one batch of cement is mixed and pumped. A multi-
stage cement job results in two or three batches of cement being placed (or 'spotted') at
different depths in the hole. When the volume of cement needed is large, or the cemented
interval is very long, a multi-stage job is necessary.
API-rated oil well cements are classified from A to H, mainly by resistance to temperature
and pressure. Class A has the lowest resistance. Class H, when used with special additives,
has the highest resistance.
Cementing service companies stock various types of cement and have special transport
equipment to handle this material in bulk. The operator moves bulk-cement storage hoppers
and special high-pressure pumping units out to the well, making it possible to mix large
quantities of cement at the site.
At the start of the cement job, the cementing crew mixes the dry cement with water. The
cement is gradually added from the bulk tanks, or via a jet-mixing hopper, and a jet of water
thoroughly mixes with the cement to make a slurry (liquid cement). The cementer may add
various chemicals during mixing. The additives adjust the hardening time, or change the
strength and density of the cement.
The cementing unit pumps the cement slurry through surface lines to an injection head
(also called a plug container) mounted on the topmost joint of casing. Rubber plugs
separate the cement from the drilling mud or fluid used to displace the cement.
(Fig. 2-44) shows the sequence of operations during a single-stage cement job. Just before
the cement slurry arrives at the injection head, a rubber plug (called the bottom plug) is
released, to precede the slurry down the inside of the casing.
The bottom plug stops or "seats" in the float collar. Continued pressure from pumping opens
a passageway through the bottom plug, and holds the float valve open. Thus, the cement
slurry passes through the bottom plug and float collar and continues down the casing. The
slurry then flows out through the opening in the guide shoe and starts up the annular space
between casing and hole wall. Pumping continues and the cement slurry fills the annular
space.
A top plug, similar to the bottom plug except that it is solid, is released as the last of the
cement slurry enters the casing. The top plug follows the remaining slurry down the casing
as displacement fluid (usually salt water or drilling mud) is pumped in behind the top plug.
Meanwhile, most of the cement slurry flows out of the casing and into the annular space.
Circulating w/ Pumping Displacement Displacement After

Drilling Fluid Spacer/Slurry Displacement
Top
Plug
Bottom
Plug
Slurry
Spacer
Float
Collar
Shoe
Plug Release Pin In Plug Release Pin Out

Figure 2-45 SINGLE-STAGE CEMENTING JOB
The top plug eventually seats on, or 'bumps' the bottom plug in the float collar. When the
plug bumps, the surface pressure rises, signalling the cementing pump operator to shut
down the pump. If the cement job was done correctly, the casing is full of displacement fluid,
while most of the cement is in the annular space between casing and hole. Cement is only
inside the casing below the float collar.
2-64 M HRD GEO 0009
Often, in surface sections, much of the cement is lost to porous or fractured formations. The
cementers may have to make several injections of cement to fill the casing annulus.
Before drilling proceeds, the rig crew must wait a certain amount of time for the cement to
harden. The waiting period is known as waiting on cement or WOC and may range from
one hour to more than 24 hours.
During and after the WOC time, the rig crew prepares for the next phase of drilling by
nippling up (assembling) the BOP stack. After thoroughly pressure-testing the BOPs, choke
manifold, and lines, the crew can resume drilling.
2.11.8. Tripping In
Drilling resumes with a smaller bit, because the bit must pass inside the surface casing. The
well plan calls for a 12 1/4-inch bit for the next section. As before, the rig crew makes the bit
up on the BHA, and then runs the BHA into the hole, followed by the drill pipe.
Tripping the pipe back into the hole calls for a special skill on the part of one of the floormen.
As the drill string hangs suspended in the hole, a roughneck wraps one end of a chain,
known as the spinning chain, neatly around the tool joint of the suspended pipe. The other
end of the chain is connected to the mechanical cathead. After wrapping the chain, the crew
stabs the next stand of pipe into the suspended drill string, and a floorman 'throws' the chain.
That is, the crewman, with a deft toss of the wrist, causes the chain to unwrap from the
suspended pipe and move upward, coiling neatly around the tool joint of the stand that was
just stabbed.
The driller then engages the cathead to pull on the spinning chain. As the chain pulls off the
pipe, it causes the stand of the pipe to rotate, screwing the spinning stand into the drill string.
A floorman then uses the tongs to bring the connection up to final tightness. Each time the
crew makes up a stand, they use the spinning chain and tongs, until all of the drill string is
back in the hole.
Throwing the spinning chain, aside from being a slow process, is one of the more dangerous
jobs on the drill floor. Today, contractors often use special spinning tongs to spin up pipe.
Spinning tongs operate by compressed air and automatically spin up the stand after they are
latched on the pipe.
Once the drill string is back in the hole, the crew pressure tests the casing, to ensure that it
can withstand possible overpressures. The bit drills out the cement remaining inside the
lower part of the casing, the casing guide shoe, and a few feet or meters of formation.
Before drilling ahead, though, the crew must perform a so-called Leak-off Test, to determine
the maximum mud weight allowed through the section.
2.11.9. Drilling Intermediate Hole
2.11.9.1. Leak-Off Test
In most areas, formation fluid pressure, and fracturation pressure, determine the minimum
and maximum drilling fluid densities used in a well. Complex forces determine these
pressures for each depth, but for the Driller the problem is simple. If he uses too low a fluid
density, the well may 'kick'; too high a density and lost circulation occurs. Either condition
creates problems for the operator and drilling crew. If both conditions exist in a given open
hole section, the operator has little or no control of the well.
Drilling engineers, when planning a wildcat or exploration well, carefully estimate the
expected formation fluid and fracturation pressures. They do this through analysis of seismic
data and logs from nearby wells (if any). From data gathered as drilling proceeds, the
operator verifies or changes his assumptions.
Drilling personnel usually measure formation pressure at reservoir depth, by means of

production testing or gauges lowered by wireline. A kick is a sure sign of pressure
imbalance. Simple kick control calculations allow the Driller to determine the formation fluid
pressure with reasonable accuracy.
Lost circulation is injection of whole mud into a formation, causing loss of returns at surface.
The fluid enters formation through pre-existing fractures, held open by fluid pressure. Lost
circulation wastes drilling fluid and, in reservoir zones, may cause formation damage that
makes the well non-productive.
More importantly for well safety, the reduction of hydrostatic head in the well bore may result
in a kick further down hole from the lost circulation zone. If that happens, an underground
blowout may occur, severely damaging the well bore and endangering the rig.
To obtain the true fracturation pressure, the crew performs a Leak-Off Test just after drilling
out of the casing shoe. The test involves closing the BOPs, then (with the high-pressure
cement pumps) slowly pumping mud down the hole to increase the pressure on the
formation. The Company Man carefully monitors the volume of mud pumped, and the
pressure (Fig. 2-45).
Figure 2-45 TYPICAL LEAK OFF TEST PRESSURE EVOLUTION

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As the pump pushes mud into the hole, the chart recording shows a straight-line rise in
pressure. If the test is done properly, the pressure increases until just reaching the point
where existing fractures begin to admit fluid. After reaching this 'Leak-Off' pressure, the
chart recording no longer shows a straight line. If pumping continues, the fractures will open
further, to the point that all additional mud pumped enters formation and surface pressure
remains steady. This pressure is known as the 'injectivity pressure'. Continued pumping
from this point is likely to damage the formation.
The Leak-Off Pressure, added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud, represents the
pressure at which lost circulation can begin. Thus, to avoid hole problems, the mud density
and annular pressure must be kept below this value. It is relatively easy to convert the Leak-
Off Pressure to an equivalent mud density, thus defining the maximum mud weight that can
be used to control pressures during the phase.
2.11.9.2. Drilling Ahead
As normal drilling continues, the Driller adjusts weight on bit (WOB) and rotary RPM to find
the best rate of penetration, within the mechanical limits of the bit and drill string. In this part
of the hole, connections are not as frequent, due to slower drilling in harder formations. The
crew runs directional surveys every few hundred meters, to ensure that the hole angle and
position are within specification.
Formation conditions often require changes in the mud chemistry. The Mud Engineer, during
his daily check of the mud rheology, may recommend adding barite to increase density and
bottom hole pressure. He adds various chemicals to reduce the chance of formation
damage. The crew may have to run the solids control equipment to keep viscosity down and
reduce the pressure required to pump the mud through the system.
The Driller judges bit performance by monitoring drilling rate and drill string torque. As the bit
becomes dull, drilling rate gradually slows. As the bearings of a rolling-cone bit wear out,
torque tends to rise.
At some point the teeth or bearings of the bit become worn and drilling progress slows down.
When this happens, it is time for a round trip. The crew trips out with the drill string and bit,
using the same techniques and tools described earlier. The crew makes up a new bit,
suitable for the types of formations being drilled, and runs the string back into the hole.
During this phase, formation conditions may require a change of bit type, from steel-toothed
to carbide insert, or from a rolling-cone to a diamond-type bit. Several round trips may be
necessary before the well bore reaches the next casing point.
'Open' or uncased holes are naturally unstable, but under normal conditions can be left open
for several weeks or more before problems occur. So-called 'troublesome' formations, on the
other hand, should be cased off as soon as possible.
The troublesome zone may contain formation fluids under high pressure. If the zone is not
sealed off by casing and cement, the well could eventually blow out. On the other hand, a
combination of permeability and low fluid pressure may result in lost circulation, formation
damage by mud invasion, and lost hydrostatic pressure.
Another troublesome formation is a sloughing shale. Certain clay minerals react vigorously
with water, expanding in volume and sloughing, or caving, into the hole. Oversize cavings,
or too many cavings, may result in a stuck drill string. While drilling, the Mud Engineer
controls the sloughing shale by using a salt saturated or oil based mud, but permanent
control can only be made by setting casing.
2.11.9.3. Running and Cementing Intermediate Casing
The intermediate string runs all the way from the surface, inside the surface string, to the
bottom of the intermediate hole. The main purpose of the intermediate string is to protect the
hole from the so-called troublesome formations listed above.
As before, the contracted cementing company does the cement job. For a long intermediate
string, the cement job may be done in two or three stages of mixing and pumping. Special
valves installed in the casing string let the cementers place several batches of cement at
different points in the casing annulus.
During the WOC period, the rig crew nipples up a new, smaller-diameter BOP stack. After a
lengthy BOP test, drilling of the final hole section begins.
2.11.10. Drilling To Total Depth (T.D.)
The final part of the hole is through what the operating company hopes will be the pay zone
(reservoir zone). A typical size for this hole section is 8 1/2 inches. The rig crew runs the
new bit in the hole, then drills out the float collar and casing shoe. After drilling a few feet of
new formation, the Driller makes another Leak-Off Test, to determine the maximum mud
weight allowed in the section.
Once again, the crew makes several round trips to replace dulled bits. If everything goes
well, before long the well bore reaches the formation of interest (the expected reservoir). At
this point, the operator must make a critical decision: "Does the well contain enough oil or
gas for us to spend more money on completion?" The answer to this question depends on
the results obtained from formation and well evaluation. Several evaluation methods may be
applied, as described in the next section.
2-68 M HRD GEO 0009
2.12. EVALUATING FORMATIONS AND THE WELL
The operator uses several common techniques, applied during and after drilling, to decide
whether the well is worth producing. The operator's final decision comes from correlation of
the various tests and evaluations. Formation evaluation methods include:
• Mud Logging
• Electric (wire line) Logging
• Measurement While Drilling (MWD)
• Coring
• Wire line Formation Testing (Repeat Formation Tester, or RFT)
• Drill Stem Testing (DST).
2.12.1. Mud Logging
Mud logging is one of the few formation evaluation methods that the operator can use in real-
time; that is, as drilling proceeds. The mud logging process requires both geological skills, in
the collection, description and analysis of cuttings; and engineering skills, for the acquisition
and analysis of numerous drilling parameters. This information is then used to construct two
primary interpretive documents:
• A Masterlog, a graphic plot of geological and gas data, correlated by depth
• A Final Well Report, detailing all the well operations and incorporating the Masterlog
data.
In addition to these items, many others types of plots and reports may be produced from the
information gathered at the well site. (Fig. 2-46) shows the typical flow of well data for a mud
logging operation.
Figure 2-46 MUD LOGGING DATA FLOW
The mud logging crew, usually consisting of a Data Engineer and a Mud Logger, constantly
monitors down hole conditions, from the start to the end of drilling. At regular intervals, the
Mud Logger or a designated Sample Catcher obtains cuttings samples at the shale shaker.
He (or she) then looks for evidence of oil in the pore spaces of the samples, by fluorescence
under ultraviolet (UV) light, as well as by other means. The Mud Logger also describes the
physical appearance of the samples and performs chemical tests to determine their
mineralogy.
The drilling data is acquired more or less automatically by a computerised system. The
system acquires the drilling data from various sensors and the gas detection equipment,
applies calibrations to ensure accuracy, and then stores the data versus time. Averages of
the time-based data are then used to construct a database versus depth that in turn is used
to generate the Masterlog and other reports.
Sensitive gas detection instruments process samples extracted from the drilling mud. The
quantity of gas recovered, and the ratios of the various gasses, help identify the zones of
produceable oil or gas. The Data Engineer and Mud Logger also perform such tasks as
analysis for overpressures, hydraulics calculations, calcimetry and dolomimetry, preparation
of geologic thin sections, and core analysis.
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2.12.2. Electric Logging
Operators use electric logging almost universally for formation evaluation in oil field drilling.
The well plan usually calls for various combinations of electric logs in each open hole
section, prior to the setting of the casing string. A final set of logs covers the open hole
remaining after the well has been drilled to T.D. As with other specialised services, an
electric logging contractor carries out the work.
Electric logs can be run in open or cased hole. Most logs run during drilling evaluate open
hole only. Cased hole logs require special tools and are mostly run during the production
phase of the well.
Fluid invasion of the formation by drilling mud or mud filtrate (the fluid phase of the mud)
strongly affects log results. The longer the time between drilling and logging, the greater the
chance of significant mud invasion. Therefore, operators have 'e-logs' run as soon as
possible, sometimes immediately after entering the potential reservoir.
The electric loggers prepare their equipment while the crew trips out the drill string. The
loggers use a portable wireline unit, truck-mounted for land rigs and skid-mounted on
offshore rigs, to lower electrically powered logging sondes (tools) into the well (Fig. 2- 47).
The wireline supports the tools, provides them with electric power, and transmits tool signals
to surface. The operator checks the hole depth by measuring the length of wire reeled out.
Figure 2-47 ELECTRIC WIRELINE LOGGING EQUIPMENT

The wireline operator lowers the tools as close as possible to bottom, then slowly reels them
back up. As the tools come up the hole, they measure various properties of the formations
they pass. When the tools reach the casing shoe, the wire line operator quickly reels them to
surface. The loggers then exchange them for the next set of tools. A full suite of logs on a
deep well may require three to five separate runs, and two or three days of operation.
Most electric logging tools operate on one of three basic principles:
Formation Resistivity -- Resistivity logs give clues that help identify the formations and
fluids found in the well. The electrical resistivity of a given formation in place depends mainly
on porosity, formation fluid type and fluid saturation. Formation waters are conductors, while
hydrocarbons are insulators. Rock type influences resistivity as well; shales tend to be
electrical conductors, while other rocks tend to be insulators.
Formation resistivity logging is the oldest form of electric logging. Several different types of
tools, listed below, use this principle.
• Spontaneous Potential (SP) logging tools measure the difference in potential

between the moving logging tool and fixed formation, with the result expressed in
millivolts.
• Dual Induction (SFL) or Dual Lateralog (MSFL) tools contain electrodes that pass
induced electrical currents through formations adjacent to the tool. The greater the
distance between electrodes, the further the zone of investigation is from the bore
hole. The logs usually combine so-called spherically focused (short), medium
induction, and deep induction to measure a filtrate-flushed zone, transition zone, and
uninvaded zone. The loggers plot the values, correlated by depth, on a combined log
that includes the SP (Spontaneous Potential) curve.
• Dipmeter (HDT) tools compute the amount and orientation of formation dip. The tool
uses four micro-resistivity tools, mounted on pads 90° apart. Correlation of the four
log tracks indicates the dip.
Sonic Transit Time -- The interval transit time (delta t, in µsec/ft) for a compressional sound
wave to pass a given distance through a formation is controlled by the lithology, porosity, and
fluid content of the formation. As with formation resistivity, several tool types derive results
from sonic transit times.
• Bore hole Compensated Sonic (BHC) tools primarily measure formation porosity.
Their response is usually not used alone, but correlated with that of other logging
tools.
• Cement Bond Logs (CBL) indicates whether cement fills the annular space between
a casing string and open hole. Sonic pulses produced by the tool pass along the
casing. A good cement bond reduces or attenuates the sonic pulses. Poor cement
contact means less attenuation.
2-72 M HRD GEO 0009
Radioactivity -- These tools measure natural radioactivity as a formation type indicator, or

use a low-powered radioactive source to determine formation porosity and density.
• Gamma Ray (GR) tools measure natural formation radioactivity. Shales and clays
tend to have higher concentrations of radioactive elements (i.e. potassium, uranium,
and thorium) than other formations.
• Formation Density Compensated (FDC) logs measure the bulk densities of

formations (in g/cc) by exposing the formations to gamma rays emitted by the tool.
As the formation absorbs gamma rays, scattering effects occur that are proportional
to the electron density (related to bulk density) of the formation.
• Neutron (CNL or SNP) logs respond to the amount of hydrogen present in the
formation. For clean formations with liquid-filled pores, the log corresponds to the
formation porosity.
These are only a few of many types of logs available. During the log runs, a computer stores
each set of logged parameters, then prints them on continuous transparent film, in a reduced
vertical scale.
2.12.3. Measurement-While-Drilling
Measurement-While-Drilling (MWD) was first used to aid directional drilling, but today is a
valuable formation evaluation tool as well. MWD tools are self-powered devices that can be
placed behind the bit, to log the hole while drilling. The tool transmits information to surface
as drilling proceeds.
MWD tools log hole deviation and direction, mud temperature, formation resistivity, and
natural gamma ray emissions.
Among other possibilities, operators use MWD tools for:
• Precise deviation control, when the direction and angle of the well are critical, as in
sidetracking, horizontal drilling, or blowout relief wells
• Real-time formation logging, when fluid invasion of the reservoir may ruin the
quality of wireline logs run after drilling
• Electric logging in horizontal or high-angle wellbores, where wireline tools cannot

be run.
An MWD tool usually consists of a sensor package, an electronics package, and a

transmission system. The whole assembly rests inside a special non-magnetic (Monel alloy)
drill collar. The non-magnetic drill collar is necessary to avoid interference with the
directional sensor.
MWD tools transmit data to surface using one of two principles:
• Mud-pulse data transmission (using positive or negative pressure pulses)
• Electromagnetic data transmission.

The mud-pulse system (Fig. 2-48) uses a small turbine, powered by mud flow, to generate
enough electric power to drive the tools electronics, and operate a mud flow restriction valve.
The tool transmits data in binary form, by opening and closing the valve. The opening and
closing of the valve produces pressure variations in the mud stream that can be measured at
surface. A computer isolates the data signal from other mud pressure variations, then
analyses and stores the data for the operator.
Figure 2-48 MUD-PULSE MWD TOOL
The electromagnetic transmission system treats the drill string as a huge antenna. The tool
generates an electric current which is conducted through the formations to surface (Fig. 2-
49). An antenna array at surface picks up the tiny changes in electric current produced by
the tool transmitter. A computer reads and stores the data, as with other MWD tools. The
tool is battery-operated, and the lack of any moving parts means potentially greater reliability.
Maximum depth of operation is limited by formation resistivity, which attenuates the signal as
depth increases.
2-74 M HRD GEO 0009
More and more production wells use a combination of directional and underbalanced drilling.
When drilling underbalanced, mud-pulse MWD cannot be used because the pressure pulses
cannot be transmitted to surface. Tools using electromagnetic transmission will work when
drilling underbalanced, however, because the drill string contacts the formation sufficiently to
complete the transmission circuit.
In certain cases, MWD tools give higher-quality logs than wire line tools, because the slower
logging rate provides better resolution. MWD tools are expensive to run, however, so
operators try not to use them unless the potential costs without MWD are higher than the
expected cost of the MWD run.
Figure 2-50 ELECTROMAGNETIC MWD SYSTEM

2.12.4. Coring
Coring provides the operator with a relatively undamaged sample, or cross section, of the
reservoir. The oil and gas industry uses two principal coring methods at the well site, but a
third method is becoming more popular. Brief descriptions of each method follow.
Conventional coring uses an assembly called a 'core barrel', made up on the drill string and
run to the bottom of the hole. The core barrel has a hollow inner tube that remains stationary
while an outer tube, and the drill string, rotates around it (Fig. 2-50). To reduce damage to
the core, operators may use protective fibreglass or rubber inner sleeves. A special core bit,
usually a diamond-type bit, does the cutting.
Figure 2-50 EQUIPMENT FOR CONVENTIONAL CORING

2-76 M HRD GEO 0009
At the start of circulation, the mud flows through the inner barrel to the bit. To begin coring,
the drilling crew drops a steel ball down the inside of the drill pipe. The ball blocks a valve at
the top of the core barrel, diverting the mud flow between the inner and outer barrels, and
preventing fluid damage to the core.
As the core barrel rotates, it cuts a cylindrical core that is received, and clamped (by a
gravity-operated core catcher), in the inner barrel. Reduced drilling parameters (weight on
bit, RPM, flow rate) are used to prevent damage to the core.
The amount of core cut is limited by the length of the barrel, and ranges from 10 to 30 m
(approx. 30 to 90 ft). A complete round trip must be made to bring the core to surface.
The rig crew removes the core from the core barrel by dropping it out in sections at the drill
floor, or by pumping it out, after laying down the core barrel. The well site geologist, and/or
the Mud Loggers, examines the core for porosity and hydrocarbons. The examination must
be fast, to prevent contamination of the core fluids.
The coring service company, or the mud loggers, quickly split the core into sections, seal
them airtight, and box the sections for shipping. A specialised central laboratory usually
performs detailed analysis.
The second coring method uses a side wall sampler (Fig. 2-51), run on a wireline in open
hole. Percussion side wall samplers are by far the most popular type of the several
available.
Figure 2-51 PERCUSSION SIDE WALL CORING

The tool uses a series of explosive charges, fired on command from surface, to blast small
metal cylinders, attached to cables, into the wall of the hole. When the wire line reels the
tool out of the hole, the small core samples come out with the tool. A typical tool can take as
many as thirty side wall samples in one run at different depths. As with conventional cores,
special laboratories perform the detailed analysis of the samples.
Either method, requiring a round trip out of the hole, is relatively expensive, so operators
usually core possible productive zones only. In recent years, however, operators have
adapted slim-hole coring rigs, used in the minerals industry, to oil and gas exploration. A
few of these special drilling rigs are being used for exploration wells in remote, untested
areas.
Slim-hole rigs permit continuous coring without making a trip. The rig cuts a small-diameter
core (approx. 45- 120 mm) that the Driller retrieves by wireline, inside the drill pipe.
The rig may be much smaller than a conventional rig, reducing transportation and rig-up
costs. Smaller hole sizes mean lower costs casing and completion. Slim-hole drilling is
likely to become much more popular in the next decade.
2.12.5. The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT)
The repeat Formation Tester is a wireline tool that enables measurement of formation
pressures and fluids at different locations in the well bore. As many pressure measurements
as necessary may be taken, while most tools allow two fluid samples, both taken from one
zone. Depth is correlated via a Gamma Ray sonde run with the tool.
The tool is most often used to determine the formation pressure profile of a given open hole
section, and to take small samples of formation fluids at bottom hole pressure and
temperature. In addition, the time and amount of pressure build up during the test can give
important information about formation permeability.
RFT tools (Fig. 2-52) consist mainly of a sampling probe, mounted on a movable platform,
that can be forced against the bore hole wall and isolated by a rubber 'packer'. When the
tool operator wishes, he can signal the tool to open a sampling valve. Fluid then flows into
the tool, to be stored in a pair of sample chambers, while sensors record the pressure and
temperature changes during the flow period. The fluid can be vented from the tool and
another zone tested if the operator wishes.
Figure 2-52 REPEAT FORMATION TESTER

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2.12.6. Drill-Stem Testing
Immediately after drilling, operators have the option of running one or more drill-stem tests
(DST). Because of the equipment and time required, DST are extremely expensive, so
operators usually do not run them unless there is strong indication of a hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoir.
The basic principle of a DST is very simple: expose the reservoir to atmospheric or reduced
pressure, to induce formation fluid flow. A successful DST tells the operator the reservoir
fluid type, pressure and temperature. In some cases, the DST results shows roughly how
the well would perform if put into production.
From electric and mud logs, the operator selects the zone or zones that are most likely to
contain hydrocarbons. The operator then engineers the test program, which requires
equipment and personnel from several contractors.
There are two basic classes of DST:
• Open hole tests, with no protective casing in place
• Cased hole tests, through perforations in the casing, or from a short section of open
hole below the casing shoe.
The test uses one or more removable rubber packers (gaskets) to isolate the producing zone
from the rest of the well.
A DST requires much surface equipment (Fig. 2-53). The surface equipment includes:
• Test Tree -- a temporary production well head, with provisions for running wireline
tools, and a kill line for pumping mud into the test string
• Surface Safety Valve (SSV) -- a fail-safe valve that shuts off well flow in case of a
kick or other problem
• Sensing equipment -- measures pressure, temperature, and flow rate of produced

fluids
• Choke Manifold -- controls flow rate and bottom hole pressure of well through
adjustable or fixed valves; additional chokes may be located elsewhere in the system
• Heater or Steam Exchanger -- keeps crude oil flowing under surface conditions
• Separator -- separates reservoir oil/gas/water emulsion into its components
• Gauge Tank or Surge Tank -- measures oil production; a gauge tank works at
atmospheric pressure, while a surge tank is pressurised
• Oil Manifold and Transfer Pump -- moves reservoir fluids through the system
• Flare Stack or Burner Boom -- disposes of produced fluids by high temperature

burning.
Figure 2-53 WELL TEST SURFACE EQUIPMENT

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A production services company, supplies the surface equipment, plus some of the downhole
tools and gauges. Other service companies supply the remainder.
The DST assembly may be simple or complex, as required by the test program. The main
components of the test string are:
• A tester valve assembly, that admits formation fluid into the drill string during the
test, but allows circulation when the test is finished
• One, two, or three packers, the rubber gaskets used to seal off the hole annulus
during the test
• Downhole gauges, for temperature and pressure measurement.
The test string may have several configurations, depending on where the test zones are. To
prevent hole problems or stuck pipe, the operator usually prefers to set the packer or
packers inside casing. For a test in cased hole, a set of perforating guns, supplied by the
electric logging company, hang below the drill stem. The guns use shaped explosive
charges to cut a series of regularly-spaced holes through the casing. For more on
perforation, see Section 2.12.2.
(Fig. 2-54) shows the sequence of events in a simple DST. A test in open hole usually
consists of the following steps:
• Set packer above test zone, to seal off hole annulus
• Open test valve and flow well for fixed period
• Shut in well at test valve and monitor pressure build-up
• Release packer and equalise hydrostatic pressure
• Circulate recovered fluids out of hole.
The drill stem is run in the hole with the inside of the string empty, or partially filled with a
'cushion' of diesel, plain water, or something more exotic, like pressurised nitrogen.
When the drill stem reaches the test depth, the Driller sets the packer just above the test
zone. The packer seals off the hole below it by expanding when weight is set down on it.
After setting the packer or packers, the Driller opens the valve in the tool, and any formation
pressure and fluids present enter the tool.
During the test, a recorder in the DST tool makes a graph of the formation fluid pressure and
temperature. By looking at the record of the down hole pressures, the operator can obtain a
good indication of the characteristics of the reservoir. An internal sampler collects what the
operator hopes will be hydrocarbon bearing formation fluid.
The test often has more than one set of shut-in and flow periods, and the duration of a single
test may be a few hours, or as much as several days. Where formation conditions permit,
the test may be continued long enough so that the formation fluid flows to surface, and a
production rate established. If, during the flow periods, no fluid returns to surface, the
operator may use one of several artificial lift methods. These may include injecting nitrogen,
or running a swabbing device on wireline.
Because only the fluid inside the drill pipe needs to be removed at the end of the test,
operators prefer to use the technique of reverse circulation for this operation. In reverse
circulation, drilling mud is pumped into the annulus and returns through the drill pipe. As
only the drill pipe volume needs to be displaced, this reduces circulating time.
Figure 2-54 SIMPLIFIED DRILL STEM TEST PROCEDURE

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2.13. COMPLETING THE WELL
The operating company carefully considers all the data obtained from the various tests. The
results determine whether the operator sets production casing and completes the well, or
plugs and abandons it.
If the hole is dry, in other words not capable of producing oil or gas in commercial quantities,
then it is abandoned. Some oil or gas may be present, but not in amounts great enough to
justify the expense of completing the well. In that case, the drilling crew sets several cement
plugs in the well, to seal it off more or less permanently. The rig then moves to the next
location.
The operator may still set casing, even if the well is marginal. Sometimes wells that were
plugged and abandoned as dry may be reopened and produced if the price of oil or gas has
become more favourable.
2.13.1. Setting Production Casing
If the operating company decides to set production casing, the casing and cementing crew
must be called out to location once again. Usually, the production casing is set and
cemented through the pay zone; that is, the hole is drilled to a depth beyond the producing
formation (a section known as rat hole or sump), and the casing is set to a point near the
bottom of the hole. As a result, the casing and cement actually seal off the producing zone -
but only temporarily. After the production string is cemented, the drilling contractor has
almost finished his job, except for a few final touches.
Production casing is often set as a liner; that is, the casing string ends just within the last
intermediate casing. This saves the expense of running yet another string to surface.
2.13.2. Perforating
Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string and cement, perforations must be
made in order for the oil or gas to flow into the well bore. Perforations are simply holes that
are made through the casing and cement and extend some distance into the formation.
Perforating is usually performed by a service company that specialises in this technique.
The most common method of perforating (Fig. 2-55) incorporates shaped-charge explosives
(similar to those used in armour-piercing artillery shells). Shaped charges penetrate the
formation by creating a jet of high temperature, high velocity gas. The charges are arranged
in a tool called a perforating gun that is lowered into the well opposite the producing zone.
The gun may be lowered in on wireline, or attached to the bottom of the production tubing
string at the completion stage of the well.
When the gun is in position, an electronic signal from the surface fires the charges when
attached to wireline and after making the perforations, the wireline operator retrieves the tool
to surface.
When gun is attached to bottom of the production tubing string, a firing bar is either dropped
in well or run with slickline to activate the firing head. Once guns have been fired, the gun is
then released by slickline allowing the gun to drop into rat hole/sump.
Figure 2-55 PERFORATING EQUIPMENT
2.13.3. Installing the Production Wellhead
Even though the oil or gas can flow into the casing after it is perforated, usually the well is
not produced through the casing. Instead, small-diameter pipe called tubing is placed in the
well to serve as a way for the oil or gas to flow to surface. The tubing is run into the well with
a packer near the lower end, placed at a depth just above the producing zone. The packer
expands when some of the weight of the tubing string is transferred to it.
When the packer expands, it grips the wall of the production casing and forms a seal in the
annular space between the outside of the tubing and the inside of the casing. Thus, as the
produced fluids flow out of the formation through the perforations, they are forced to enter
the tubing to get to the surface.
At surface, the rig crew or a service company installs a collection of valves called a
production wellhead or christmas tree. As the well's production flows up the tubing, it
enters the christmas tree. As a result, the production from the well can be controlled by
opening or closing valves on the christmas tree.
Usually, once the Christmas tree is installed, the well can truly be said to be complete. The
drilling contractor has done his job as called for in the drilling contract, and he can move the
rig to another location to start the well-drilling process all over again.
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2.14. SPECIAL DRILLING OPERATIONS
2.14.1. Drilling From a Floating Offshore Rig
Drilling from a drillship or semi submersible barge requires a much more complex wellhead
system than that used for onshore or fixed offshore drilling. The rig, while stationed over the
wellhead, must be free to move vertically due to tide and wave movements. In the presence
of severe storms or other marine hazards, the rig must be able to seal the well and
disconnect from the wellhead within seconds.
Specialised service companies supply the subsea wellhead and well control systems. The
drilling contractor supplies the rest of the subsea equipment, which is an integral part of the
drilling rig.
The substructure of a large floating rig resembles a warehouse, with plenty of overhead
clearance, and storage space for the subsea equipment. A rectangular opening called the
moon pool allows the passage of the subsea elements required.
Offshore drilling contractors use two basic subsea systems:
• Guideline drilling systems, for moderate water depths where rigs are anchored in
position
• Guidelineless systems, for deep water where rigs are stationed by dynamic
positioning.
Each system starts with a temporary guide base, which is a steel template placed on the
sea floor to locate the well head and mount further subsea equipment. Divers or in most
cases today a remote operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with subsea video cameras usually
assist the operation. The rig then drills a large diameter hole for structural casing, with no
connection to surface (except for guidelines and drill pipe).
Once the conductor pipe is set, the drilling crew rigs up a permanent guide base, which has
a receptacle for the well head. The crew then runs the permanent guide base to bottom,
suspended on the four wire-rope guidelines. A hydraulic tensioning system keeps the wire
ropes taut, once the permanent guide base is on bottom.
The wire ropes in the guideline system guide tools to the template, making it easier to
connect and disconnect equipment during drilling operations. The guidelineless system, on
the other hand, connects to the rig only through the riser itself. (see Section 2.9.3.3) The
system is more difficult to hook up, but weighs less, is simpler, and can be used at greater
depths.
The basic sequence of operations when drilling from a floating rig is:
• Position rig over location
• Set anchors or activate dynamic positioning system (depending on rig type)
• Run temporary guide base for drilling of conductor hole
• Drill conductor hole (usually 36" diameter) without riser connected

• Run structural casing (usually 30" O.D.) and permanent guide base. The rig crew
positions the permanent guide base in the moon pool area of the rig substructure,
runs the casing through it, then bolts the guide base to the top of the casing
• Cement 30" structural casing
• Run riser and diverter assembly
• Drill conductor hole (usually 26")
• Pull riser and diverter to surface
• Run and cement conductor pipe (usually 20")
• Run riser and subsea BOP assembly
• Test subsea BOP.
(Fig. 2-56) shows the basic components of a guideline type subsea drilling system. The
guidelineless system differs mainly in the latching system for the BOPs and riser.
Figure 2-56 GUIDELINE TYPE SUBSEA DRILLING SYSTEM

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For safety reasons, the well control equipment (diverter and/or BOPs) rests on the seabed.
The BOP stack is more elaborate than on land, and has several independent closure
systems for positive control. Choke and kill lines run from surface to the BOP stack. They
are used for circulation when the BOPs are closed, to control kicks.
Offshore, high surface hole drilling rates, and drilling through shallow gas bearing formations,
can cause severe problems. The large diameter hole, and the limited hydrostatic pressure of
the drilling mud, can result in a near instantaneous gas blowout. The rig is in danger if the
gas has a conduit to surface (as with a riser).
For this reason, the operator uses the full subsea system only after drilling the 'surface' hole
section. During surface hole drilling, a diverter (Fig. 2-57) maintains well control and routes
drill cuttings away from the well head. In most offshore areas, the seabed formations are
mainly unconsolidated clays, and geologic information is not critical for the section.
Figure 2-57 SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF DIVERTER SYSTEM
The tubular riser connects the subsea wellhead to the rig. A hydraulic tensioning system,
separate from the guideline tensioners, supports the riser and keeps it vertical. At the top of
the riser is a slip joint that allows the rig and mud return flow line to heave while the riser
remains stationary. A flexible joint installed at the riser to BOP connection permits some
lateral movement of the rig.
Sometimes the mud flow rate while drilling is not high enough to efficiently move cuttings up
the riser. In such cases, the rig uses a booster pump to increase the flow rate, in the riser
annulus only. Thus, a booster line may also run from surface to the wellhead.
2.14.2. Directional Drilling
A directional well is any well drilled with controlled changes in vertical angle (deviation) and
direction (azimuth). Fig. 2-2 and 2-3 in this section illustrated the configurations of directional
wells. In general, any directional well type may be drilled with the same specialised
equipment. Some horizontal wells require special tools not used for conventional directional
drilling, but the basic principles remain the same.
The operator, as usual for other drilling operations, hires specialised contractors to provide
directional control over the well. The contractors may provide any or all of the following
services:
• Directional Engineering
• Directional Drilling tools
• Directional Survey tools.
2.14.2.1. Directional Engineering
The first job in directional drilling is to define the well path to the target location. As
previously mentioned in Section 2.7, the operator uses consistent geographic (usually UTM
coordinates) and depth systems to locate the well head and the target. Directional engineers
use a number of standard terms (Fig. 2-58) to describe the directional segments of the well.
Figure 2-58 DIRECTIONAL WELLS STANDARD TERMS

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The operator must consider the formations to be drilled. Certain formations (soft clays,
abrasive sands, very hard formations) make it difficult to reliably drill directional hole. The
operator must allow for the tendency of bits rotated from surface to 'walk' (drift) to the right
during drilling. The amount of formation dip determines whether the bit tends to drill
vertically, or deviate. Finally, the maximum allowable bending stress of the pipe limits the
rate of angle change in the hole.
This data defines the directional engineering of the well:
• Horizontal Displacement, from rig to target
• Kick-off Point, the starting depth for the directional segment of the well
• Build-up Rate, the change in hole angle over distance (also known as dog-leg)
• Maximum Angle of the tangent section
• Length of the tangent section
• Drop-off Rate, when the well is an 'S' type
• Diameter of the Target, defining the allowable error in trajectory
• Anti-collision Calculations, to avoid drilling into an existing well nearby (i.e. multiple
wells drilled from the slots of an offshore platform).
Once the operator determines the Kick-off Point (KOP) and maximum build-up rate, the well
engineers calculate:
• Angle at the end of build-up
• Measured depth at the end of build-up
• Vertical depth at the end of build-up
• Horizontal displacement at the end of build-up
• Measured depth to target.
The job of the directional drilling contractor is to ensure that the well bore follows the
projected path to the target.
2.14.2.2. Directional Drilling Tools
Changes to the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) provide most of the control of hole angle and
direction. The drilling crew must add or remove tools for each directional operation:
• Kick-off
• Build-up
• Hold (tangent drilling)
• Drop-off (if needed)
• Correction (if needed).
Any BHA component may have a directional application. The tools listed here, however, are
most common items used specifically for directional drilling:
Bent Subs and Whipstocks -- used to kick off deviation. A bent sub is simply a section of
pipe with one tool joint cut at an angle (Fig. 2-59a); bent subs usually have from one to three
degrees of bend, in one-half degree increments.
Bent subs work by forcing the bit to one side of the hole. The Driller orients the sub in the
desired direction; as drilling proceeds the deviation increases at a rate controlled mainly by
hole size and bent sub angle. As the drill string cannot be rotated, bent subs must be used
with a down hole motor or turbine, described below.
A whipstock is a tapered steel wedge (Fig. 2-59b), run in the hole as part of the BHA. After
the directional Driller orients the whipstock, it simply deflects the bit in the desired direction.
Whipstocks are an older technology that is rarely used today. Because of better deviation
control, operators prefer the bent-sub and motor method for kick-off.
Figure 2-59 KICK-OFF TOOLS FOR DEVIATION

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Downhole Turbines and Motors -- in directional drilling, turbines or motors rotate the bit
with the drill string oriented in a certain direction. The flow of drilling mud drives both
devices.
A downhole turbine consists of several stages, each made up of a bladed rotor and
cylindrical stator (Fig. 2- 60a). The rotors connect to a drive shaft that in turn connects to the
bit. Drilling fluid pumped through the turbine blades spins the rotors, shaft, and bit.
Figure 2-60 DOWNHOLE MOTOR TYPES
Turbines rotate at high speed, usually from 500 to 1000 RPM, depending on fluid flow rate.
These speeds tend to overheat and damage the bearings of conventional rolling-cone bits,
so operators prefer to use diamond bits with turbines.
A Positive-Displacement Mud Motor (PDM) consists of a spiral-shaped steel rotor, round or

lobed in cross- section, enclosed in a rubber stator with a spiral cavity (Fig. 2-60b). The
contact points between the rotor and stator make a continuous seal throughout the motor.
Drilling fluid pumped into the cavities between rotor and stator rotates the shaft. Since the
end of the rotor moves eccentrically, a flexible connecting rod transfers power to the bit.
PDM can run at speeds from 100-1500 RPM, depending on fluid flow rate and rotor shape.
They tend to be more suitable for directional drilling with conventional bits.
Non-magnetic (Monel) Drill Collars -- used to prevent magnetic interference with a wireline
or MWD directional survey tool. Monel is the alloy most often used in their construction.
Most of the time, the drilling crew places a Monel collar just behind the bit, so that surveys
can be run as close as possible to bottom.
Stabilizers -- used to support the drill string in such a way as to make controlled deviation
possible. Depending on how they are placed in the BHA (Fig. 2-61), stabilisers can
increase, decrease, or neutralize deviation.
Figure 2-61 CONTROLLING DEVIATION WITH STABILISERS
Several types of stabilisers exist for different applications:
• Welded Blade
• Integral Blade
• Sleeve type (can be placed anywhere in BHA)
• Non-Rotating type (reduce damage to bore hole).

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In addition, stabilisers may be full gauge (same diameter as the bit) or under gauge.
Stabilisers often feature blades with hardfacing or tungsten carbide inserts to reduce wear.
An unstabilised BHA tends to deviate. Even a 'straight' hole tends to have slight deviation
from vertical. Thus, the drill collars rest on the low side of the hole.
In a deviated hole, even with no weight on bit, the drill collars tend to buckle at a location
called the point of tangency. The point of tangency varies depending on the angle of
deviation and stiffness of the collars.
When the Driller applies weight to the bit, much of the BHA is in compression. The point of
tangency moves toward or away from the bit as weight on bit increases or decreases. The
tendency to deviate becomes stronger as the point of tangency moves closer to the bit.
Adding stabilisers to the BHA affects the point of tangency. A single stabiliser near the bit
forms a fulcrum assembly that strongly tends to build angle. A single stabiliser twice the
distance as the point of tangency from the bit forms a pendulum assembly that tends to drop
angle. Two or three stabilisers in the lower BHA forms a packed assembly that tends to
maintain angle (or vertical).
From these simple concepts, directional Drillers can construct more complex BHA that more
precisely control drilling. Depending on stabiliser type and placement, the BHA may respond
differently depending on the amount of weight on bit, or push the bit to the right or left as
needed.
2.14.3. Deviation Survey Tools
Drillers survey the well path at regular intervals, even during straight-hole drilling. Directional
Drillers do the same but use more highly developed techniques, and survey at more frequent
intervals. Survey tools used include:
• Magnetic single shot surveys
• Magnetic multi-shot surveys
• Gyroscopic surveys
• Steering tools
• Measurement while drilling (MWD) surveys.
Magnetic single shot survey tools are the most common and simplest of the instruments
described above. Their use, however, requires the presence of a non-magnetic (Monel) drill
collar in the BHA.
A typical magnetic survey tool consists of the following (Fig. 2-62):
• A mechanical or electronic timer
• A combination angle/compass unit
• A camera that makes an image of the compass position on a film disk
• A battery to power the light that illuminates the compass face, and run the timer (if
electronic)
Figure 2-62 SINGLE-SHOT MAGNETIC SURVEY TOOL
At the bottom of the tool is a device, known as a mule shoe, that fits into an orienting sub
installed in the Monel drill collar.
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Drilling must stop temporarily for the survey. When the Driller wants a survey, he loads a film
disk into the camera and sets the timer to provide sufficient time (usually 10-15 minutes) for
the tool to get to bottom. The crew then drops the tool (or runs it on wireline) down the inside
of the drill pipe.
After waiting for the timer to run out, the crew retrieves the tool. For surveys taken during a
connection, the crew retrieves the tool by wireline. If the survey is taken at the start of a trip,
the tool is left in the Monel drill collar and retrieved when the BHA comes to surface. After
developing the film disk, the Driller looks at it under a magnifier to read the survey angle and
direction.
A magnetic multi-shot survey uses the same general system, but uses a strip of film and
mechanical winder to record a series of surveys. The timer triggers the camera at a set
interval, usually every 20 seconds.
Most operators make the multi shot run just prior to pulling out of the hole to run casing. As
each stand comes out of the hole, the Driller stops the string. He notes the time since
starting the instrument and bit depth, waits twice the exposure interval (to obtain two
surveys), then pulls the next stand.
Gyroscopic surveys can be single or multi-shot. A gyroscope orients the tool, limiting the
amount of time the tool can spend in the hole. Operators use them when a magnetic tool
may be affected by casing or other magnetic interference, or in high angle holes.
Steering tools (Fig. 2-63) use a system of magnetometers and accelerometers to measure
the Earth's magnetic field and gravity. This allows the operator to find where north is in
relation to the tool, and determine tool inclination. An electric conductive wireline connects
the tool to a surface readout assembly on the drill floor.
Figure 2-63 STEERING TOOL FOR REAL-TIME ORIENTATION
The main advantage of a steering tool is that the directional Driller can constantly monitor
hole position. A disadvantage is the complication of having wireline in the hole during
drilling.
MWD directional tools provide much of the information given by a steering tool, without a
physical connection to surface. The tool operator usually orients the tool and takes a survey
each time a connection is made. The use of MWD directional surveys is a more or less
standard procedure in horizontal drilling, where it is difficult or impossible to run a wireline
tool all the way downhole.
2.14.4. Horizontal Drilling
Drillers may use the basic directional drilling techniques described above to turn the wellbore
completely horizontal. This gives the potential for much higher production from a single well,
especially when the producing formation is very thin or has little permeability. Horizontal
drilling can also reduce water contamination of a hydrocarbon reservoir, a phenomenon
known as coning. There are risks however; because of generally higher drilling costs for
horizontal wells, operators must carefully consider whether field economics justify the use of
the technology. The table below is a summary of horizontal drilling considerations :
FEATURES
Increased penetration of pay zone
Field can be developed with fewer wells
Structures can be targeted laterally, without moving rig
BENEFITS LIABILITIES
High index of productivity Higher cost per well
Less drawdown (pressure reduction Greater risk of hole problems or loss of well
under flowing conditions)
Greater flow rate per well Increased drilling per well
Lower total drilling/completion costs Completions do not always result in higher
productivity
NET RESULT : potentially lower overall field development costs, but greater risk
Horizontal wells can be drilled with long, medium, or short-radius curved sections. Basically,
the longer the curve radius, the more conventional the drilling tools used. Horizontal wells
require precise monitoring of the well bore path, so steering tools or MWD control hole
direction.
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2.15. DRILLING PROBLEMS
The operator of course hopes that every well drilled will be completed on time and under
budget, but in any process as complicated as well construction, problems that consume extra
time and expense will sometimes occur. These may be related to formation conditions,
mechanical problems, human error or (most likely) a combination of these factors. As an
example of the types of problems encountered at the well site, (Figure 2-64) below
summarises the problems experienced by a world wide operator for the period 1991-93 :
Figure 2-64 ONE COMPANY'S UNSCHEDULED EVENTS
In this example, approximately 20% of the total operating time in the period was spent
dealing with drilling problems. Note that in the previous figure, the problem types are shaded
according to whether the presence of mud logging services can help prevent them. Mud
logging services are used at the well site in part because the operator assumes that the
expense of the mud logging service will be offset by savings in overall drilling costs.
The expectation is that the detailed monitoring of geological and drilling parameters will
provide early warning of problems, allowing corrective action to be taken before the problem
escalates out of control.
Also note that for the company described above, by far the largest amount of excess drilling
time was spent solving stuck pipe problems. This is true for the industry as a whole.
Numerous events that are drilling problems themselves can contribute to a stuck pipe
condition. These include mechanical failures in the drill string, loss of circulation, directional
and cementing problems, and various hole problems. Once the pipe becomes stuck, the
condition can be very time-consuming to correct. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to
abandon some or all of the well, leaving part of the expensive drill string in the hole; or it may
be necessary to fish for the stuck components. For these reasons, we will look at stuck pipe
and fishing in greater detail in the sections following.
2.15.1. Stuck Pipe
Conditions that may result in stuck pipe include :
Formation Problems -- Several formation characteristics may contribute to stuck pipe (Fig.
2-65). These include :
• Mechanical failure of unconsolidated, fractured or faulted formations,
• 'Flowing' of plastic formations (such as salts or poorly compacted clays)
• Caving in geopressured formations.
Fracturing is a sign of formation stress, and any highly stressed formation (limestones
especially) may cave into the hole. Incompetent formations, such as poorly compacted
(gumbo) clays, or salt zones, may 'squeeze' into the hole, reducing its diameter. A poorly
designed mud program may permit unexpected reactions between mud additives and
formation minerals, weakening the bore hole wall. If a kick occurs, the influx of formation
fluid may carry large amounts of sand or rock fragments into the hole, collecting around the
pipe and complicating the well control process.
Figure 2-65 SOME FORMATION PROBLEMS RESULTING IN STUCK PIPE

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Key Seats -- Even 'straight' holes deviate, and too great a change in angle in a short
distance forms a 'dog leg' that may cause problems later. In a dog leg, drill string tension
forces the pipe to rub against one side of the hole. Eventually, the pipe may wear a slot (the
'key seat') into the wall of the hole (Fig. 2-66).
Figure 2-66 HOW A KEY SEAT FORMS
The key slot is about the size of a tool joint. During a trip, the drill collars, larger in diameter,
wedge into the slot and become stuck. Unless special tools are included in the drill string to
begin with, pipe stuck in a key seat is very difficult to recover.
Differential Sticking -- Hole stability requires that the hydrostatic pressure of the mud be
higher than the formation fluid pressure. Due to this positive differential pressure, drilling
fluid tends to flow into permeable formations. After a short period, a 'filter cake' of mud solids
forms over the permeable formation, preventing further inflow of mud and preserving the
pressure differential.
When drill pipe (drill collars especially) rests stationary against a permeable formation (Fig.
2-67), part of the pipe becomes embedded in the filter cake. With pressure lower on the
formation side of the pipe, the pipe becomes stuck in place by differential pressure.
Figure 2-67 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
In general, the stuck pipe condition becomes more severe with time. The pipe becomes
embedded deeper and deeper in the filter cake, exposing more surface area to low pressure.
The greater the pipe area resting against the hole wall, the greater the total pressure
difference.
2.15.2. Prevention of Stuck Pipe
Drillers use various practices to reduce the chance of stuck pipe. Some of these are :
• Keep Pipe Moving -- One of the first things a Driller learns is to always keep the pipe
in motion in open hole. If drilling must stop temporarily, the Driller will raise and lower
the drill string until drilling can continue.
• Use a top drive system to rotate the pipe -- Besides saving time on connections,
one advantage of a top drive or power swivel is that the Driller can rotate the string
while it is in motion. The number of stuck pipe incidents tends to be much lower on
top-drive equipped rigs.
• Monitor Torque While Drilling -- Excess torque, when not due to bit problems, may
occur when cavings interfere with the rotation of stabilisers. This parameter is
routinely monitored by mud logging data acquisition systems.
• Monitor Overpull on Connections -- overpull, or drag, is indicated weight in excess

of the drill string weight. Some overpull (10-30 tons) is normal, but if the Driller sees
strong overpull on every connection, a stuck pipe condition may soon follow. This
parameter also is routinely monitored by the mud loggers.
• Monitor formation conditions -- many formation problems, such as caving, can be

identified from the appearance of the cuttings, especially via microscopic
examination. This is generally the responsibility of the mud logger or well site
geologist, and requires good communications with the rig crew.
• Circulate the hole clean prior to a trip -- the gel strength of the mud at rest tends to
keep the cuttings suspended in the hole. If the hole contains large cuttings, or an
excess of cuttings has built up in washed-out zones, a stuck pipe condition may
result. One solution is to continue circulation until all the known cuttings are out of
the hole; this is known as 'circulating bottoms up'.
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2.15.3. Fishing and Junk Recovery Tools
Stuck pipe can be a serious condition, but the drill string is still in one piece and the Driller
can circulate fluid. Usually, fishing is more of a problem. A fish is a piece of equipment,
tool, or section of drill string lost in the hole. Junk is any relatively small, non-drillable item,
such as a bit cone, a wrench, or other metallic fragments. In any case, whenever there is
junk or a fish in the hole, it must be removed so that drilling operations can continue.
Drill string components become lost in the hole for several reasons:
• Twist-offs (mechanical failure of the drill string) due to wear or mud erosion at a bad
tool joint
• Washouts, erosion and parting of tool joints caused by leaking drilling mud
• Parting of the string, due to excess pull on stuck pipe
• Back-off (unscrewing) of the string above a severely stuck section of pipe, so that
fishing tools can be run.
Backing off is a last resort when stuck pipe cannot be freed by other means. The electric
logging contractor supplies the necessary tools.
The loggers first run a special tensionometer down the pipe. After several measurements of
drill string tension at different depths, they can determine the lowest point at which the pipe is
still free.
The back-off tool itself consists of a small explosive charge, lowered into the pipe by wireline.
The wireline places the charge at the tool joint nearest the stuck pipe zone. The Driller runs
the rotary table or top drive in reverse for a few turns, putting so-called 'reverse torque' into
the drill string. When the explosive charge fires, the shock wave causes the connection to
loosen and the reverse torque spins the tool joint out of the stuck pipe.
Drillers use a number of ingenious tools and techniques to retrieve a fish:
• Drilling Jars -- safety devices placed at the top of the BHA to loosen stuck pipe.
Drilling jars can deliver an impact in an upward or downward direction, 'jarring' or
shaking the pipe or BHA. Variations of drilling jars include bumper subs and jar
boosters.
• Overshots (Fig. 2-68) can be run into the hole down to the fish, then set around the
outside of it. Grapples in the overshot latch firmly onto the fish. The rig can then pull
the overshot and attached fish out of the hole.
Figure 2-68 OVERSHOT
• Spears (Fig. 2-69) are similar to overshots, but go inside the fish.
Figure 2-69 SPEAR
• Junk magnets and baskets (Fig. 2-70) allow the Driller to retrieve small items, such
as bit inserts or cone fragments.
Figure 2-70 MAGNET AND JUNK BASKET

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• Mills (Fig. 2-71) come in all shapes and sizes. Mills grind the rough top of a fish
smooth so that an overshot or spear can be attached.
Figure 2-71 MILLS
• Washover Pipe is a last, expensive resort when a stuck fish must be recovered. The
technique uses large- diameter pipe, usually high-strength casing, lowered into the
hole at the end of drill pipe. The wash pipe is large enough to fit over the top of the
fish. Drilling mud pumped down the wash pipe washes debris away from the stuck
fish, freeing it for recovery.
Since no two fishing jobs are alike, hundreds of different fishing tools exist to meet the
unique requirements of the rig fisherman.
The operator may decide to sidetrack if the fish cannot be recovered, or the expense of
recovery is greater than the cost of redrilling a section of hole. Sidetracking consists of
plugging the hole with cement, to a level of a hundred meters or more above the fish, then
using directional drilling techniques to drill away from the original bore hole (Fig. 2-72). In
general, a bent sub and motor (or a whipstock) must be used to initiate deviation, since the
cement, even when fully hardened, is much weaker than a given compacted formation.
Sidetracking also may be performed in cases where a directional well has deviated too far
from its planned trajectory to allow adjustment by changes in the BHA. In either case, this is
an unplanned event, requiring much time and expense to accomplish.
In development drilling, sidetracking may be used to enhance production by drilling multiple

drain holes from a single well bore. This application may use conventional drilling tools
special tools and techniques that are not discussed here. This type of operation is especially
common where only a limited number of primary well bores can be drilled to exploit a field,
for example from an offshore production platform.
FIGURE 2-72 SIDETRACKING A WELLBORE

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2.15.4 Special Well Completion Operations
The operator may use a number of methods to enhance production of a marginal well.
These methods may be applied while the drilling rig is still on location, or long after
completion, using a workover rig. Special well completion techniques include:
• Acidising
• Hydraulic Fracturing
• Gravel Packing
• Artificial Lift (usually swabbing)
• Fluid or Steam Injection (via injection wells drilled near the producing well)
This section provides brief descriptions of acidising and hydraulic fracturing, since these
operations may take place while the rig is on location (during a well test, for example).
2.15.4.1. Acidising
Sometimes petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow readily into the well because
the reservoir rock has very low permeability. If the formation is composed of limestone or
dolomite, or contains cement made of these minerals, the operator may use a technique
known as acidising.
An acidising service company usually performs the job. Acidising may be done before the rig
is moved off the well or after the rig is moved away. In any case, the acidising operation
basically consists of pumping a volume of dilute hydrochloric acid down the well. The acid
travels down the tubing, enters the perforations, and contacts the formation. Depending on
the reservoir characteristics, the acid volume required may range from less than one, to
many hundreds, of cubic meters of fluid.
Continued pumping forces the acid into the formation, where it etches channels that provide
a way for the formation's oil or gas to enter the well through the perforations.
2.15.4.2. Fracturing
A process called hydraulic fracturing is another method used to increase local reservoir
permeability to a practical level.
To fracture a formation, a fracturing service company pumps a specially blended fluid down
the well and into the formation under great pressure. Pumping continues until the formation
literally cracks open. In fact, the procedure does not so much create new fractures as open
existing ones. Nevertheless, this requires a considerable amount of fluid and high surface
pressures. Special high-pressure pumps and surface equipment are supplied by the
fracturing service company, which is usually a division of one of the cementing service
companies.
The fracturing crew mixes sand, or aluminium pellets into the fracturing fluid as it is pumped
into the hole. These materials are called proppants. The proppant enters the fractures
while they are held open by the fluid pressure. When pumping is stopped and the pressure
allowed to bleed off, the fractures close on the proppant, holding it in place. The propped
open fractures thus provide passages for oil or gas to flow into the well.
2.16. SUMMARY
Although the basic technology of rotary drilling has existed from almost the earliest days of
petroleum exploration, a constant stream of improvements has made it a highly streamlined
and efficient operation that would be hardly recognisable to an old 'wildcatter' of, for
example, the 1920's. There is always the possibility of time savings, always a way to reduce
drilling costs. In many cases, improvements in technology have made it possible to
economically produce huge amounts of hydrocarbons in locations where, as little as 40 years
ago, they were not even believed to exist.
Regardless of technological advances, people remain the most important component of the
drilling process -- skilled drilling operators and drillers, service company hands, geologists
and engineers. Although they must sometimes work under difficult conditions, they ensure
that the technique of drilling for oil and gas will be a vital part of the energy industry in the
decades to come.
2-106 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 3
COMPLETIONS
ELEMENT 1.2
3-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
3.1. COMPLETIONS
The word Completion is the term which designs the action of equipping a well with the
adapted tubular, isolations, and flow control equipment to achieve the most efficient and safe
means of producing oil or gas from a reservoir for the long term life of a well.
Since the early days of the oil industry, techniques and knowledge have continuously
evolved due to better reservoir understanding and to more adaptable engineering designs.
Progressively the oil industry became a science rather than a matter of feeling. In the early
days of the oil industry, it was almost impossible to reach deep reservoirs, due to the lack of
technology, lack of harder materials and lack of knowledge about the reservoir, etc. But at
that time there was no need to do so because of low oil demand. The first oil producers were
not much concerned about Safety and Environment or reservoir damage. Wells were bored
where the oil spilled by itself and the technique used to bore and produce oil wells was
similar to the one used for water wells. Wells were made by bailing and pilling until an initial
blow-out occurred, resulting in fast reservoir gas depletion. The produced oil was gathered
by spill pits around the well, once the reservoir pressure dropped below the hydrostatic
pressure, an artificial lifting technique was needed for further production from the well. This
explains partially why most old oil wells were equipped at an early stage with beam pumps
known as nodding donkeys. As the demand on the oil market grew, the development of the
oil industry increased, at this moment, it was realised that preserving production from a fast
gas cap pressure draw down was an efficient, cheap way of keeping a well flowing efficiently.
Casing and tubing concepts were introduced for this purpose allowing wells under pressure
to be produced.
In the beginning the development of new techniques was slow, but as scientific research
provided new concepts, it was possible to develop several tools and methods to understand
what was going on downhole and how to enhance desired, or avoid undesirable, behaviour
in wells.
Casing and tubing are key elements in the design of a completion; careful selection of tubing
properties, according to the characteristic of the well must be done. The basic function of
casing is to keep the drilled hole in shape, so erosion due to flow does not collapse the well.
In the early days there was only the conductor, which acted as casing, production casing and
tubing. Later when the importance of reservoir gas was realized, the need to use production
tubing was recognised to act as a velocity string to eliminate gas slugging, and also to
protect the production casing from erosion due to flow.
The actual process of drilling and completing a well requires a wide range of engineering
techniques and products to optimise the life of wells, in time and efficiency.
3-4 M HRD GEO 0009
3.2. TUBING CHARACTERISTICS

API and ISO, normalised standards for oil/gas tubing, these are defined as pipe with nominal
diameters from 1.050 to 7.0 inches (ISO 11 960).
Dimensions and masses of tubing: are the set of geometrical characteristics in relation with
grade and nominal weight of tubing from 1.050 to 7 inches according to ISO 11 960
standard.
Tubing is classified according to 5 properties:
• Steel Grade
• Length range
• Wall thickness
• Manner of manufacture
• Type of joints
3.2.1. Steel Grade and Tensile Strength

In a well the materials are exposed to extreme conditions; this could cause the tubing to
burst if it is not capable of withstanding the pressures applied from the inside, collapse if the
annulus pressure is higher that the pressure inside the tubing or the weight of the string is
excessively high. Basically what is taken into account for preventing these problems is the
steel grade and tensile strength of the tubing.
Steel Grade refers to the yield minimal strength of the steel, is expressed in thousands of
PSI, this means, the amount of tensile stress required to produce extension under load, so
the higher the grade, the higher the force coming from the weight of the tubing string that the
tubing can withstand.
Tensile Strength is the maximum amount of tensile stress required to produce breakdown of
a pipe under load.
3.2.1.1. Buckling Effect
Buckling effect is perhaps the most difficult effect on tubing to understand. Buckling is
caused by two different force distributions.
• Compressive force on the end of the tubing
• Force distribution acting across the tubing wall.
Compression Buckling (Fig. 3-1) is the result of weight or force being applied on the tubing
end. The force applied results in bowing of the tubing. This concept is easily seen when a
flexible yardstick has one end placed in the floor and the other end is stressed on from
above. Compression buckling is one of the greater contributing forces and can be the result
of many combined forces (e.g., in a latched packer system, an increase in temperature will
cause expansion of the tubing resulting in buckling and possibly corkscrewing).
Figure 3-1 COMPRESSION BUCKLING
Pressure Buckling (Fig. 3-2) is an unequal force distribution caused by a large internal
tubing pressure differential. Minor variations in the wall thickness of tubular goods will initiate
pressure buckling. Pressure buckling only occurs with a high internal differential tubing
pressure and contributes very little to tubing length contraction.
Figure 3-2 PRESSURE BUCKLING

3-6 M HRD GEO 0009
3.2.1.2. Ballooning Effect
Ballooning of the tubing due to load or pressure not only shortens the pipe string, but also
makes it wider (Fig. 3-3), which creates a smaller annular space between the casing and
tubing, known as micro annulus, which in the future will create leakage problems between
the casing and/or packers. There are several techniques used to prevent this effect, such as
using centralizing adaptors between tubing and casing and also locked type expansion
joints.
Ballooning is more common in big diameter tubing, while elongation tends to appear in small
diameter completions. The 3 ½“ tubing is known as the most simple to use pipe, because,
forces generating elongation and ballooning, are almost balanced and it minimises
movement, unfortunately not all wells can be designed with this tubing. The type of steel
used plays a big role in a completion, it could be: Carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium or
iconel. Each type of steel has a specific application and special tolerance to certain effects
coming from the well or reservoir characteristics.
Figure 3-3 BALLOONING EFFECT
3.2.1.3. Hardness
The hardness of tubing or any metal used in the oil industry is measured by using one of the
following indentation testing methods.
Rockwell Hardness Test

An indenter is impressed into the test sample at a prescribed load to measure the material's
resistance to deformation. A Rockwell hardness number is calculated from the depth of
permanent deformation of the sample after application and removal of the test load. Various
indenter shapes and sizes combined with a range of test loads form a matrix of Rockwell
hardness scales that are applicable to a wide variety of materials.
Brinell Hardness Test
This common standard method of measuring the hardness of materials is done by subjecting
to indentation by a hardened steel ball under pressure, the smooth surface of the metal. The
diameter of the indentation, in the material surface, is then measured by a microscope and
the hardness value is read from a chart or determined by a prescribed formula.
3.2.1.4. Well Fluid Composition Effect

There is a range of problems associated to the presence of H2S in the reservoir that affect
directly the selection of materials to be used, there’s the galling effect which affects stainless
steel in the presence of H2S, the sulphide stress cracking caused by the small atom of
sulphur entering the composition of carbon steel and weakening it, creating small crevices.
Also CO2 presence carries out some problems in the presence of water and low-pressure
conditions. To overcome these effects there are now different types of tubing, with specific
coatings, which minimise these problems, but coatings tend to be worn out in the
presence of high temperature and high gas velocity, so it is not a definitive solution.
Corrosion of equipment is one of the most costly problems plaguing the oil industry. Salt
water produced with oil is highly corrosive, and most crude oils contain varying amounts of
hydrogen sulphide, which is also quite corrosive. Anticorrosive measures include the
injection of a chemical corrosion inhibitor down the casing/tubing annulus, the use of plastic-
coated tubing and the use of special corrosion-resistant alloys and cement-lined pipe. Each
of these methods has distinct advantages and disadvantages. Frequently the cost of
reducing the corrosion rate is so high that it cannot be justified, in which case no
anticorrosion measures of any kind are taken and the equipment is replaced at the end of its
useful life.
Resistance to corrosion in aggressive environments is one of the primary reasons for

specifying fibreglass piping. Typical types of corrosion do not affect fibreglass. This would
include galvanic, aerobic, pitting and inter-granular corrosion, which harms metals but not
fibreglass. Although fibreglass resists a wide range of chemicals and temperatures, it
requires the right design, fabrication and installation to match the appropriate application. For
example, fibreglass may be subject to chemical attack from hydrolysis, oxidation, or
incompatible solutions. However, the proper resin/glass matrix will address this chemical
attack
3.2.2. Tubing Lengths
The length range of tubing, API normally have three length ranges:
R1 are pipes from 7 metres up to 8.5 metres

R2 are pipes from 8.5 metres up to 9.5 metres
R3 are pipes from 9.5 metres up to 12.5 metres
It is important to try to keep subassemblies within the range of pipe used normally, to fit the
derrick size and the length of the stand of pipe being used.
3.2.3. Tubing Thickness
The wall thickness is the schedule of the pipe, it determines the internal diameter, and is also
inherently related to the strength of the pipe.
3.2.4. Tubing Metallurgy
Metallurgy plays a very important role in the oil industry, actual techniques allows the
creation of seamless pipe, which is a pipe that does not contain any line junctures
(metallurgical welds) resulting from the method of manufacture.
3-8 M HRD GEO 0009
This product may be produced by extruding or by drawing, using either die and mandrel or
hot piercer processes. (Typically used for applications where fluid flows under pressure.)
Drawn Pipe: Pipe brought to the final dimensions by drawing through a die.
Extruded Pipe: Pipe formed by extruding hot metal through a die.
Hot Piercer: A fixed mandrel, attached to the press stem, used on either cored or hollow
billets to produce seamless tubular product. These techniques rely on the principle of ‘Plastic
Deformation’, which is a distortion that remains after removal of the load that caused it and
the ability of a material to be deformed extensively without rupturing.
3.2.5. Tubing Connections
As new completion techniques demanded stronger steel to reach deeper wells, several types
of thread connections were developed to meet the higher requirements. Now the most
common types of thread used for completion tubing are.
3.2.5.1. Standard API Coupling Connections
API Couplings (Fig. 3-4), were the very first type of threads used in the oil industry;
nowadays upset connections are still widely used because they are inexpensive and still
reliable.
Figure 3-4 API COUPLING CONNECTIONS
NUE: API Non-Upset connection is a 10 round thread form cut on the body of the pipe, this
type of connection not recommended for use because the joint has less strength than the
body.
EUE: API External upset connection is an 8 round thread and the thread area is wider in the
outside to make the joint as strong as the pipe body. For high pressure service a special long
thread form which is 50% longer than the standard thread is used.
BUTTRESS: Buttress thread (Fig. 3-5) is a hook effect thread cut in a non-upset pipe. This
hook effect allows obtaining pipe body yield strength equivalent to the thread connection.
Figure 3-5 BUTTRESS THREAD SHAPE
VAM: Buttress + metal/metal seal. VAM (Fig. 3-6) is a buttress thread equipped with a
shoulder and metal seal. It gives two main advantages over the buttress thread:
• Reduces turbulence within the tubing due to flush connection (no cavity).
• Metal seal adapted for HP gas wells.
Figure 3-6 VAM CONNECTION
3.2.5.2. Alternative Types of Tubing Connections:
Premium Thread (hydrill)

A class of high-performance thread type that is used in recent oil well and gas well
completions. Premium threads are available in a number of configurations and are typically
designed to provide superior hydraulic sealing, improved tensile capacity and ease of make-
up. Unlike conventional threads, the sealing areas in premium thread connections are
independent of the thread profile and are included as two or three areas within the tool joint,
thereby providing greater sealing efficiency. Premium threads provide high mechanical and
hydraulic performance. The multiple sealing areas are particularly efficient in moderate to
high-pressure gas well applications. (Fig. 3-7)
3-10 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 3-7 PREMIUM THREAD (HYDRILL)
ST-L™ Flush Joint Connection

The ST-L connection incorporates a hooked thread design. This provides maximum
structural dependability for a flush OD connection. The Atlas Bradford ST-L connections are
recommended for drilling and production applications. Features: Hooked Buttress Thread
Form, External Metal Seal, Internal Metal Seal, Swaged and Bored Pin I.D. (Fig. 3-8)
Figure 3-8 ST-L FLUSH JOINT CONNECTION

TKC MMS EUE

The TKC MMS EUE connection, (Fig. 3-9), is an internal flush connection when used in
conjunction with properly coated API pipe. Environments with severe corrosion such as wet
CO2 injection, and disposal wells benefit most from these attributes. The joint combines a
proprietary coupling and gauging system to precisely assemble connections.
Figure 3-9 TKS MMS EUE
3.2.6. Tubing Accessories
3.2.6.1. Bull Plugs and Bull Caps
Are used to blank off pipe or completion assemblies while pressure testing. These plugs and
caps are short solid pieces with the closed end rounded and the other end threaded with
either pin or box threads. Available in API or proprietary connections compatible with
assembly (Fig. 3-10)
Figure 3-10 BULL PLUG AND CAP

3-12 M HRD GEO 0009
3.2.6.2. Handling Plugs
Single Joint Handling Plugs provide a positive grip for elevators when lifting a single joint of
drill pipe, drill collar, casing or tubing. Lift Plugs, (Fig. 3-11), are used to handle multiple
joints during the running of tubulars. The plug provides a positive grip for the elevators.
These plugs support the weight of an entire string. Consequently, it is important that the lift
plug be designed by the same company that designed the connection it is made up to.
Figure 3-11 HANDLING PLUGS
3.2.6.3. Stabbing Guide
Stabbing guides, (Fig. 3-12), are used to protect pin and box threads (as well as seals and
internal coating if present) when tubulars are being run into or out of a well. The guides are
constructed of lightweight, rigid aluminium outer frames with durable polyethylene inserts.
Latches and hinge pins are stainless steel ensuring long-lasting service. Maintenance is
simple and inserts can be changed to accommodate different size connections.
Figure 3-12 STABBING GUIDE

3.2.6.4. Seal Rings
Seal rings, (Fig. 3-13), are used to prevent leakage due to internal or external pressures.
These rings are manufactured of a non-metallic material, usually Teflon®. The ring fits in a
groove cut into the box end of a connection and is compressed to form a seal when the
connection is made up power tight. Seal Rings are available for API and proprietary
connections.
Figure 3-13 TYPES OF SEAL RINGS

3-14 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3. WELL COMPLETION EQUIPMENT
In general, a well completion should provide a production conduit which maximises the safe
recovery of hydrocarbons from a gas or oil well throughout its producing life and gives an
effective means of pressurising selected zones in water injection wells.
Downhole accessories used should be designed to provide the safe installation and retrieval
of the completion and flexibility for sub-surface maintenance of the well using wireline, coiled
tubing or other methods. Even though different types of wells present distinct design and
installation problems for engineers, most completions are just variations on a few basic
design types and, therefore, the equipment used are fairly standard.
An overview of the equipment commonly used in single and dual string completions is given
in the following sections. The detailed operation of some of the items such as sliding side
doors (SSDs), side pocket mandrels (SPMs) and packers will not be covered in this manual.
However, the relative location of these tools in a completion and their functions in
intervention work or workover will be addressed. (Fig. 3-14) shows a schematic drawing
illustrating the location of equipment in a typical oil well completion. Each common item in
the completion string is described in the following sections.
Figure 3-14 TYPICAL OILWELL COMPLETION

3.3.1. Wireline Re-Entry Guide
A wireline re- entry guide, often referred to as a WEG, is used for the ease of re-entry of
wireline tools from the casing or liner back into the tubing string. It attaches to the end of the
production string or packer tailpipe assembly and has a chamfered lead in with a full inside
diameter. Wireline re-entry guides are generally available in two forms:
3.3.1.1. Bell Guide
The bell guide has a 45 degree lead in taper to allow re-entry into the tubing of wireline tools.
This type of guide (Fig. 3-15) is used in completions where the end of the tubing does not
need to pass through any casing obstacles such as liner lips.
Figure 3-15 BELL GUIDE
3.3.1.2. Mule-Shoe Re-entry Guide
The mule-shoe type of guide is essentially the same as the Bell Guide but incorporates a
large 45 degree angle cut on one side of the guide (Fig. 3-16) Should the guide hang up on
any casing item such as a liner lip while being run, rotation of the tubing will cause the 45
degree shoulder to slide past the liner lip and enter the liner.
Figure 3-16 MULE-SHOE RE-ENTRY GUIDE
Suppliers of these components may be any local machine shop or from recognised
completion component suppliers such as AVA, Baker, Camco, Halliburton/Otis etc.
3-16 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.2. Tubing Protection Joint
This is normally a single joint of tubing installed for the particular purpose of providing
protection for wireline installed bottomhole pressure and temperature gauges from buffeting
due to turbulence in the flow stream. This protection joint is installed directly below the gauge
hanger landing nipple in the tailpipe below the packer and must be long enough to
accommodate the longest BHP toolstring which may be run.
3.3.3. Wireline Landing Nipple
Landing nipples are short profiled tubulars installed in strategic positions in the tubing string
into which various wireline retrievable flow controls can be set and locked by means of a lock
mandrel. These can seal within the nipple bore, if required, dependent upon the tool’s
function. The most common tools run are plugs, chokes, and pressure and temperature
gauges.
Landing nipples are supplied in ranges to suit most tubing sizes and weights with either API
or premium connections and are available in two basic types:
• Selective.
• No-Go or Non-Selective.
The main features of a landing nipple are:
• Locking groove or profile.
• Polished seal bore.
• No-Go shoulder (only on non-selective nipples).
The applications of landing nipples in completion strings include:
• Well plugging to contain pressure from above, below or from both directions.
• Pressure testing or packer setting.
• Safety valve installation.
• Choke, or other flow control devices, installation.
• Depth referencing.
Landing nipples are produced by a number of suppliers along with the appropriate lock
mandrels and flow control devices. The most notable manufacturers are Baker, Camco,
Halliburton/Otis and Petroline.
Two alternative completion designs, (Fig. 3-17 and Fig. 3-18), are shown which are typical
examples of completion’s that are installed showing the various nipples and their position in
the production string. Care must be taken in selecting the appropriate sized components for
a particular completion.
Figure 3-17 EXAMPLE OF SELECTIVE COMPLETION
Figure 3-18 EXAMPLE OF NON-SELECTIVE COMPLETION

3-18 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.3.1. Selective
The selective nipple design is essentially full bore and allows the running of several nipples
in the same string, all having the same internal diameter. In the selective system (Fig. 3-19),
the locking devices are designed with the same key profile as the nipples and the means of
nipple selection is determined by operation of the running tool and the setting procedure.
Figure 3-19 SELECTIVE LANDING NIPPLE
3.3.3.2. No-Go or Non-Selective
The non-selective nipple receives a locking device, which uses a No-Go principle for the
purposes of location. This requires that the OD of the locking device is slightly larger than the
No-Go diameter of the nipple.
There are two versions of no-go nipples:
• Bottom No-Go.
• Top No-Go.
The bottom No-Go nipple, (Fig. 3-20), has a small shoulder positioned below the packing
bore and the top No-Go nipple, (Fig. 3-21), utilises the top of the seal bore as the No-Go.
If more than one non-selective landing nipple is required in a completion string, a step-down
principle must be used. This ensures that lower nipples are of a correspondingly smaller size
than those higher up in the tubing string which allows the lock mandrel to pass through the
No-Go profiles of the nipples higher up.
Figure 3-20 BOTTOM NO-GO NIPPLE
Figure 3-21 TOP NO-GO NIPPLE
In most completions other than monobores, it is common practice to use a bottom No-Go
nipple as the last nipple in the packer tailpipe to prevent dropped tools falling into the sump.
As No-Go or non-selective nipples provide a positive location, they are widely used in high
angle deviated wells where wireline tool manipulation is difficult and weight indicator
sensitivity is reduced.
3-20 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.4. Perforated Joints
In wells where flowing velocities are high, a restriction in the tubing, such as a gauge hanger,
can cause false pressure and temperature readings invalidating recorded data. Also,
vibrations to the toolstring can cause extensive damage to delicate instruments. To provide
an alternative flow path, a perforated joint is installed above the gauge hanger nipple, which
allows unrestricted flow around the gauge toolstring eliminating these hazards. The
perforated joint, (Fig. 3-22), is normally a full tubing joint, which is drilled with sufficient holes
to provide a flow area greater than that in the tubing above.
Figure 3-22 PERFORATED JOINT
3.3.5. Blast Joints
Blast joints (Fig. 3-23), are installed opposite perforations (non gravel packed) where
external cutting or abrasive action occurs caused by produced well fluids or sand. They are
heavy-walled tubulars available usually in 10, 15, and 20 ft lengths. They should be long
enough to extend at least 4 ft on either side of a perforated interval.
Figure 3-23 BLAST JOINT

3.3.6. Packers
There are several types of packer developed to fit different needs, but essentially they all
serve the same basic purpose, to create isolation between the tubing and the production
casing so production fluids arrive at surface through the tubing to avoid gas slugging and do
not lose pressure and velocity because of casing wider diameters. The rubber in a packer is
the real sealing element, and it should be selected according to the well fluid and completion
characteristics. Although the rubber is what makes the seal, packers are classified according
to the installation method and characteristics, and today they are so technical that you could
think that the rubber seal is not important at all. Initially packers had one single rubber
element, now it is usually three of them stacked, the one in the centre usually the softer one
is the actual seal, the ones above and below are made of a harder rubber and act as
backups to the centre one and also help keep it in place and untouched by fluids (this makes
it last longer). Setting packers is a job that must be carefully carried out, and after the setting,
a test must be made to ensure there is no leaks, basically a packer is held in place by a
metal cone which compresses the rubber seal and a set of slips acting against the cone and
the casing, this principle applies for almost all kind of packers and comes from the
compression packer design, almost all the other types of packer vary in the way of setting
and the internal equipment used to hold them in place and allow possible retrieval. The
selection of the type of packer to be installed is done according to the well characteristics,
the depth, the deviation, the fluids, etc.
A packer is a device used to provide a seal between the tubing and the casing. With a
suitable completion string, this seal allows the flow of reservoir fluids from the producing
formation to be contained within the tubing up to the surface. This protects the casing from
being exposed to well pressure and to corrosion from well or injection fluids.
A packer is tubular in construction and consists basically of:
• Case hardened slips to bite into the casing wall and hold the packer in position
against pressure and tubing forces.
• Packing elements, which seal against the casing.
In general, packers are classified in three groups:
• Permanent.
• Retrievable.
• Permanent/Retrievable.
Packers may be further classified according to the number of bores required for production:
• Single: One concentric bore through the packer for use with a single tubing string.
• Dual: Two parallel bores through the packer for use with two tubing strings.
• Triple: Three parallel bores through the packer for use with three tubing strings.
(Fig. 3-24) gives examples of typical packer installations.

3-22 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 3-24 TYPICAL PACKER INSTALLATIONS

3.3.6.1. Permanent Packer
Permanent packers, (Fig. 3-25), are installed in the wellbore usually independently from the
production tubing string. A permanent packer system, once installed, may be considered as
to have become an integral part of the casing. Permanent packers can only be removed from
the well by milling operations
Due to their simplicity in design, they offer larger comparable bore size with greater pressure
differential and temperature ratings than retrievable or permanent/retrievable packers.
Although permanent packers are usually single bore packers, special dual bore packers are
available for special applications.
The tubing accessories available for permanent packer applications are much more varied
than with retrievable packer systems, providing full bore tubing seal devices for high angle
wells and large tubing movement.
Figure 3-25 PERMANENT PACKER
The main manufacturers of permanent packers are AVA, Baker, Camco, Halliburton/Otis and
PES.
3-24 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.6.2. Retrievable Packer
Retrievable packers are generally run into the wellbore on the production tubing string and
are set by tubing rotation, applied compression or by hydraulic pressure applied from
surface. As the name implies, retrievable packers can be recovered from the well after
setting by pulling the tubing.
Retrievable packers are most commonly used for segregated multi-zone production and can
be, either, single, dual or triple bore. Some quadruple bores have been used in the past but
are relatively uncommon. Prior to selecting multi-zone and multi-string completions, a risk
assessment should be conducted to evaluate the difficulty of installation.
Today the most common type of retrievable packer is the hydraulic set packer, (Fig. 3-26).
When used in multiple zone completions, some hydraulic packers can be selectively set by
opening the hydraulic setting port to pressure applied to the tubing.Tension or compression
set packers are rarely used today as tubing movement due to thermal or pressure forces
may accidentally release the packer. One advantage of retrievable packers is that they can
be re-used after redressing.
Each manufacturer produces their own particular packers and designs may vary significantly
between them. An engineer selecting a retrievable packer should consult previous well
histories and/or obtain performance data from the suppliers before making a balanced
decision. He should also compare the features of each of the packers to determine the
advantages in installation or retrieval procedures.
Figure 3-26 RETRIEVABLE PACKERS
The main manufacturers of retrievable packers are AVA, Camco, Baker and
Halliburton/Otis.
3.3.6.3. Permanent/Retrievable Packers
As their name may suggest, these packers have the same characteristics as permanent
packers but can be released and recovered from the well without milling. They will generally
have a smaller bore than a permanent packer to accommodate the addition of some type of
releasing mechanism.
The applications for permanent/retrievable packers are:
• Temporary completions.
• Temporary well plugging.
• Gravel packing
• Long term well testing
Packers, permanent, retrievable and permanent/retrievable versions, are installed in the

production casing by one of the following methods:
3.3.6.4. Mechanically Set
Run on a workstring, is set by manipulation of the tubing i.e. by applying compression or

tension in combination with rotation depending on the particular setting mechanism of the
packer.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note Packers having rotation set/release mechanisms should not be used in highly deviated
wells since the application of tubing torque may not be transferred downhole
—————————————————————————————————————————
3.3.6.5. Hydraulically Set
Can be run on a workstring or on the tubing string. When the desired setting depth is
reached the tubing is plugged below the packer with a check valve, standing valve or a
wireline plug and hydraulic pressure applied to the tubing to set the packer. Generally, a
predetermined upward pull on the tubing string will release the seal unit from the packer with
a hydraulic permanent packer system.
Alternative method of setting when it is undesirable or not possible to install a wireline plug
such as in highly deviated wells a pump-out ball and seat method can be used.
The seat is installed below the packer and when the packer is to be set, the ball is dropped
and/or pumped down to reach the seat, pressure can then be applied to set packer and
ultimately shear out the ball and seat of the housing which falls into the sump.
3.3.6.6. Electric Wireline Set
This is generally restricted to permanent packers. The packer is attached to a wireline setting
adapter, connected to a setting gun on the end of the wireline and run in the wellbore. On
reaching the desired depth an electrical signal transmitted to the gun activates an explosive
3-26 M HRD GEO 0009
charge and, through a hydraulic chamber, provides the mechanical forces required to set the
packer.
3.3.7. Permanent Packer Accessories
An important aspect in a completion with a permanent packer is the tubing/packer seal. As

the packer in effect becomes part of the casing after it is set, the tubing must connect to the
packer in a fashion so that it can be released. This connection whether it is a straight stab in,
latched or otherwise, must have a seal to isolate the annulus from well fluids and pressures.
This seal usually consists of a number of seal elements to cater for some wear and tear.
These seal elements are classified into two groups; premium and non-premium. The
premium group are those used in severe or sour well conditions i.e. H2S, CO2 etc. and are
normally ‘V’ type packing stacks containing various packing materials resistant to the
particular environment. The non-premium seals are for sweet service and can be either ‘V’
type packing stacks or moulded rubber elements.
3.3.7.1. Tubing Locator Seal Assemby
Tubing locator seal assemblies, (Fig. 3-27), are fitted with a series of external seals
providing an effective seal between the tubing and packer bore. They also usually have a
No-Go type locator above the seals for tagging and, hence, locating the packer and enabling
spacing out of the tubing to place the seal assembly correctly within the packer bore. Locator
seal assemblies are normally spaced out so that they can accommodate both upward and
downward tubing movement induced by changes in temperature and pressure. (although
they may be set lower to limit downward movement if the stress caused to the tubing does
not exceed safe limits)
Figure 3-27 TUBING LOCATOR SEAL

3.3.7.2. Seal Bore Extension
A seal bore extension is used to provide additional sealing bore length when the use of a
long seal assembly is necessary for large tubing movement. The seal bore extension is
simply a length of tube installed below the packer and has a honed bore the same ID as the
packer.
The use of the seal bore extension is to prevent the seals from passing out through the
packer seal bore causing damage due to pressure cycling of the seals.
3.3.7.3. Tubing Anchor Seal Assembly
Tubing anchor seal assemblies, (Fig. 3-28), also termed anchor latch or ratchet latch are
normally used where it is necessary to anchor the tubing to a permanent packer while
retaining the option to unlatch by rotation whenever required. Anchor latches are normally
used where well conditions require the tubing to be landed in tension, to attach a PBR or
ELTSR or where insufficient weight is available to prevent seal movement.
Figure 3-28 TUBING ANCHOR SEAL
To anchor tubing to a packer installed in a completion which has SCSSSV control lines,
chemical injection lines or permanent gauge carrier cables etc., a straight pull release
version can be used as it may be impractical to rotate the tubing string. The other option is to
cut the tubing above the packer.
3-28 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.7.4. Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR)
A PBR, (Fig. 3-29), is a tubing movement compensation system which consists of a seal
receptacle installed above a permanent packer or liner hanger packer in which the seal
assembly lands instead of the packer bore. As the PBR bore can be made larger than the
packer, this provides a larger flow area through the seal assembly.
The PBR female receptacle can be attached to the top of the packer by a retrievable anchor
latch or screwed to the packer. When screwed directly to the packer without an anchor latch,
it cannot be retrieved, therefore, if it becomes damaged, it is removed by milling.
Figure 3-29 POLISHED BORE RECEPTACLE

3.3.7.5. Tubing Seal Receptacle (TSR)
A TSR, (Fig. 3-30), is an inverted version of a PBR whereby a polished OD male member is
attached to the top of the packer directly, or via an anchor latch, and the female (or overshot)
is attached to the tubing. The TSR bore can be made larger than the packer bore ID to
provide a larger flow area than through a seal assembly. The seals are contained in the
female member so that they are recovered when pulling the tubing.
An extra long TSR, termed ELTSR, is often used in large size completions where tubing
movement is even more extreme.
Figure 3-30 TUBING SEAL RECEPTACLE

3-30 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.8. Retrievable Packer Accessories
There are a number of unique tools that have been designed specifically for retrievable
packer systems, especially when used in multiple string completions.
3.3.8.1. Travel Joint
A travel joint, ( also known as telescoping joint or thermal expansion joint), (Fig. 3-31), is
used to compensate for tubing movement, due to temperature and/or pressure changes
during treating or production, with retrievable packer systems. In dual or multiple string
completions, travel joints may be installed in each string, hence adding to the complication of
such completions.
Figure 3-31 TRAVEL JOINT

3.3.8.2. Adjustable Union
An adjustable union, (Fig. 3-32), is designed to enable make up and spacing out of multiple
string retrievable packer systems. It is installed below the tubing hanger to enable rotation of
the final tubing connection into the hanger and adjusts for variation in length to match the
other string.
The joint consists of three parts, an upper connection that is screwed into tubing hanger, a
lower connection attached to the tubing and a lock nut to adjust the length and lock the parts
together.
If rotation of the string is required, versions with anti-rotation keys are available.
Figure 3-32 ADJUSTABLE UNION
3.3.8.3. Snap Latch
Snap latches are used to enable the short string(s) in multiple string completions to engage
into or be retrieved from packers without pulling the packer via the long string side.
3.3.8.4. Safety Joint
Safety joints are used to enable the retrieval of tubing strings when a packer becomes stuck
and is installed above packer. It usually relies on a shear pin mechanism and rotation to
release from connection above packer leaving the packer in hole which would then be milled
out..
3-32 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.9. Sliding Side Door (SSD)
Sliding Side Doors (SSDs) or Sliding Sleeves, (Fig. 3-33), are installed in the tubing during
well completion to provide a means of communication between the tubing and the annulus
when opened.
Sliding Side Doors applications are:
• Bring a well into production after drilling or workover by circulating the completion
fluid out of the tubing and replacing it with a lighter under balanced fluid.
• Kill a well prior to pulling the tubing in a workover operation.
• Provide selective zone production in a multiple zone well completion.
SSDs are available in versions, which open by shifting an inner sleeve either upwards or
downwards. A number of SSDs can be installed in a completion string and selectively
opened or closed by the use of the appropriate wireline shifting tool.
Downward shifting to open SSD’s are preferred to help prevent tools being blown up the
hole, however, modern SSD’s such as Baker “CMD” can be used which utilises an additional
opening tool to positively locate the sleeve in the equalisation position.
—————————————————————————————————————————-
CAUTION: Although SSD’s have an equalising feature they may be accidentally moved
directly from the closed to open position, hence, tubing and annulus pressures must be
equalised before an SSD sleeve is opened to prevent wireline tools being blown up or down
the tubing.
—————————————————————————————————————————-
A wireline landing nipple profile is normally provided in the top sub and a polished bore in the
bottom sub. This allows installation of a straddle or pack off if the assembly develops a leak.
A common fault of sliding sleeves is that the seal failure usually leads to a workover although
a pack-off can be installed as a temporary solution, however non-elastomer designs are now
available improving reliability.
Sliding side doors or sliding sleeves are supplied by Baker, Camco and Halliburton/Otis.
Figure 3-33 SLIDING SIDE DOOR

3-34 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.10. Flow Couplings
Flow couplings, (Fig. 3-34), which are heavy-walled tubulars, are installed above and below
any completion component, which may cause flow turbulence such as wireline nipples,
SSDs, SCSSSV landing nipples etc., to compensate for internal erosion. Although the same
amount of erosion is experienced, the added thickness of the flow coupling provides enough
material to prevent weakening over the projected life of the well. In lower velocity wells, such
as low GOR oil wells, a flow coupling may only be needed to be placed above restrictions.
Figure 3-34 FLOW COUPLING
3.3.11. Side Pocket Mandrels
Side Pocket Mandrels (SPMs), (Fig. 3-35), were originally designed for gas lift completions
to provide a means of injecting gas from the annulus to the tubing via a gas lift valve installed
in the side pocket. However in recent times, they have also been commonly used in place of
an SSD as a circulating device, because seal failure can be rectified by pulling the side
pocket mandrel valve by wireline and replacing the seals, thus eliminating the need for
workover.
Figure 3-35 SIDE POCKET MANDREL
An SPM consists of an oval or round body shell with an integral forged pocket offset to one
side of the longitudinal axis. The pocket has seal bores and a lock profile to facilitate the
setting of a flow control or communication device. The mandrel also features an orientation
sleeve and a tool discriminater which only allows the proper tools into the side pocket and
deflects larger ones. Side pocket mandrels are available with 1” and 1.5” sizes of receptacle.
Devices are installed using a kickover tool which, when pulled up through the mandrel,
locates in the orientation sleeve situated in the upper part of the body and activates the
kickover arm in the correct direction of the pocket regardless of the well deviation or the
orientation of the pocket.
Manufacturers of side pocket mandrels are Baker (McMurray Hughes), Camco and
Halliburton/Otis.
3-36 M HRD GEO 0009
SPMs are installed in the completion string to act as receptacles for the following range of
devices:
• Gas lift valves
• Dummy valves
• Chemical injection valves
• Circulation valves
• Differential dump kill valves
• Equalising valves.
It is essential to understand the operation of the device installed in an SPM before

conducting any well intervention as it may affect well control.
3.3.11.1. Gas Lift Valves
There are many different designs for gas lift valves for various applications. They range from
being simple orifice valves to pressure operated bellows type valves. However, they all
contain check valves to prevent tubing to annulus flow. These check valves may leak after a
period of use and they should never be relied on as barriers in a well control situation. These
should be replaced with dummy valves and the tubing pressure tested to confirm integrity.
3.3.11.2. Dummy Valves
Dummy valves, (Fig. 2-36), are tubing/annulus isolation valves. They are installed in place of
the particular valve type installed in SPM, in order that the completion tubing string can be
pressure tested from both sides during installation or when well service operations are
required.
Figure 3-36 DUMMY VALVES

3.3.11.3. Chemical Injection Valves
The injection valve, (Fig. 3-37), is designed to control the flow of chemicals injected into the
production fluid at the depth of the valve. A spring provides the force necessary to maintain
the valve in the fail-safe closed position. Reverse flow check valves, which prevent backflow
and circulation from the tubing to the casing, are included as an integral part of the valve
assembly. Injection chemicals enter the valve from the annulus in an open injection system.
(This requires the annulus to be full of the desired chemical. An alternative method is to run
an injection line from surface to the SPM.) When the pressure of the injected chemicals
overcomes the pre-set tension in the valve spring plus the pressure in the tubing, the valve
opens. Chemicals then flow through the crossover seat in the valve and into the tubing.
Figure 3-37 CHEMICAL INJECTION VALVE
3.3.11.4. Circulating Valves
Circulating valves, (Fig. 3-38), are recommended to be installed in the SPM whenever any
circulating is to be carried out. The circulating valve is designed to enable circulation of fluid
through the SPM without damaging the pocket. The valve allows fluid to be dispersed from
both ends allowing circulation of fluid at a minimal pressure drop. Some valves permit
circulation from the casing into the tubing only and others to circulate fluid from the tubing
into the casing only. If a circulating valve is not used and the pocket is flow cut a workover
would be necessary to replace the SPM.
Figure 3-38 CIRCULATING VALVES
3.3.11.5. Differential Dump Kill Valves
Differential dump/kill valves are designed to provide a means of communication between the
casing annulus and the tubing when an appropriate differential pressure occurs. Below a pre-
set differential pressure, the valve acts as a dummy valve since it uses a moveable piston to
block off the circulating ports in the valve and the side pocket mandrel. The differential
pressure necessary to open the valve will depend on the type and number of shear screws
installed. The valve will only open when the casing annulus pressure is increased by the
differential (of the shear screw rating) above the tubing pressure.
3-38 M HRD GEO 0009
An increase in tubing pressure above the casing annulus pressure will not open the valve.
After opening, the piston is locked in the up position and fluids can flow freely in either
direction. The hydrostatic pressure from the column of annulus fluid will kill the well and
remedial operations can be planned.
3.3.11.6. Equalising Valves
The equalisation valve, (Fig. 3-39), is designed to equalise pressure between tubing and
casing and/or to circulate fluid before pulling the valve from the SPM. The valve has two sets
of packing, which straddle and pack off the casing ports in the SPM. The tubing and annulus
are isolated from each other until the equalising device is operated by a pulling tool.
Pressures equalise through a port before the valve and latch (Fig. 3-40) is retrieved.
Figure 3-39 EQUALISING VALVES
Figure 3-40 SPM VALVE LATCHES

3.3.12. Sub-Surface Safety Valves
The modern sub-surface safety valve has been developed from the earliest versions
produced in the 1930’s. The initial demand was for a downhole valve that would permit flow
during normal conditions, but would isolate formation pressure from the wellhead to prevent
damage or destruction. This valve would be installed downhole in the production string. The
valve that was developed was a Sub-Surface Controlled Safety Valve (SSCSV) and was a
poppet type valve with a mushroom shaped valve/seat system. Compared with today’s
valves, this simple poppet type valve had several disadvantages; restricted flow area,
tortuous flow paths, low differential pressure rating and calibration difficulties. Despite these
limitations the valve operated successfully and other versions were developed with less
tortuous flow paths such as the ball and flapper valve. From this beginning, the Surface
Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve (SCSSSV) was developed in the late 1950 s. This
moved the point of control from downhole to surface. This design provided large flow areas,
remote control of opening and closing, and responsiveness to a wide variety of abnormal
surface conditions (fire, line rupture, etc.). Initial demand for this valve was slow due to its
higher cost and the problems associated in successfully installing the hydraulic control line,
hence its usage was low until the late 1960’s. The SCSSSV is controlled by hydraulic
pressure supplied from a surface control system, which is ideally suited to manual or
automatic operation, the latter of which pioneered the sophisticated emergency shutdown
systems required today. The versatility of the valve allows it to be used in specialised
applications as well as in conventional systems. SCSSSVs are available in two variants -
Tubing Retrievable Safety Valves (TRSV) and Wireline Retrievable Safety Valves (WRSV).
SCSSSVs are available with ball or flapper type closure mechanisms.
Fail-safe sub-surface safety valves, whether directly or remotely controlled, are installed to
protect personnel, property and the environment in the event of an uncontrolled well flow (or
blow-out) caused by collision, equipment failure, human error, fire, leakage or sabotage.
Whether safety valves are required in a particular operating area depends on the location of
the wells and in some cases on company operating policy and/or government legislation. In
general, each application must be considered separately due to varied well conditions,
locations, regulations, depth requirements etc.
3.3.12.1. Sub-Surface Controlled Safety Valves
Sub-surface (or direct) controlled valves are attached to a lock mandrel and are installed in
regular wireline type nipples positioned at the planned depth.
Pressure-Differential Safety Valves
This type of direct-controlled safety valve is a normally open valve that utilises a pressure-
differential to provide the method of valve closure. Normally a spring holds a valve off-seat
until the well flow reaches a pre-determined rate. This rate can be related to the pressure
differential generated across an orifice or flow bean. When this differential is reached or
exceeded, a piston moves upwards against a pre-set spring force closing the valve. Valves
of this type are termed storm chokes.
There are three closing mechanisms available with these valves.
• Ball-type closure.
• Flapper-type closure.
• Poppet-type closure
3-40 M HRD GEO 0009
The valve is held open by a spring force, which may be increased by adding spacers or
changing the spring. The relationship between flow rate and differential may be adjusted by
changing the bean size. The valve when closed will remain in this position until pressure is
applied at surface to equalise across it when the spring will return to the open position.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note This type of valve should never be attempted to be pulled unless it has been equalised
and is open.
—————————————————————————————————————————
b) Ambient Type Safety Valves
This type of direct-controlled safety valve is a fail safe closed valve which is pre-charged with
a calibrated dome (chamber) pressure prior to running. Ambient controlled valves will open
when the well pressure reaches the set point of the dome calibration. The valve will close
when the flowing pressure of the well, at the point of installation, drops below the pre-
determined dome pressure. Ambient type safety valves are also generally referred to as a
storm chokes. This type of valve is usually a ball valve and is not limited by a flow bean
which gives it a large internal diameter and, hence, a large flow area making it suitable for
high volume installations possibly producing abrasive fluids. Ambient type safety valves are
run with an equalising assembly to allow equalisation across the valve should it close, and a
lock mandrel to locate and lock the valve in the landing nipple.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note Both pressure differential and ambient controlled sub-surface safety valves close on
pre-determined conditions. They do not offer control until these conditions exist. Also valve
settings may change if flow beans become flow cut. Surface controlled safety valves should
be considered in such cases.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Injection Valve
The Injection Valve, which is normally closed, is widely used in injection wells. This injection
valve opens when fluid or gas is injected and travels to the fully open position when the
predetermined minimum injection rate is reached. They act like check valves allowing the
passage of the injected fluid or gas but close when injection is ceased. The closure
mechanism is either a ball or flapper type, which opens when the differential pressure from
the injected medium equalises that below the valve. As the injection rate is increased to the
pre-calculated rate, the differential acts on a choke bean and overcomes a spring to move
the mechanism to the fully open mode. If the injection rate is insufficient or fluctuating, the
mechanism will be damaged and possibly flow cut. The flapper-type valve is the most
popular as its operation is less complicated and is also less prone to damage if the injection
rate is not high enough.
Bottom Hole Regulators
Bottom hole regulators are essentially throttling valves installed downhole to enhance the
overall safety in wells where high surface pressures or hydrate formation present problems.
Bottomhole regulators are designed to reduce surface flow line pressures to safe, workable
levels and to keep surface controls from freezing. In gas wells, the pressure drop across a
regulator will occur downhole where the gas and surrounding well temperature is higher than
at surface. The higher gas temperature and surrounding well temperature tend to prevent
hydrate formation when a pressure drop occurs across the regulator. The cooler gas
immediately above the regulator will usually increase due to the downhole ambient
temperature.
In oil wells, the installation of a bottomhole regulator is used to facilitate the liberation of gas
from solution downhole and consequently lighten the oil columns to increase flow velocity.
The regulator has a stem and seat, which is held closed by a spring and at a pre-set
differential pressure the valve opens. If high reductions in pressure are necessary, more than
one regulator can be installed, providing stepped reductions reducing the risk of hydrate
formation and flow cutting.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note An equalising sub should be installed between the lock mandrel and the regulator to
facilitate the equalisation of pressure.
—————————————————————————————————————————
3.3.12.2. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves
The SCSSSV is a downhole safety device that can shut in a well in an emergency or provide
a barrier between the reservoir and the surface. As the name suggests, the valve can be
controlled from the surface by hydraulic pressure being transmitted from a control panel
through stainless steel tubing attached to a ported landing nipple and then transmitted to the
safety valve. (Fig. 3-41)
Figure 3-41 SAFETY VALVE INSTALLATION

3-42 M HRD GEO 0009
The remote operation of this type of valve from the surface can also be integrated with pilots,
emergency shut down (ESD) systems, and surface safety control manifolds. This flexibility of
the surface controlled safety valve design is its greatest advantage. In the simplest system
an SCSSSV is held open by hydraulic pressure supplied by a manifold at the surface, the
pressure being maintained by hydraulic pumps controlled by a pressure pilot installed at
some strategic point at the wellhead. Damage to the wellhead or flow lines causes a
pressure monitor pilot to exhaust pneumatic pressure from a low pressure line which in turn
causes a relay to block control pressure to a 3-way hydraulic controller resulting in hydraulic
pressure loss in the SCSSSV control line. When this pressure is lost, the safety valve
automatically closes, shutting off all flow from the tubing.
There are two main categories of SCSSSVs:
• Wireline Retrievable SCSSSV.

• Tubing Retrievable SCSSSV.
SCSSSVs utilise the ball or flapper type closure mechanisms. Both categories are supplied
with or without internal equalising features. This allows the pressure to equalise across the
valve so as it can be re-opened. Valves without this feature need to be equalised by
pressure being applied to the tubing above the valve at surface. The former is more prone to
failure due to having more operating parts whereas for the latter equalisation pressure is
often difficult to provide and possibly time consuming.
Wireline Retrievable SCSSSV
Wireline retrievable surface controlled sub-surface safety valves are located and locked,
using standard wireline methods, in a dedicated safety valve landing nipple (SVLN). The
SVLN is a ported landing nipple, (Fig. 3-42), connected to a hydraulic control line pressure
source at the surface normally by a ¼ in OD stainless steel tubing.
When the safety valve is set in the nipple, the packing seals of the valve forms a seal against
the seal bore of the nipple below the port. The packing section of the lock mandrel forms a
seal above the port in the nipple. Control pressure, introduced through the control line, enters
the valve through the port in the valve housing and allows pressure to be applied to open the
valve.
Figure 3-42 PORTED LANDING NIPPLE

Because a wireline retrievable SCSSSV, (Fig. 3-43), seats in a landing nipple, (Fig. 3-44),
installed in the production string, (Fig. 3-45), it offers a much smaller bore than a tubing
retrievable SCSSSV for the same size of tubing. Frequently, WRSVs have to be pulled prior
to wireline operations being carried out. Compared to a tubing retrievable SCSSSV, the
wireline retrievable SCSSSV is easy to replace in the case of failure. Most failures can be
prevented by introducing a planned maintenance schedule in which valves are regularly
retrieved and serviced. However, during wireline entry operations there is also a safety risk
and care must be maintained at all times.
Figure 3-43 WIRELINE RETRIEVABLE SCSSSV

3-44 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 3-44 TYPICAL WRSCSSSV LANDING NIPPLE
The components required for the installation of a wireline retrievable SCSSSV are:
• Hydraulic control line.
• Control Line Protectors.
• Hydraulic control manifold.
• Wireline retrievable safety valve.
• Safety valve landing nipple.
• Locking Mandrel.
• Wireline installation and retrieval tools for the locking mandrel.

Figure 3-45 EXAMPLE OF A WRSCSSSV INSTALLATION

3-46 M HRD GEO 0009
Tubing Retrievable SCSSSV
Tubing retrievable safety valves, (Fig. 3-46), operate by the same principle as wireline
retrievable SCSSSVs except all the components are incorporated in one assembly which is
installed in the completion string. Some models have rod pistons instead of the more normal
concentric piston designs. Should the tubing retrievable valve suffer a failure, it can be
locked open and a wireline retrievable valve installed within the existing valve and operated
through the original control line, although with a reduced internal bore. If the failure is due to
a control line leak, then this procedure is anapplicable and a workover would be required to
replace control line. Each manufacturer has their own design of lock-open devices and
requires specialised tooling with appropriate advantages and disadvantages. Choosing the
same supplier for valves used within a field or fields reduces the cost of such equipment.
Figure 3-46 TUBING RETRIEVABLE SCSSSV

The components required for installation of a tubing retrievable SCSSSV are:
• Hydraulic control line.
• Control line protectors.
• Hydraulic control manifold.
• Tubing retrievable safety valve.
Additional equipment required in event of failure:
• Wireline safety valve.
• Locking mandrel.
• Wireline installation and retrieval tools for the locking mandrel.
• Lockout tool for the tubing retrievable valve.
3.3.12.3. Control Line
The conduit which provides the flow path of hydraulic fluid to the SCSSSV, is the control line.
The control line is normally a ¼” OD tubing, attached directly to the sub-surface safety valve,
(TRSV), or to the landing nipple, (WRSV), with a compression fitting and is run up the
outside of the tubing to the tubing hanger. The method of termination at the hanger is
dependant on the type of wellhead and hanger system being installed.
Some control lines on land wells are simply fed out through a packing element in a port
(often a tie down bolt hole) which is tightened to seal around the tubing. Other systems have
drilled ports in the hanger, into which the control line is fitted again with a compression fitting,
and the spool sealed off from the annulus and the Xmas tree bore by concentric weight set
or pressure energised seals
The control line material is selected to meet the environment into which it is to be installed
and be compatible with both the safety valve and the hanger materials because of the
possibility of corrosion happening if dissimilar materials were used. There is a large choice of
control line materials available from 316 stainless steel for sweet service to Iconel and
Elgiloy alloys for more demanding environments. They are also supplied with hard durable
plastic coatings for added protection from corrosion and against crushing damage during
installation which in the past was a major problem. Two lines can be encased for operation of
balanced piston safety valves which utilise the hydrostatic in the balance line to counteract
the hydrostatic head in the actuation line.
Control lines are held against the tubing by control line protectors, usually placed across a
coupling or connection and sometimes also in the middle of a joint. The protector has a slot
into which the control line plastic outer coating fits. Simple banding can be used but it is not
strong and can easily be ripped off. Protectors are now generally metal clamp types as
earlier rubber versions were easily detached causing major problems when retrieving
completion strings. Control line protectors can also be supplied to accommodate more than
one hydraulic line if chemical injection line is to be used and/or electrical cables for
permanent downhole gauges.
3-48 M HRD GEO 0009
3.3.12.4. Annulus Safety Valves
The sub-surface safety valves discussed so far, i.e. tubing retrievable and wireline
retrievable, only provide tubing flow control. In these systems, no annular flow control exists.
Annulus safety valve systems, (Fig. 3-47), are usually associated with completions where
artificial lift or secondary recovery methods are employed e.g. gas venting in electric
submersible pump (ESP), hydraulic pump, and gas lift installations. There application is to
remove the potential hazard of a large gas escape in the event there is an incident where the
tubing hanger seal is breached. There are a number of designs of such systems on the
market and the variety of mode of operation is too wide to be covered in this document,
however the basic concepts are the same. With any annulus system, there must be a sealing
device between the tubing and the casing through which the flow of gas can be closed off.
This is generally a packer, but might also be a casing polished bore nipple in some designs
into which a packing mandrel will seal. In the sealing device there is a valve mechanism
operated by hydraulic pressure similarly to an SCSSSV. The valve mechanism opens the
communication path from the annulus below to the annulus above the valve and is fail-safe
closed. The closure mechanism may be a sliding sleeve, poppet or flapper device. .
Figure 3-47 ANNULAR SAFETY VALVE SYTEM

3.4. WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT
3.4.1. Wellhead Spool
The wellhead spool, (Fig. 3-48), is made up of various hanger assemblies which terminate
and seal the different casing strings and production tubing string which have been set in the
well. On the body of the hanger assemblies are external valves and gauges, used to monitor
pressure in the casing and annulus.
Figure 3-48 WELLHEAD SPOOL

3-50 M HRD GEO 0009
3.4.1.1. Tubing Hanger System
Unlike casing, production tubing is not cemented in the hole so the entire tubing weight must
be supported by a suspension system suitably installed in a tubing head or sometimes in the
top position of a compact wellhead.
The conventional tubing head spool system is positioned on top of the uppermost casing
head of a well and is used to suspend the production tubing and provide an effective seal
between the tubing and casing.
Tubing heads are composed of a body, a hanger sealing device (tubing hanger), and a
mechanism which retains the hanger.
3.4.1.2. Ram Type Tubing Head
Ram type tubing heads, (Fig. 3-49), have an application in completions where manipulation
of the tubing is necessary to place the tubing in tension. This requires the tubing to locate,
and latch into, the packer before applying tension and then closing the rams. A ram type
tubing head comprises of a housing with two side outlets in which are located retractable
rams. These rams, when closed, support the hanger nipple, which is screwed on to the top of
the tubing string. A seal assembly provides the seal between the annulus and the tubing,
which is located around the hanger nipple above the rams. With the ram type tubing hanger
installed on the wellhead and the packer set, production tubing is run and spaced out so that
the final position of the hanger nipple is the correct distance below the tubing head to
correspond to the amount of stretch required to give the appropriate tension. The tubing is
latched into the packer and tension applied to the tubing so that the hanger nipple is just
above its final hang off position. The rams are then closed, the tubing weight set on the rams
and the handling string removed. The seal assembly is then installed, bolted down, and the
seal system energised by the injection of plastic packing. Finally, the BOPs are removed and
the Xmas tree installed.
Figure 3-49 SINGLE RAM TUBING HEAD (SRT)

—————————————————————————————————————————
Note Like all mandrel type hangers, landing nipple hangers are provided with a top thread
for the landing joint, an internal left hand thread or wireline profile for the installation of a
back pressure valve, and can be supplied with extended necks to facilitate secondary
sealing. Also, ram type tubing heads are available with control line outlets to allow an
SCSSV to be incorporated in the tubing string.
—————————————————————————————————————————
3.4.1.3. Tubing Head Adapter (bowl type)
The tubing head adapter, (Fig. 3-50), provides flanged connections to allow assembly to the
casing hanger below and the Xmas tree above. Fitted internally is the tubing hanger which
provides means of terminating and suspending the production tubing.
Fig 3-50 TUBING HEAD ADAPTER
3.4.1.4. Tubing Hanger
The tubing hanger, (Fig. 3-51), is the device that supports the production tubing within the
tubing head adaptor. A seal assembly on the body of the tubing hanger provides a hydraulic
seal between the tubing hanger and the body of the tubing head adapter. Tubing hangers, in
most circumstances, are designed with an extended neck which seals in the bottom of the
tubing head adapter flange to isolate the well fluids from the tubing head ring joint seal.
3-52 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 3-51 EXAMPLES OF TUBING HANGERS

3.4.2. Xmas Tree
The Xmas tree, (Fig. 3-52, 3-53 & 3-54), is an assembly of valves and fittings used to control
the flow of the well fluids and provide access into the tubing string or production conduit. It is
assembled above the wellhead spool and attached to the flanged connection on the tubing
head adapter.
Figure 3-52 MONOBLOCK XMAS TREE
Figure 3-53 FLANGED XMAS TREE

3-54 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 3-54 SOLID BLOCK DUAL STRING XMAS TREE
The Xmas Tree assembly includes the following elements:
• Lower Master Valve
• Upper Master Valve
• Kill Wing Valve
• Production Wing Valve
• Swab Valve
• Xmas Tree Cap
3.4.2.1. Lower Master Valve
The lower master valve is normally kept in the open condition and is only closed in the event
that all the other valves fail.
3.4.2.2. Upper Master Valve
The upper master valve is usually operated to open and close the wellbore. This valve is
often fitted with a hydraulic actuator so that the valve can be controlled remotely and also
closed by the emergency shut down system.
3.4.2.3. Tee Section
The tee section is situated above the master valves, the tee section provides a three-way
path, the upper one to accommodate the swab valve, and the two laterals for the wing
valves.
3.4.2.4. Kill Wing Valve
The kill wing valve is normally closed and is used when the well has to be killed by injecting
kill fluid through the valve into the wellbore. The size of this valve may be smaller than other
valves.
3.4.2.5. Production Wing Valve
The production wing valve is normally open during flowing conditions. This valve is often
fitted with a hydraulic actuator so that the valve can be controlled remotely and can be
closed by the emergency shut down system. This valve when closed isolates the well from
the production facilities.
3.4.2.6. Swab Valve
The swab valve is kept closed during flowing of the well and is operated to allow access to
the tubing string when well intervention operations are to be conducted during maintenance
of the well.
3.4.2.7. Xmas Tree Cap
The Xmas tree cap is positioned on the top of the tree above the swab valve. Normally a
needle valve and gauge are fitted to allow the wellhead pressure (WHP) to be measured.
During normal flowing conditions the tree cap provides a back up in the event that the swab
valve leaks. During well intervention operations the tree cap is removed which provides a
threaded connection for wireline or coil tubing adapters to be attached and allow tools to be
run in the tubing string.
3-56 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 4
PRODUCTION OPERATIONS
ELEMENT 1.2
4-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
4.1. PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Normally the drilling and completion phases of a well are carried out by a drilling contractor
and after successful completion of these phases; the well is then handed over to the oil
company’s production department to efficiently and safely recover the oil or gas being
produced from the well.
4.2. INITIAL PRODUCTION HOOK-UP
Once the completion has been landed and tested successfully and the Xmas tree has been
nippled up and tested the kill line and production flowline is then attached to the kill wing
valve and production wing valve. Both wing valves are fitted with flange connections for this
purpose and operate in the same manner as a gate valve, (Fig. 4-1 and 4-2). Gate valves
are commonly used on Xmas trees and flowlines.
Figure 4-1 GATE VALVE
Figure 4-2 GATE VALVE

4-4 M HRD GEO 0009
In most cases offshore on a production platform, the kill wing valve will be connected via a
steel pipeline to a large pump which, when required, can inject kill fluid into well to overcome
the formation pressure. In remote areas, on land and on some offshore installations the wing
valve is fitted with a blanked off weco connection to allow a chiksan line to be connected if
required to inject kill fluid.
In most cases the following devices are attached to the production wing valve.
• Surface Safety Valve

• Production Choke
• Flowline
4.2.1. Surface Safety Valve
The surface safety valve (Fig. 4-3), is usually connected down stream of the wing valve and
is basically a gate valve fitted with an actuator operated by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure
supplied by emergency shut-down (ESD) system to close valve and shut off production flow
from the well in an emergency situation. In some cases the safety valve or actuator can be
found fitted directly to the wing valve.
Figure 4-3 SURFACE SAFETY VALVE
4.2.2. Production Choke
The production choke is normally connected down stream of the actuator, it is a surface flow
control device, which enables the capability to restrict the flow of the well, at start-up and
during production, to avoid overcoming the production facilities pressure or flow handling
limitations. There are two types of production chokes, the adjustable choke (Fig. 4-4), which
is a valve with a special design which has a graduated, hand actuator, that indicates how
much open or closed it is. And the positive or fixed choke (Fig. 4-5), which is a housing
where a calibrated choke bean is inserted and creates a fixed diameter restriction to the
flow.
Figure 4-4 ADJUSTABLE CHOKE
Figure 4-5 FIXED CHOKE
4.2.3. Flowline
After the choke comes the flowline, which is the pipe that delivers the production of the well
to the separation facilities, which on an offshore platform are already installed as part of the
production facilities but on land a pipe line would normally be run from wellsite to a gathering
station which would supply the separation facilities, the flowline would also have a flow line
safety valve normally fitted. All the equipment after the choke, usually has a lower pressure
specification than the Xmas tree equipment. All along the flowline and at various points on
the Xmas tree, are measuring and sampling ports, for taking pressure, temperature and
samples of the production.
4-6 M HRD GEO 0009
4.3. EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEM (ESD)
During the initial hook-up of the well to production an ESD system, (Fig. 4-6 and 4-7), is
installed to the wellhead to facilitate control of hydraulically operated tree valves, flowline
surface safety valves and surface controlled sub surface safety valves (SCSSSV) which can
automatically shut the well in under emergency situations. Flowline pressures can be
monitored and system can initiate appropriate well shut in procedures if any of the set points
extend beyond the safe operating procedures. This panel, under normal conditions will
supply hydraulic pressure to any hydraulically operated tree valves and the SCSSSV via the
control line which is attached downhole to SCSSSV nipple, keeping the safety valve in the
open position to allow well fluids to flow to surface.
Figure 4-6 ESD SCHEMATIC

Figure 4-7 TYPICAL ESD INSTALLATION
4.3.1. Wireline Control Panel
When conducting wireline operations during a well intervention program in a well fitted with
an ESD system, it is the usual practice for the wireline crew to take over control of the
SCSSSV and any hydraulically actuated tree valves to avoid the wire being cut in the event
of an emergency shutdown. This is accomplished by the crew disconnecting the SCSSSV
and valves from the ESD system and connecting these lines to a control panel, (Fig. 4-8 and
4-9), which can then be operated remotely from the wireline crews position. In some cases
the ESD system has a key bypass system which switches the hydraulic pressure input from
the panel to an external source, thus eliminating the need to disconnect lines.
There are two types of SCSSSV which can be used in a completion, Tubing Retrievable
SCSSSV (TRSCSSSV) and Wireline Retrievable SCSSSV (WRSCSSSV)
The TRSCSSSV is an integral part of the tubing string with a large internal diameter
sufficient to allow passage of wireline tools.
The WRSCSSSV is usually removed from the well before any well intervention work can
begin and is then replaced in well at the completion of the well intervention program.
4-8 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 4-8 TYPICAL WIRELINE CONTROL PANEL
Figure 4-9 WIRELINE CONTROL PANEL OPERATION LAYOUTS

4.4. PRODUCTION PROCESS
The production process, (Fig. 4-10), is accomplished by directing the produced well fluids
through a separator which is a pressure vessel that separates the well fluid into oil, gas,
water and sediment by gravitation. The separator controls the fluid flow rate by setting the
pressure and the separation quality depends on the fluid characteristics, setting pressures
and size of the separator (settling time).
Figure 4-10 PRODUCTION PROCESS
Once the produced well fluids have passed through the separation process the oil is normally
pumped to storage tanks until transported to oil refinery by road in tankers or, in the case of
offshore production, either pumped through pipelines to land or held in large storage tanks
which are part of the offshore installation or can alternatively be pumped to a floating storage
unit (FSU) then transferred to oil tankers which transport the produced oil to land and
subsequently to oil refinery. (Fig. 4-11)
4-10 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 4-11 DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCED OIL
4.4.1. Production Recovery Methods
There are two main phases of recovering oil/gas from a reservoir.
• Primary Recovery is the initial phase of hydrocarbon production without additional

influence to the reservoir. This is achieved by the reservoirs ability to flow to surface
due to pressure. (Natural Drive)
• Second Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is the phase when the
reservoir is no longer capable of flowing to surface without assistance due to
reduction in reservoir pressure, (Fig 4-12, 4-13 and 4-14). This is achieved with
induced drive methods which include water injection and gas injection.
Figure 4-12 DEPLETION OF GAS CAP RESERVOIR

4-12 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 4.13 DEPLETION OF SOLUTION DRIVE RESERVOIR

Figure 4.14 DEPLETION OF WATER DRIVE RESERVOIR

.
4.4.2. Artificial Lift
Artificial lift is another means of assisting a well to flow but is normally considered at the
completion planning stage of a well. Fluids are assisted to flow to surface by means of
additional devices such as, surface pumps (nodding donkeys), submersible pumps and gas
lift systems which reduce the specific gravity of the oil making it lighter and easier to flow.
4-14 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 5
WIRELINE UNIT
ELEMENT 1.3
5-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
5.1. WIRELINE UNIT
The Wireline Unit is made up of two parts, Winch Unit (Reel Pack), (Fig. 5-1) and Power
Pack, (Fig. 5-2), they are used to provide the power and method of manipulation of all
downhole tools used during wireline operations and are your most important pieces of
equipment. Their reliability can be extended by correct maintenance, and making basic
checks of oil and diesel levels etc. a regular habit.
Figure 5-1 TYPICAL WINCH UNIT
Figure 5-2 TYPICAL POWER PACK

5-4 M HRD GEO 0009
There are three categories (Sizes) of wireline units dependant on the engine horse power
(HP) of the power pack and the wireline drum capacity of the wireline winch or reel pack.
• Light Duty (20-50HP 10,000ft drum capacity)
• Medium Duty (50-100HP 20,000ft drum capacity)
• Heavy Duty (100 + HP 20,000ft + drum capacity)
Wireline winches or reel packs can be manufactured as single drum or double drum units. A
single drum unit will have one drum spooled with a particular size of slickline wire and have
the capability of changing out the drum for one spooled with braided line if required. A double
drum unit will have two drums fitted, one spooled with a particular size of slickline and the
other spooled with, either slickline of a larger diameter or braided line dependant on
operational requirements.
The winch and power pack are connected together using hydraulic hoses which supply the
energy from the power pack to the winch and from the winch back to the power pack. In
general there are two hoses between the units, one supply line and one return line. The
supply line is normally a thick walled high pressure hose and the return line is a thinner
walled low pressure hose. On some models of wireline unit a third smaller hydraulic hose is
connected between the units which is used as a drain hose for the winch unit gearbox.
Usually the connections on hoses and units can only allow the hoses to be connected to the
correct connection for hydraulic oil circuit flow, that is the high pressure hose connected to
the circuit supply (HP) and the thinner walled hose (LP) connected to the circuit return.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION If these hoses are connected wrongly they can burst.
—————————————————————————————————————————
5.2. OPERATING PROCEDURES
Before starting engine of power pack the following checks should be made.
5.2.1. Winch Unit (Reel Pack)
• Ensure gearbox is in NEUTRAL position, if fitted.
• Directional valve in mid position.
• Pressure relief valve screwed fully out, if fitted.
• Handbrake is ON.
• Drive chain tension and condition.

—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION Never carry out gas cutting or welding operations near spools of wireline or winch
units with wire spooled on drum. Heat or metal spray coming in contact with the wire could
significantly change the condition of the steel, and cause early failure in use. Never electric
arc weld on a wireline unit with wire spooled on the drum. Serious weakening of the wireline
will occur as a result of magnetic fields created.
—————————————————————————————————————————
5.2.2. Power Pack.
• Engine oil level.
• Radiator coolant water level. (Units such as Deutz and Lister are air cooled).
• Fan belt condition and tension.
• Diesel fuel tank level.
• Check that the emergency shut-down system is not in tripped position, if fitted.
• Battery fluid level, if fitted.
• Hydraulic starter accumulator pressure, if fitted.
• Hydraulic oil tank level.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION If hydraulic oil level is below half full, insufficient retention time will occur prior to
the oil recirculating. This may result in trapped air bubbles circulating through the system
causing cavitation, which is detectable as noise in the system and will cause immediate loss
of power and can result in damage being caused to hydraulic components.
—————————————————————————————————————————
5.3. MAINTENANCE
Observe the routine maintenance schedules which will prolong the life of your equipment and
minimize breakdowns on location. Maintenance is based on the following guidelines but will
vary with unit design, location and local conditions. Check with specific operating manuals
supplied with your unit.
50 hours - Change the engine oil, and clean or change filters (oil / fuel / air)
150 hours - Grease and adjust the drive chain. Grease the hydraulic motor
500 hours - Change the hydraulic oil and filters.
All wireline personnel should know how to do basic maintenance and solve minor engine
faults. All wireline personnel should be able to bleed diesel to the injectors in the ‘unlikely’
event that the unit runs out of fuel or has an airlock.
5-6 M HRD GEO 0009
5.4. ENGINE STARTING MECHANISMS
The starting mechanisms for power pack engines come in many different forms and designs
dependant on manufacturer. There is no standard starter fitted to any particular model of
engine as any type of starter can be fitted as per customers specification.
Regardless of the model of starter fitted they will be operated by one of the following
mechanisms.
• Manual
• Spring
• Pneumatic
• Hydraulic
• Electric
5.4.1. Manual Starter
A manual starter is operated by a starting handle connected to a spigot on the engine

flywheel which is turned by hand until engine starts, once engine starts the design of the
spigot disengages the starting handle which can then be removed.
5.4.2. Spring Starter
A spring starter, (Fig. 5-3), is a device used to start engines by means of supplying torque
from the release of wound bevelled springs.
The starter is connected to the ring gear of the engine flywheel by means of a pinion gear
and the internal springs of the starter are compressed by a hand operated winding
mechanism. When actuated the spring tension is released supplying torque to turn engine
flywheel and start engine. When engine starts the flywheel automatically disengages the
pinion gear.
Figure 5-3 SPRING STARTER

—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION Do not over wind springs, spring tension can be checked through observation
glass on starter body. To start a warm engine the springs visible through observation window
are coloured green and to start cold engine the springs are coloured red. If too much tension
is applied to springs, they will break when starter is activated and will have to be replaced.
—————————————————————————————————————————
ADVANTAGES Self contained starting device, no external supply required.
DISADVANTAGES Springs prone to breakage if over wound.
5.4.3. Pneumatic Starter (Air Starter)
A pneumatic or air starter, (Fig. 5-4), is a device used to start engines by means of supplying
torque from an air operated motor.
and operated by connecting air supply through an air regulator which is directly connected to
starter motor via a ball valve. The air regulator is set to supply 100PSI of air pressure to
motor through the ball valve and when opened the air motor will continue to turn until engine
starts. When engine starts the flywheel automatically disengages the pinion gear and ball
valve can then closed.
Figure 5-4 PNEUMATIC OR AIR STARTER
ADVANTAGES Continuous rotation until engine starts.
DISADVANTAGES Requires external air supply to be available, either from rig supply or
compressor unit.
5-8 M HRD GEO 0009
5.4.4. Hydraulic Starter
A hydraulic starter, (Fig. 5-5), is a device used to start engines by means of supplying torque
from a hydraulic motor.
and is operated by applying hydraulic pressure to the motor via hydraulic circuit. (Fig. 5-6)
Pressure is applied to the system by a hand pump charging the accumulator bottle (Fig. 5-7),
when starter operating switch is activated the hydraulic pressure in accumulator bottle will
operate hydraulic motor and start engine. When engine starts the flywheel automatically
disengages the pinion gear.
Figure 5-5 HYDRAULIC STARTER
Figure 5-6 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1 - Hydraulic starter
2 - Starter operating switch
3 - Accumulator
4 - Hydraulic hand pump
5 - Hydraulic oil tank
6 - Check valve
7 - Pressure gauge
Figure 5-7 TYPICAL HYDRAULIC PUMP FOR HYDRAULIC STARTER
ADVANTAGES No external supply required.
DISADVANTAGES Size, system continually under pressure with tendency to leak.
5.4.5. Electric Starter
An electric starter, (Fig. 5-8) is a device used to start engine by applying electrical power to
an electric motor
and is operated by applying electric power from a battery via a key switch and push button to
an electric motor, when push button is activated the electric power from the battery will
operate electric motor and start engine. When engine starts the flywheel automatically
disengages the pinion gear.
Figure 5-8 ELECRIC STARTER
ADVANTAGES No external supply required.
DISADVANTAGES Cannot be used in a Zoned environment.

5-10 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 6
WIRELINE WINCH CONTROL SYSTEMS
AND OPERATION
ELEMENT 1.3
6-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
6.1. WIRELINES
The actual mechanical wireline used on wireline winch units may be referred to by a number
of different names.
Solid single strand line may be termed as:
• Slickline.
• Piano Wire.
• Solid Line.
• Measuring Line.
• Wireline.
Multistrand wirelines are usually described as:
• Braided line
• Swab line
As well depths have increased over the years since the first measuring lines were brought
into use, accompanied by increased working loads, it has become necessary to develop
wireline having a high strength/weight ratio.
There is a need for strength to accomplish the operation without the wire breaking, and a
need to keep the diameter of the wire as small as possible for the following reasons:
• It reduces the load of its own weight.
• It can be run over smaller diameter sheaves, and wound on smaller diameter spools
or reels without over-stressing by bending.
• It keeps the reel drum size to a minimum.
• It provides a small cross-section area for operation under pressure.
The sizes of solid wirelines in most common use are: 0.092”, 0.108” and 0.125” diameter,
and are obtainable from the drawing mills in one-piece standard lengths of 18,000, 20,000,
25,000 and 30,000ft.
The most popular material for wireline is improved plough steel (IPS), because of its high
ultimate tensile strength, good ductility and relatively low cost. Experience indicates that
improved plough steel usually performs better than the more expensive special steel lines,
even in corrosive conditions - although it must then be used in conjunction with an
appropriate inhibitor (e.g. Servo CK352 or CK356). For sweet wells IPS can be used with
inhibitor for high loads and long service. For sour wells IPS can be used with inhibitor for high
loads and short operating time.
When selecting or operating with wireline, various factors, such as the following, have to be
considered:
6-4 M HRD GEO 0009
• Physical properties
• Resistance to corrosion
• Effect of bending
• Total stress.
• Care and handling.
Due to the H2S content of many wells special materials such as 0.108” NITRONIC-50
manufactured by Bridon or stainless steels are used. Although these are not as strong as
IPS, they have an excellent resistance to H2S corrosion.
6.1.1. Carbon Steel Wirelines (API-9A)
The wire is supplied on steel reels in continuous lengths, to specifications as per Table 6.1:
• Diameter tolerance is +/- 0.001ins.
• Nominal weight is dependant on manufacturer.
• Recommended minimum pulley diameter is specific to each individual size of wire but
usually a 16” diameter pulley is used as standard.
• Minimum breaking strength will vary dependant on manufacturer.
• Torsion in all cases in accordance with API-9A. (>17 turns)
Nominal Nominal Recommended Minimum Breaking Load

Diameter Weight per Minimum Pulley Bright UHT Bright
1,000 ft Dia
Inches Pounds Inches Pounds Pounds
0.092 22.69 11.25 1547 1980
0.105 29.40 13.00 1966 2360
0.108 31.11 13.00 2120 2720
0.125 41.80 15.00 2840 3640
0.140 52.41 16.00 3505 4600
0.160 68.45 16.00 4580 6005
Table 6.1 API Carbon Steel Wirelines
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note Always consult manufacturers certificate supplied with new wire to confirm minimum
breaking strength of any particular wire and note in wireline log book.
—————————————————————————————————————————
6.1.2. Stainless Steel and Special Alloys
All stainless steel and special alloy wires are supplied on nylon coated steel reels in
continuous lengths, to specifications as per Table 6.2:
• Diameter tolerance - +/- 0.001ins.
• Nominal weight is dependant on manufacturer.
• Minimum pulley diameter is specific to each individual size of wire but usually a 16”
diameter pulley is used as standard.
• Minimum breaking strength will vary dependant on manufacturer.
• Ductility wraps on own diameter - 10 minimum.
Minimum Breaking Load

Nominal
Minimum
Weight Supa Supa Supa
Diameter Pulley 304 316
per 60 70 75
Diameter
1,000ft
Inches Pounds Inches Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
0.092 22.90 11.25 1550 1400 1260 1600 1470
0.105 30.20 13.00 1760 n/a n/a n/a n/a
0.108 31.55 13.00 2100 1850 1720 2100 2030
0.125 42.26 15.00 2700 2500 2220 2600 2526
0.135 53.00 15.50 3200 n/a n/a n/a n/a
0.140 52.00 16.00 3400 3100 n/a 3100 3250
0.150 61.27 16.00 3890 3843 n/a n/a n/a
0.160 68.00 16.00 4230 4000 n/a 3900 4250
Table 6.2 Stainless Steel Wirelines
6.1.3. Braided Wireline
The conventional cable comprises sixteen (9+6+1) strands, (Fig. 6-1). The core and the right
hand lay inner wires are thinner than the left hand lay outer wires. By using a combination of
right and left hand lays, the twisting tendency of the wire under load is reduced.
Figure 6-1 CONVENTIONAL BRAIDED WIRELINE CONSTRUCTION

6-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Flow Minimum Breaking Load

Recorded
Size - Tube 316 Supa 70
Weight Minimum Supa
Dia. Bore Galvanised Stainless /Supa
Pulley Dia. 60
ID Steel 75
ins Ins lbs/1,000 ft Ins lbs lbs lbs lbs
3
/16 0.196 71.1 12 4,960 3,990 3,680 4,320
1
/4 0.228 95.9 14 6,610 5,400 4,960 5,842
7
/32 0.261 125.5 16 8,640 7,030 6,480 7,600
3
/4 0.327 195.9 20 13,490 11,000 10,120 11,660
Table 6.3 Relative Strengths of Various Conventional Braided Wirelines
Some time ago Bridon introduced Dyform cable, (Fig. 6.2). Its construction consists of a
single centre core with nine thinner right hand lay inner wires and nine outer lay wires which
are also right-lay but thicker. The wrapped cable is finally pulled through a die to provide the
following improvements:
• A 20% increase in breaking strength as there is more steel within the same diameter
• Smooth external periphery and closer tolerance in outside diameter reducing leakage
through the grease head.
• Higher crush resistance due to the increased steel content of the cable.
• Low twisting tendency because of the Dyform process.
Figure 6-2 DYFORM BRAIDED WIRELINE CONSTRUCTION
Flow Minimum Breaking Load

Recorded
Size - Tube 316
Weight Minimum Supa 70
Dia. Bore Galvanised Stainles Supa 60
Pulley Dia. /Supa 75
ID s Steel
Inch Inch lbs/1,000 ft Inch Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
3
/16 0.196 85.21 12 6,170 4,930 4,560 4,960
1
/4 0.228 111.4 14 8,370 6,500 5,990 5,990
7
/32 0.263 147.6 16 11,200 8,640 7,830 8,530
3
/4 0.330 231.5 20 17,540 13,550 12,080 13,380
Table 6.4 Relative Strengths of Various Dyform Braided Wirelines

6.1.4. Bending Stresses
The bending stresses that the wireline is subjected to are the most common cause of
breaking but are generally the least considered. Bending occurs whenever a line deviates
from a straight line condition, such as when it passes over pulleys or reel drum, or when it is
flexed by hand.
It is necessary to employ specific mechanical equipment, such as the reel drum, hay pulley,
stuffing box pulley and measuring wheel, when carrying out wireline operations. Each time
the line passes over a pulley it is subjected to two bending stresses - when it changes from a
straight to a curved path and again when it reverts to a straight path. It is subject to only one
when it leaves the reel drum. So, for each trip in and out of the well, the line probably suffers
a minimum of fourteen bending cycles.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note To minimise the effect of bending stresses on the wireline, 50-100 ft. is normally cut
and discarded every time a new rope-socket is tied. This action will subject a different part of
the wireline to bending stresses.
—————————————————————————————————————————
6.1.5. Handling and Storage
Although steel wireline has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it still requires proper handling and
storage. IPS should be stored with a lubricated covering over the surface of the wire (i.e.
grease, grease paper).
• If not in crates, wireline spools should be lifted with a nylon sling to avoid damage to
the wire.
• When a wireline job is completed, the wire should be lubricated and covered to
protect against corrosion.
• Alloy wire spools should also be kept covered as they are not totally immune to
corrosive or erosive atmospheres.
6.1.6. General Safety Procedures
When handling wireline the following safety procedures should be followed:
1. There is usually tension in the wire on a coil, therefore when it is unspooled, care
should be taken to make sure that the end cannot lash out. Ensure that the free end is
always held in control.
2. Ensure that PPE is worn, i.e. hard hats, safety boots/shoes, coveralls, safety glasses,
gloves, etc.
3. Never carry out flame cutting or welding operations near reels of wireline. Heat or
metal spray coming in contact with the wire may change the condition of the steel
significantly and lead to early failure during use.
6-8 M HRD GEO 0009
4. Throughout all wireline operations, the immediate area around the path of the wire
must be cordoned off.
6.1.7. Slickline Testing
Slickline should be tested periodically to check if suitable for use in a well. If the test
conforms to industry standards it can be safely used for conducting wireline operations. It is
good practice to conduct test before commencing every operation to avoid wire parting in
hole. There are three main testing methods dependant on type of wire being used.
• Torsion or twist test conducted on IPS carbon steel wire.
• Wrap test conducted on alloy wire.
• Tension test conducted on either of the above.
6.1.7.1. Torsion or Twist Test
The portable torsion tester, (Fig. 6-3 and 6-4), is designed to be able to test wirelines in the
field conducting a ductility test in compliance with API 9A and the Health and Safety at Work
Act 1974.
Figure 6-3 CONVENTIONAL TORSION TESTER

Figure 6-4 LINETECH TORSION TESTER
Both models are used to test an 8” length of slickline by securing one end of the wire and
twisting the other end by means of a handle until wire parts.
The objective of this test is to measure the number of twists an 8 inch long sample piece of
wireline can withstand before breakage occurs. Recording these results in a log allows a
performance curve to be drawn showing the lifespan of a wireline in relationship to its usage.
This highlights the current embrittlement in a line prior to carrying out further wireline
operations.
The following procedure should be adhered to when conducting twist test using conventional
torsion tester:(Fig. 6-3)
• Pull approximately 50ft of wire from the drum, cut a small length and prepare a
specimen,.
• Place the specimen through the jaws of the tester providing the wire gauge length of
8” between the jaws.
• Tighten down the Allen holding screws sufficiently to hold the wire in place during the
test, (Fig. 6-3).
• When using the conventional torsion tester to test 0.108” or 0.125” line, an additional
weight has to be attached to the standard weight by screwing the additional 17 lb
weight into the base of the standard 4 lb weight.
• Rotate the handle at a constant rate of approximately 60 turns per minute (60 rpm)
until the wire breaks. Count and record the number of turns taken to break the wire
and if the total number of rotations is not a whole number, round up if the rotation is
equal to or greater than a half turn.
6-10 M HRD GEO 0009
• Remove the wire ends from the jaws and inspect for a clean shear, (caution – the wire
will be hot). Record the number of turns or rotations into the log book and any
relevant information from the analysis.
• The torsion test should be carried out at the start of any wireline operations and
thereafter every time a new rope socket connection is made. If the number of
rotations is less than client or manufacturers guidelines (Table 6.5 ),
Torsion Requirements Of The API-9A Specification (IPS and Bright UHT)

Nominal Wire Diameter 0.092 0.108 0.125
Minimum Number of Twists in 8” 23 19 17
Table 6.5 - API Torsion Test Specification
WARNING: ALWAYS WEAR EYE PROTECTION WHEN USING WIRE TESTER
Unlike conventional torsion testers, the Linetech torsion tester, (Fig. 6-4), has been designed
to test prepared wireline samples of a specific length and configuration (Fig. 6-5):
Figure 6-5 TEST SPECIMEN CONFIGURATION
The reasons for selecting a wire sample of this configuration is that, in conjunction with the
fixed machine dimensions, a constant test gauge length of 8” is always achieved between the
jaws of the machine when the wire sample is clamped in position which ensures accurate
testing and compliance with Section 3.10 of the API 9A specification.
The purpose of the right angled bends, formed on each end of the wire test piece, is to
prevent slippage of the wire in the jaws, (Fig. 6-6), during rotational twisting. This technique
permits the use of flat-faced jaws, which minimise the likelihood of invalid tests due to sample
damage and jaw failures.
Figure 6-6 WIRE IN FLAT FACED JAW

The following procedure should be adhered to when conducting twist test using Linetech
torsion tester.
• Pull approximately 50ft of wire from the drum, cut a small length and prepare a
specimen, (Fig. 6-5).
• Place the specimen through the jaws of the tester, (Fig. 6-6).
• Tighten down the Allen holding screws sufficiently to hold the wire in place during the
test, (Fig. 6-4).
• Close the tester lid and secure the latch, (Fig. 6-4).
• Rotate the handle at a constant rate of approximately 60 turns per minute (60 rpm)
until the wire breaks. Count and record the number of turns taken to break the wire
and if the total number of rotations is not a whole number, round up if the rotation is
equal to or greater than a half turn.
• Unlatch and open lid, (caution – the wire will be hot), remove the wire ends from the
jaws and inspect for a clean shear. Record the number of turns or rotations into the
log book and any relevant information from the analysis.
• The torsion test should be carried out at the start of any wireline operations and
thereafter every time a new rope socket connection is made. If the number of
rotations is less than operators or manufacturers guidelines (Table 6.5),
WARNING: ALWAYS WEAR EYE PROTECTION WHEN USING WIRE TESTER.
6.1.7.2. Wrap Test (Ductility Test)
Unlike carbon steel line ( IPS and Bright UHT), the ductility of stainless and special alloy line
cannot be determined using the torsion test. These materials exhibit a very low number of
turns before failing (typically 2 to 4 turns on an 8” gauge length) and exhibit Grade 1 type
fractures characteristics, independent of the inherent ductility of the line. Consequently it is
recommended for these types of line, line ductility is evaluated using a simple wrap test.
In this test the line is wrapped in a tight helix around a mandrel of equal diameter, which in
practice, is achieved by wrapping the line around itself. (Fig. 6-7). Care should be taken not
to twist the line at a localised point since under these conditions failures have been
experienced within rotation through 180 degrees
6-12 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 6-7 WRAP TEST CONFIGURATION
Although this test is not specified in the API 9A specification, it is recognised by competent
wire manufacturers to provide a good indication of alloy line ductility.
In the test, very high strains are generated in the line surface, which in all but the most ductile
materials causes immediate failure.
It is considered that a line which has survived ten x 360 degrees wraps around its own
diameter without fracture or signs of surface cracking has passed the test and is suitable for
further use.
6.1.7.3. Wireline Tensile Test
A sample of line cut from the end should be tensile tested at periodic intervals. The testing
frequency will vary with local conditions such as:
• Work load applied to line.
• Well Fluids
• Location (sand or salt water)
• Line material
The objective of this test is to identify potentially weak or damaged line BEFORE it breaks in
the well during operations.
Several types of tensile testers are available and they can be manually operated or hydraulic.
(Fig. 6-8). They hold a length of the line sample to be tested between a fixed and movable
point. As the distance between the points is increased, tension is applied to the line until the
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached and the line parts. A display device such as a dial
or an electronic strain gauge, displays the force at which the sample failed. On some units
there is a permanent record of the force applied in the form of a chart.
Figure 6-8 TENSILE TESTER

6-14 M HRD GEO 0009
6.2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Due to the fundamental design differences between the Open and Closed loop hydraulic
systems used in wireline units, it is required that an understanding must be gained by all
operating personnel involved to correctly operate these different types of wireline units.
In this section, an examination of the differences between the Open and Closed loop
hydraulic types of wireline units will identify the different hydraulic components, rig-up and
the methods to operate each type of equipment correctly and safely.
6.2.1. Open Loop
The open loop system, (Fig. 6-9), has been in use for several decades and provides good
control of the line force and speed. Ideally a unit should be able to pull approximately 3.000
lbs (1.500 kgs) in low gear, and approximately 3,000 ft / minute (1,000 m/ minute) in high
gear and low load.
Figure 6-9 TYPICAL OPEN LOOP HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Principle of Operation (refer Figure 6-9)
Oil gravity feeds from the hydraulic tank via a suction filter to a positive displacement
hydraulic pump (vane type). The positive displacement pump outputs a fixed volume of oil
per rotation. Any obstruction to the output can cause failure of the pump or component, and it
is therefore essential to have a pressure control relief valve or valves in the system. The
pump is rotated by a diesel engine which varies from 40 HP to 130.
On the high pressure outlet side of the positive displacement hydraulic pump, is a pressure
control relief valve or valves set at the systems maximum operating pressure (1,500 to 3,000
psi). Should a blockage occur, oil is by passed through the pressure relief valve or valves
back to the hydraulic tank via oil cooler and hydraulic oil filter.
Directional control is provided by a 4-way hydraulic valve (such as a Hydreco or Barksdale)

which provides ‘Forward’, ‘neutral’ and ‘reverse’ positions providing hydraulic oil flow to the
hydraulic motor which supplies the rotation via gearbox and chain drive to the wireline drum.
From the exhaust side of the 4-way valve, oil returns to the tank via an oil cooler and filter
system.
The hydraulic oil must be kept within the operating temperature range. At elevated
temperatures, the oil can break down and damage the circuit components. At high
temperatures, the oil is a potential safety hazard to personnel if a hose or connection breaks.
The oil cooler can be manually controlled, or have an automatic control valve to maintain its
optimum operating temperature.
Typical open loop hydraulic systems incorporate a 3 or 4 speed manual gear box
transmission requiring that the winch drum stops rotating before changing from gear to gear.
6.2.2. Closed Loop
The Closed Loop hydraulic system, (Fig. 6-10), is becoming increasingly utilized, as it
provides more precise control of the line force and more rapid changes of direction. It is
essential that the circuit components be correctly matched to obtain optimum performance.
Closed loop units vary from open loop systems as follows:
• Circuit pressure is higher (approximately 5,000 psi).
• The oil pump is of the variable output type.
• When the drum is stationary, no oil is circulated through the circuit.
• Less frictional heat is generated in the oil, as it is not circulating constantly.
• Circuit components are more expensive.
• No gearbox.
6-16 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 6-10 CLOSED LOOP HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Principle of Operation (refer Figure 6-10)
Hydraulic oil is sucked from the hydraulic oil tank by a diesel engine driven charging pump,
which then supplies and maintains the inlet pressure to the variable displacement hydraulic
pump. The output of the variable displacement pump is varied as the angle of the internal
‘swash plate’ of the pump output volume control is altered which is situated on the winch
operators control panel. At 90° to the input shaft no oil is being displaced through the system.
As the angle of the swash plate is increased, the stroke of the pistons increases to provide a
greater volume of oil discharge. If the swash plate is reversed, the direction of the output oil
is also reversed which provides potentially rapid drum reversal for jarring.
The variable displacement motor is of similar construction to the variable displacement

pump, and the angle of the internal ‘swash plate’ of the motor inlet volume control
determines the speed at which the drum rotates for any given input amount of oil.
The oil in the pump motor loop is maintained at approximately 5,000 psi. Any excess
pressure is bypassed back to the oil tank via the preset pressure relief valve.
ASEPs patented ‘Closed Loop’ hydraulic system is capable of providing an infinitely variable
range of speed and torque control over the winch to allow the operator to gain maximum
performance out of the winch and downhole tools through the use of a superior hydraulic
circuit. This system does not require any manual clutches or gear boxes and achieves this
variable speed to torque relationship via both an independently variable hydraulic pump and
independently variable displacement motor.
The system offers continuous line pull and speed at the touch of the levers without the
requirement to reselect gears.
The ASEP system is ideal for all slickline operations yet can provide, slow constant speeds
for cased hole logging operations where constant speed is critical for data quality such as
production logging and calliper runs using either slickline or electric line. Typically 5 ft/minute
stable logging speeds can be achieved on standard equipment. Modifications can be
accomplished to ensure slower speeds if necessary.
The system is already capable of high line pulls for the latest wires such as 0.160” slickline
and 9/16 swabbing lines. The system has incorporated into the winch control a brake action
which is a one-handed intuitive operation. The mechanical or air brake system provided on
the K-winch is required only as a parking brake or to supplement jarring performance.
In a close loop system the hydraulic fluid is only being pumped when the winch drum is being
turned leading to less wear and heat generation. As the closed loop system is sealed then
there is also no risk of debris getting into the hydraulic system which would result in
accelerated wear on the system as is the case in an open loop system. This reduction in the
heat and wear generated leads to a far more reliable system.
There is significant reduction in the number of leak paths and efficiency of the closed loop
system as there are fewer components involved (hence fewer spare parts are required),
allowing the power to be delivered to the winch drum with a minimum of power loss through
the hydraulic circuit. The ASEP Closed Loop hydraulic system is 75% efficient so enabling
an engine with smaller power output to be utilized. In hot climates, being able to run a
smaller engine is very beneficial as they are easier to cool, and this is in addition to the
closed loop system generating less heat.
6.2.3. Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Hydraulic Systems
The content of this section describes the differences in operation of the two hydraulic
systems.
Hydraulic Oil Circulation
Open Loop: The hydraulic oil system is circulating at all times, this means that oil is being
pumped from the hydraulic pump and pressure is being relieved (via the Double AA relief
valve) back to the oil tank, even when the wireline drum is not turning.
Closed Loop: The hydraulic oil system DOES NOT circulate at all times. When the wireline
drum is not turning the variable displacement type hydraulic pump is in the “neutral” position,
this means no oil is entering or being discharged from the pump.
Hydraulic Oil Pump
Open Loop: The hydraulic oil pump is of the positive displacement type, that is, the same
volume of oil that enters the pump inlet, comes out the pump discharge while the pump is
rotating. Of course this is now at a higher pressure.
6-18 M HRD GEO 0009
Closed Loop: The hydraulic oil pump, as outlined previously, is of the variable displacement
type. It is a variable displacement pump because the pump has an internal swash plate that
can be adjusted to make the internal pump pistons vary their stroke between no stroke - no
pump oil output OR full stroke - maximum pump oil output.
Hydraulic Oil Temperature Control
Open Loop: The continual hydraulic fluid circulation and return to the oil tank imparts
increasing heat to the hydraulic oil and therefore it must have a large oil cooler to maintain
the hydraulic oil at the correct oil operating temperature. If there was no oil cooler the
hydraulic oil temperature would increase until the oil lubricating characteristics broke down
and hydraulic equipment components would fail.
Closed Loop: The system hydraulic oil pressure is not controlled by continual pressure relief
back to the oil tank, which is the function of the double AA valve on the open loop system. It
does not require this continual circulation and subsequently there is not the increasing
addition of heat imparted to the oil requiring large type oil coolers.
Hydraulic Pressure and Volume Control
Open Loop: As mentioned previously an adjustable hydraulic oil system relief valve,
commonly referred to as a double AA valve is on the operator’s panel to enable the oil
system pressure to be adjusted. This adjustment of the double AA valve varies the hydraulic
system pressure by allowing more or less hydraulic oil to return from the pressure side of the
pump to the oil tank.
Closed Loop: The hydraulic oil system pressure delivered to the motor on the wire line drum
is varied by the controls on the variable speed pump and motor. These controls adjust the
swash plate angles in the pump and motor to vary hydraulic pressure and flow to the reel.
Hydraulic Control on the Operators Panel
Open Loop: The operator’s panel has a (hydraulic 4 way) directional valve that is used to
direct hydraulic oil and change the rotation of the wireline drum hydraulic motor. This
directional valve should not be used in the partially shifted position. Example either full
forward or full back position. There is a double AA relief valve on the operator’s panel to
control the system hydraulic pressure.
Closed Loop: The operators panel has two hydraulic 2 way valves. One controls the
direction and speed of pump and the other regulates the direction and power output of the
motor. These valves can change the direction of hydraulic flow applied to the wireline reel.
There is no double AA relief valve on the operator’s panel. Direction and speed of the reel is
varied through controls on the variable speed pump and motor.
Hydraulic Line Force Control
Open Loop: The hydraulic oil flow (pressure force) is increased to the wireline drum
hydraulic motor by adjusting the double AA relief valve to allow less hydraulic flow to bypass
and return back to the oil tank.
Closed Loop: The hydraulic oil flow (pressure force) is increased to the wireline drum
hydraulic motor by varying the position of the pump output volume control valve. Hydraulic
force supplied to the reel is varied through controls on the variable speed pump and motor.
Wireline Drum Speed Control
Open Loop: A gearbox is positioned between the wireline drum hydraulic motor and the
wireline drum to allow speed of the drum to be increased or decreased depending on work
requirements.
Closed Loop: The wireline drum hydraulic motor is directly coupled to the wireline drum.
Direction and speed of the reel is varied thru controls on the variable speed pump and motor.
No gearbox is fitted on the closed loop hydraulic system.
Maximum Hydraulic System Pressure
Open Loop: The high pressure hydraulic system is protected by a PRV (pressure relief
valve) or PSV (pressure safety valve) and is usually set to relieve back to the oil tank at a
value between 1500 and 3000 psi. This sets the maximum system operating pressure
available.
Closed Loop: The high pressure hydraulic system is protected by a PRV (pressure relief
valve or PSV (pressure safety valve) and is usually set to relieve back to the oil tank at a
value of 5000 psi. This sets the maximum system operating pressure available.
Efficiency Engine Power Output
Open Loop: 82 Hp engine coupled to the open loop system would deliver about 36.9 HP
hydraulic output direct to the drum (about 45% of engine power output)
Closed Loop: 82 Hp engine coupled to the closed loop system would deliver about 61.5 HP
hydraulic output direct to the drum (about 75% of engine power output)
6.2.4. Summary of Open Loop - Closed Loop Hydraulic System
Open Loop Hydraulic System
• More heat generation from open loop system.
• Hydraulic oil continuously flows through control valves.
• 45% efficiency of engine power output.
• Large oil cooler.
• Manual gearbox, need to stop between gear changes.
• Control valve for hydraulic motor is less intuitive.
• Hydraulic pump displacement is controlled by engine throttle.

6-20 M HRD GEO 0009
• Manual brake operation using mechanical lever.
• Manual non-intuitive controls.
• Performance difference between hot and cold hydraulic oil.
• Large number of components.
• More maintenance due to reduced wear life of components.
• Larger number of spare parts required.
• Lower system pressure - 3000 Psi.
• Less expensive in equipment and spare parts prices.
Closed Loop Hydraulic System
• Less heat generation from closed loop system.
• Hydraulic oil flows only when control valves are actuated.
• 75% efficiency of engine power output.
• Small oil cooler required.
• Smooth controls similar to 100 speed gearbox (automatic).
• Control valve for infinitely variable hydraulic motor control.
• Control valve for infinitely variable hydraulic pump control.
• In neutral position hydraulic braking effect on winch drum.
• Single handed intuitive controls.
• No difference in performance when hydraulic oil is cold.
• Fewer components.
• Less maintenance due to increased wear life of components.
• Fewer spare parts required.
• Higher system pressure - 5000 Psi.
• Require more detailed matching of hydraulic components.
• More expensive in equipment and spare parts prices.

6.3. WIRELINE ODOMETER
The wireline odometer or depth indicator, (Fig. 6-11), is a device used to display the amount
of wire spooled off of drum whilst running wire into or pulling wire out of the well, dependant
on model used, display can be feet or metres.
The odometer is connected by cable to a measuring/counter wheel on the front of the winch
unit and counts the number of turns made by the measuring/counter wheel as wire is passed
through in either direction.
Figure 6-11 WIRELINE ODOMETER
6.4. WIRELINE MEASURING HEAD
6.4.1. Conventional Measuring Head
The conventional wireline measuring or counter head, (Fig. 6-12), consists of a

measuring/counter wheel, two pressure wheels and usually two sets of rollers. Most counter
wheels can vary in size from 8 inches diameter through to 16” diameter. The wire is generally
wrapped around the counter wheel in a complete 360° loop, as the wire is spooled off or onto
the wireline drum the rotation of the measuring/counter wheel is transmitted via a cable to
the odometer . The size of the counter wheel, therefore, will depend on size of wire being
used and unit of depth (feet or metres). The pressure wheels, (Fig. 6-13), are used to keep
wire in tight contact with measuring/counter wheel and the rollers are used for alignment of
the wire when entering and exiting the measuring/counter head.
Figure 6-12 CONVENTIONAL MEASURING/COUNTER HEADS

6-22 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 6-13 WIRELINE PRESSURE WHEEL
6.4.2. Asep Measuring Head
The Asep measuring/counter head, (Fig. 6-14), is suitable for measuring two things:
• The length of wireline spooled through the measuring head
• The tension on the wire
The length of wireline passing through the measuring head is measured using a measuring
wheel. This measuring wheel is connected to a counter via a gear and cable. With each
rotation of the wheel the counter will add or subtract a digit from the displayed value, this
depending on spooling in or out the hole. To have the measuring wheel rotating while wire
spooling it is important that; the wheel can rotate freely, the wireline is properly seated in the
wheel ‘groove’ and led around the measuring head wheels To have the wheel rotating freely
it is important that no structural damage of the measuring head prevents rotation, the
bearings are not damaged and are properly lubricated, measure wheel outlet counter cable
or splitter gear functions properly. This can easily be tested by rotating the measure wheel by
hand before wire installation. The measure wheel is the right wheel looking from the front of
the unit.
With this type of measuring head the weight indicator is an integral part of the assembly and
no external hose or load cell is required as compared to weight indicator described in section
6.5.The depth and weight indication is displayed on winch console by a single unit called a
combi gauge.
Figure 6-14 ASEP MEASURING HEAD
The tension on the wire is measured using the loop created when installing the wire onto the
measuring head. When a pull is generated on the wire the loop wants to close itself but is
contained by the measuring head, and thus a pressure is generated on the measuring head
construction, (Fig. 6-15).The top half and the bottom half of the measuring head are two
separate constructions. On the rear of both halves the halves are connected using a hinge.
On the other side a hydraulic bellow is mounted. With the generated pressure on the
measuring head the bellow is pushed in creating a hydraulic pressure. The higher the force
on the measuring head, the higher the hydraulic pressure will be. When attaching a hydraulic
gauge to the bellow a read out can be obtained of the line tension. To ensure proper read out
it is important that the bellow and measure system is sufficiently filled with hydraulic oil and
that no air exists in the system. It is also important that the piston of the bellow sticks out
from the main body, gap between piston and bottom half of measuring head assembly must
be between 1 and 2mm. If this is not the case the measure head bottom half will not apply
pressure on the bellow but on the bellow body. This will result in no change on the gauge
read out with increasing line tension.
Figure 6-15 MEASURING HEAD CONSTRUCTION

6-24 M HRD GEO 0009
6.5. WEIGHT INDICATOR
The most common weight indicator used today is the Martin Decker type which consists of an
indicator in the cab of the wireline unit, (Fig. 6-16), a hydraulic hose leading to a load cell,
(Fig. 6-17), commonly, attached to the hay pulley at the wellhead, (Fig. 6-18), to form 90°
angle.
Figure 6-16 WEIGHT INDICATOR GAUGE
Figure 6-17 WEIGHT INDICATOR LOAD CELL
Figure 6.18 LOAD CELL WELLHEAD CONNECTION

The Martin Decker weight indicator has proven to be an extremely robust piece of equipment
and generally fairly responsive to indicating jar action. It will also provide a reasonably
accurate reading of weight under a slow pull condition, however, due to the time lag caused
by the hydraulic response between the load cell and the indicator, the gauge may not
produce a correct load indication during high speed jarring.
In order to obtain the best possible results from the weight indicator, it is necessary to check
and re-charge it on a regular basis. It should also be sent for recalibration as per the planned
maintenance schedule. During the re-charge, the specified gap between the load plate and
the load cell retaining ring will be ensured. If this gap is closed due to a loss of hydraulic oil
or human error, it will be incorrectly reading low.
6.5.1. Charging Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for setting the specified load cell gap, (normally 3/16”),
and for adjusting the pointer on the indicator.
• Remove all weight from the load cell.

• Ensure that the weight hose is free of kinks and sharp bends.
• Raise the load cell to a position slightly higher than the indicator.
• Remove the cap from the check valve.
• Close the load damper.
• Attach the hand pump to the check valve. Do not tighten.
• Fill the hand pump reservoir with W/15/16 (red) Martin Decker hydraulic fluid.
• Operate the hand pump plunger slowly to bleed air from the pump at the check valve.
• When air bubbles ceases to appear, tighten the pump to the check valve connection.
• Loosen the load cell plug.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION Keep the hand pump reservoir at least half full at all times to avoid introducing air
into the system.
—————————————————————————————————————————
• Pump fluid into the system and bleed at the load cell plug until air bubbles cease to
appear.
• Tighten the load cell bleed plug and pump enough fluid to slightly overcharge the
system, loosen the load cell plug and bleed until the proper gap is set. The gap size
is normally stamped on top of the load cell, if not, refer to the manufacturer’s
instruction manual.
• When the proper gap is achieved tighten the load cell plug.
• Disengage the hand pump from the check valve.
• Replace and tighten the check valve cap.
• Adjust the load damper three complete turns anti-clockwise.
6.5.2. Wireline Angle Correction Factors
The load registered on the weight indicator of the wireline unit does not always indicate the
total load exerted on the line as the system is designed for a 90° included angle around the
hay pulley. Therefore, only if the angle between the wireline entering and exiting the hay
pulley is 90° will the reading on the weight indicator be correct. If the included angle between
the wireline entering and exiting the hay pulley is greater or less than 90° then the reading on
the weight indicator will correspondingly be higher or lower than the actual load on the line.
6-26 M HRD GEO 0009
Using Table 6.6, the actual (resultant) load on the line can be calculated prior to wireline
operations.
Included Angle Correction Factor Included Angle Correction Factor

40 1.87938 92 1.38932
42 1.86716 94 1.36400
44 1.85436 96 1.33826
46 1.84100 98 1.31212
48 1.82708 100 1.20362
50 1.81262 102 1.7556
52 1.79758 104 1.4716
54 1.78202 106 1.11838
56 1.76590 108 1.08928
58 1.74924 110 1.05984
60 1.73206 112 1.03008
62 1.71434 114 1.0000
64 1.69610 116 0.96962
66 1.67734 118 0.93894
68 1.65808 120 0.90798
70 1.63830 122 0.87674
72 1.61804 124 0.84524
74 1.59726 126 0.81348
76 1.57602 128 0.78146
78 1.55430 130 0.84542
80 1.53208 132 0.81348
82 1.50942 134 0.78146
84 1.48626 136 0.74922
86 1.46270 138 0.71674
88 1.43868 140 0.68404
90 1.4.1422 142 0.65114
Table 6.6 Wireline Angle Correction Factor
To correct the weight indicator reading, divide the reading by the correction factor, (see
examples 1 and 2).
Example #1
Angles below 90o means the Weight Indicator
dial reads higher than actual resultant force.
e.g. Angle between entry and exit line = 70o
Pull on line 1,000 lbs.
= 1,000 x 1.63830 ( factor for 70o from table
B 7-1) ÷ 1.41422 ( factor for 90o from table
B7-1)
1.63830
= 1,000 x 1.41422
= 1,000 x 1.158
= 1,158lbs
Weight Indicator reads 1,158 when resultant is
1,000 lbs at 70o
Example # 2
Angle above 90o then Weight Indicator dial
reads lower than actual resultant force.
e.g. Angle between entry and exit line = 110o
Pull on line 1,000 lbs.
= 1,000 x 1.14716 ( factor for 110o from
table B 7-1) ÷ 1.41422 ( factor for 90o table
B 7-1)
1.14716
= 1,000 x 1.41422
= 811 lbs.
Weight Indicator reads 811 lbs when resultant is

1,000 lbs at 110o
F
Figure 6-19 EXAMPLES 1 and 2
To interpolate odd number angles not given in the table 6.6, calculate according to the above
formulae the resultant of the angle for one degree less and one degree more than the angle
desired and then split the difference. ( Figures provided by Martin Decker ).
6-28 M HRD GEO 0009
6.5.3. Calculation of Line Stretch
1.0 Scope
To calculate the total stretch in wireline cable run in a well to give accurate depth
measurement.
2.0 General Information
The stretch in the wireline is the length of line in the well multiplied by the average of the
stretch in the first and last foot length. Although during regular wireline operations the line
stretch is seldom considered, it may become necessary, e.g. during slickline logging, to know
this to calculate the actual tool depth.
The stretch factor for 0.108 inches wireline, shown below, has been calculated using the
typical modular values from the manufacturer.
Size Modular value Weight/1,000ft

API 9A 0.092 6.9 x 10-5 22.65lbs
0.108 4.9 x 10-5 31.11lbs
0.125 3.7 x 10-5 41.80lbs
-5
SUPA 75 0.092 7.8 x 10 23.40lbs
-5
0.108 5.7 x 10 32.10lbs
0.125 4.3 x 10-5 43.20lbs
Table 6.7 Wireline Stretch Factors
3.0 Procedure
The total line stretch can be worked out by using the following formula:
[F(Wt) + F(Wt + Wl)] x L
Total stretch = 2
Where total stretch is in inches:
F = Stretch factor, inches/foot/lbs ( 0.108 inches = 4.9 x 10-5 )
Wt = Weight of Toolstring ( lbs )
WI = Weight of Wireline in well ( lbs )
L = Length of line in well ( feet )

Example: 0.108 inch API-9A Wire, length 10,000 feet and toolstring weight of 200 lbs
weight of wire (from table 6.7) X wire length in hole
Weight of Wireline in Hole (WI) =
1,000ft
31.11 x 10,000
WI =
1,000
Therefore: WI = 311.1lbs
F = 4.9 x 10-5 (from table 6.7)
Wt = 200lbs
[(4.9 x 10 - 5 x 200) + 4.9 x 10 - 5 (200 + 311.1)] x 10,000

Therefore Total stretch: =
2
[(0.0098 + 0.025)] x 1,000
=
2
= 174 inches
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note It is assumed that there is no temperature variation
—————————————————————————————————————————
6-30 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 7
HOISTING DEVICES
ELEMENT 1.3
7-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
7.1. HOISTING DEVICES
Hoisting devices are manufactured in many different forms but all serve the same purpose, to
assist in the manoevering and lifting of the heavy equipment required to be assembled above
the Xmas tree, to allow wireline operations to be conducted in the production tubing string of
a well.
7.2. GIN POLE
A gin pole, (Fig. 7-1), is a lifting device consisting of tubing with a lifting eye on the top which
rope blocks can be attached for lifting and is manually operated. The device is attached to
the wellhead and is available in two forms:
• Fixed Unit.
• Movable Unit
7.2.1. Fixed Unit
The fixed unit consists of pipes or tubing of a required height with side steps and lifting eye
secured on the wellhead, by clamp and pin and is left permanently in position.
7.2.2. Movable Unit
The movable unit consists of pipes of short joints with pin end on the bottom and box end on
the top, both with matching pin holes for lock pins. The upper most joint is a short sub with a
swivel lifting eye, anchor line brackets and pin end on bottom with hole for lock pin. The
lower most joint is the standard joint for attaching to wellhead fitted with box end on top and
pin hole for lock pin. It is a straight pipe secured to the wellhead by a chain binder and chain
of suitable length. The other joints are provided with side steps for climbing and a nipple
attachment on box end perimeter for fitting installation pole. Installation pole is shorter than
gin pole joint and is used for assembly of gin pole sections by means of a pulley on top for
attaching manila rope used to raise gin pole section.
7.2.3. Rope Blocks
The rope blocks are attached to the swivel lifting eye on the uppermost joint of the gin pole
and consists of a series of pulleys and sheaves contained within a housing fitted with lifting
eyes on either end. Manilla rope is fed from ground level through the rope blocks and
attached to lubricator assembly lifting clamp to allow lubricator to be assembled above
wellhead.
—————————————————————————————————————————.
CAUTION: If chain binder is not properly tightened, the gin pole may tilt causing problems
and accidents while lifting the equipment.
—————————————————————————————————————————
7-4 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 7-1 GIN POLE INSTALLATION

7.3. WIRELINE MAST
Wireline masts come in varying sizes and can either be manually operated, (Fig. 7-2) air
operated or hydraulically operated, (Fig. 7-3), from external hydraulic power source such as
wireline power pack or direct driven from truck when truck mounted, (Fig. 7-4). They can
either be self standing with outriggers or mounted on base unit. The mast column can only
be extended or retracted and has no rotational movement.
Figure 7-2 MANUALLY OPERATED WIRELINE MAST
Figure 7-3 HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED WIRELINE MAST

7-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 7-4 TRUCK MOUNTED WIRELINE MAST
7.4. WIRELINE MAST/CRANE
The wireline mast/crane (Fig. 7-5) is mounted on a truck and in place of the mast column
has an extendable jib mounted on a swing ring to allow rotational movement which has the
advantage of being able to lift and move equipment as well as raise and lower equipment
onto wellhead.
Figure 7-5 TRUCK MOUNTED WIRELINE MAST/CRANE

7.5. CRANE
Hydraulic cranes of certain capacities are used in rigging up and down, loading and off
loading of equipment. Powered by Diesel Engine or Electric Motors that drives a hydraulic
pump to a hydraulic motor which converts it to mechanical power.
Structures are either telescopic reach systems operated by hydraulic cylinders or mast of
steel, controlled by wire rope which is driven by hydraulic winch.
Lifting method utilizes wire rope connected to the travelling block with lifting hook or lifting
hook only, driven by hydraulic winch. Swing mechanism is actuated by drive and driven
gears using hydraulic system which rotates clockwise or counter clockwise.
Fixed units or pedestal cranes are mounted on Drilling Rigs, Marine Vessels and Platforms.
Movable units are truck mounted or Bull-Dozer mounted.
On some newer platforms where a designated wireline deck has been constructed above the
wellhead area, an overhead crane is installed for rigging up and down wireline equipment.
7.6. “A” FRAME
On some offshore platforms an “A” frame is used for rigging up and down wireline
equipment.. The “A” Frame consists of structural pipes of suitable sizes on small platforms,
positioned to provide lifting access to three or four wells by extension pipes with lifting eyes
to which can be attached, rope blocks, chain blocks and air hoists. The frame can either be
permanently installed or mounted on a base which can then be positioned above any well
where wireline operations have to be conducted.
7.7. LIFTING GEAR
Lifting gear is any equipment used to attach the equipment being lifted to the lifting device,
all lifting gear has to be certified and periodically checked by a third party certification
authority. The periodic checking of lifting gear varies by the local rules in force for such
equipment.
When purchased all lifting gear should have certificate stating its safe working load and proof
load test date, normally equipment requires to be proof load tested yearly and a visual
inspection conducted every six months. In most areas the lifting gear is colour coded to
identify which lifting gear is certified and the current colour is displayed on notice boards
throughout the location to make you aware that you can only use lifting gear painted with that
particular colour.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION : Any failure of lifting gear can cause serious damage to property and loss of
human lives.
—————————————————————————————————————————
BEFORE USING ANY LIFTING GEAR CHECK THAT IT IS CERTIFIED AND SUITABLE
FOR THE LOAD BEING LIFTED.
7-8 M HRD GEO 0009
7.7.1. Shackles
Shackles are available in various designs and lifting capacities. Normally shackles should
have an identity number and its safe working load marked on the body and should be load
tested and inspected at regular intervals dependant on local regulations.
There are three common types of shackles:
• Round Pin
• Screw Pin
• Bolt Type
7.7.1.1. Round PIn
Roiund pin shackles, (Fig. 7-6), are used for connecting slings/strops to eye bolts, hooks or
lifting eyes on equipment but should not be used as a collector ring, (termination of two or
more slings/strops), or if any side loading will occur.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Always ensure cotter pin or split pin is installed before lifting.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Figure 7-6 ROUND PIN SHACKLE
7.7.1.2. Screw Pin
Screw pin shackles, (Fig. 7-7), are used for connecting slings/strops to eye bolts, hooks or
lifting eyes on equipment being moved or placed but should not be used for permanent or
long term installation.
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Tighten pin before each lift.
—————————————————————————————————————————
It is good practice to fit tie wrap or wire to pin so that pin cannot unscrew.
Figure 7-7 SCREW PIN SHACKLE
7.7.1.3. Bolt Type
Bolt type shackles, (Fig. 7-8), are used for connecting slings/strops to eye bolts, hooks or
lifting eyes on equipment being moved or placed and are normally used for permanent or
long term installation.
Figure 7-8 BOLT TYPE SHACKLE
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Always ensure cotter pin or split pin is installed before lifting.
—————————————————————————————————————————
7-10 M HRD GEO 0009
7.7.2. Slings/Strops
Slings/Strops are manufactured from wire rope or chain and are available in single point,
(Fig. 7-9), double point, (Fig. 7-10), and four point, (Fig. 7-11), assemblies. Also available
are nylon web single point and polyester round, (Fig. 7-12). Slings/Strops should be load
tested by the manufacturer as per industry standards. All slings/strops should be labelled
with manufacturer, safe working load, load test certificate number, length, diameter and load
test date. When load testing equipment i.e. power packs, wireline winch etc. the sling and
shackles used must be kept as a set because certificate has identification numbers of sling
and shackles noted and if shackle is changed certificate is no longer valid.
Figure 7-9 SINGLE POINT SLINGS/STROPS
Figure 7-10 DOUBLE POINT SLINGS/STROPS

Figure 7-11 FOUR POINT SLINGS/STROPS
Figure 7-12 POLYESTER AND NYLON SLINGS/STROPS
7.7.2.1. Visual Inspection
All slings/strops should be visually inspected before use and should be taken out of service if
found in any of the following conditions.
Wire Rope Slings/Strops should not be used if any of the following is identified
• Severe localised abrasion or scraping.
• Kinking, crushing, birdnesting or any other damage resulting in distortion of the rope
strand.
• Evidence of heat damage or exposure to severe heat.
• Cracked, deformed or worn end attachments.

7-12 M HRD GEO 0009
• Severe corrosion of the wire rope or end attachments.
• Missing or illegible sling identification.
Chain Slings/Strops should not be used if any of the following is identified.
• Wear, nicks, cracks, breaks, gouges, stretch or bends in the chain.
• Weld splatter or excessive temperature.
• Hook safety latch (if fitted) that does not close properly.
Nylon Web Slings/Strops should not be used if any of the following is identified.
• Acid or caustic burns.
• Melting or charring.
• Holes, tears, cuts or snags.
• Broken or worn stitches.
• Excessive abrasive or wear knots in any part of sling.
• Excessive pitted, corroded, cracked, distorted or broken end fittings.
Polyester Round Slings/Strops should not be used if any of the following is identified.
• Melting, charring or weld splatter of any part of round sling.
• Knots, holes, tears, cuts, embedded particles, abrasive wear or snags that expose
the core fibre.
• Broken or worn stitching in the cover which exposes the inner fibre.
7.7.3. Chain Blocks
Chain blocks, (Fig. 7-13), are manufactured in various lifting capacities and chain lengths to
suit particular application and are usually used along with ‘ A ‘ Frame or lifting beam. A hook
and safety latch is attached to main body to enable connection to ‘ A ‘ Frame or lifting beam
and a chain with lifting hook and safety catch attaches to equipment to be lifted. On one side
of the main body is a chain pulley ratchet system which is operated manually to raise and
lower the lifting hook. Chain blocks should be load tested and visually inspected according to
local legislation for lifting gear.
Figure 7-13 CHAIN BLOCK
7.7.4. Chain Hoist
Chain hoists, (Fig. 7-14), are manufactured in various lifting capacities and chain lengths to
suit particular application and are usually used along with ‘ A ‘ Frame or lifting beam. A hook
and safety latch is attached to main body to enable connection to ‘ A ‘ Frame or lifting beam
and a chain with lifting hook and safety catch attaches to equipment to be lifted. On one side
of the main body is a chain pulley ratchet system which is operated by air or in some cases
electric to raise and lower the lifting hook. Chain hoists should be load tested and visually
inspected according to local legislation for lifting gear
Figure 7-14 AIR OPERATED CHAIN HOIST

7-14 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 8
SURFACE EQUIPMENT
ELEMENT 1.3
8-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
8.1. SURFACE EQUIPMENT
Wireline service is a method whereby various well maintenance, remedial, control and safety
functions are accomplished under pressure in the wellbore. This is done by using a
'toolstring' to run and pull various tools and equipment into and out of the wellbore attached
to a small diameter wireline operated from a wireline unit at the surface.
To enable the tools to be run into the well under pressure, we require surface equipment
known as Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) to be assembled and attached above xmas
tree, known as the ‘rig up’.
A standard wireline rig up, (Fig. 8-1), consists of:
• Sealing device.
• Quick unions (Otis or Bowen).
• Lubricator
• Wireline valve/BOP.
• Tree connection.
• Lifting clamp.
• Wireline clamp.
• Hay pulley.
• Martin Decker load cell. (or alternative load cell)
The pressure control equipment consists of the stuffing box, lubricator, quick unions, wireline
valve/BOP and tree connection. PCE equipment is manufactured in two distinct types:
• Standard Service.
• H²S Service
Standard service can be used in any well that does not produce H²S and H²S service must
be used in wells producing H²S due to its corrosive effects on metal.
The remaining items of the standard wireline rig up list are used to rig up the PCE to xmas
tree and to allow wireline to be run into wellbore in a safe manner.
8-4 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 8-1 STANDARD WIRELINE RIG UP

8.2. SEALING DEVICES
The essential function of the sealing device is to ensure sealing off around moving or
stationary solid or braided wire at the upper end of the lubricator to avoid oil or gas escaping
to the atmosphere creating a potentially explosive situation during wireline operations.
8.2.1. Stuffing Box
The stuffing box is used when conducting wireline operations with the use of slickline solid
wire and the seal is formed by a series of rubber elements called packing.
There are three main types of stuffing box:
• Manual
• Hydraulic
• Combined
8.2.1.1. Manual Stuffing Box
On this model, (Fig. 8-2), the packing nut (1) is manually adjusted and can be rotated
clockwise to increase the compression force on the packing rubbers (3) as they wear. A
swivel mounted (360° free movement) sheave wheel (16) and guard (15) are fitted to the top
of the stuffing box. Stuffing box is rated for 5,000 psi and 10,000 psi standard service or H²S
service but higher pressure ratings are available if required.
Figure 8-2 MANUAL STUFFING BOX

8-6 M HRD GEO 0009
The diameter of the slickline being used determines the size of the “upper gland” (2), “lower
gland” (4), and sheave wheel groove size and diameter. For 0.092” slickline the minimum
recommended sheave diameter is 10”, 15” for 0.108” and 16” for 0.125” slickline. If the line
diameter is to be changed, the above components also have to be changed. There is now
available a sheave wheel compatable with all sizes of slickline which eliminates the need to
stock the different sizes and also the possible confusion of which size of wheel is fitted
resulting in damage to the slickline. On the rim of the sheave wheel should be marked which
size of slickline can be used with particular sheave but in time this mark becomes inelligible.
Most stuffing boxes contain a BOP plunger (7), which seals off flow in the event that the
wireline breaks on surface or is blown out of hole after breaking downhole. The BOP plunger
is activated by the well pressure forcing the BOP plunger upwards against the lower gland
(4) of the stuffing box, resulting in the soft rubber at top of plunger being deformed to
effectivly seal off flow from well until such time that alternative well isolation can be activated.
The sheave guard (15) on the stuffing box is designed to trap wire which breaks on the
surface before it drops downhole. This is achieved by the natural curling tendancy of the wire
forming loops when tension is removed resulting in the wire being caught on the hook end of
sheave guard.
Some designs of stuffing box have an injection port available on the main body (9) which can
be used for the following purposes:
• Injection of glycol or similar antifreeze in low temperature environments, or when

working on high pressure gas wells where freezing may be a problem.
• Injection of an inhibitor to protect the wireline in corrosive well conditions, such as

H²S.
• Bleed of pressure to activate the BOP plunger if the packings have to be changed
under pressure.
8.2.1.2. Hydraulic Stuffing Box
On this model the packing nut is replaced by a hydraulic actuator, (Fig. 8-3), to compress the
packings as they wear. The hydraulic actuator consists of a piston and spring, when
pressure is applied via hose and hand pump, the piston compresses the packing by pushing
on the upper gland and simultaneously compresses the spring, when pressure is released
the tension of the spring moves the plunger upwards allowing the packing to retract. All other
parts of the hydraulic stuffing box, (Fig. 8-4), are exactly the same as manual stuffing box.
The main advantages of using hydraulic stuffing box are:
• Enables the adjustment of force on the packings from a safe distance.

• Can be used where the stuffing box cannot be easily reached during wireline
operations.
• Can be used on high pressure wells when close proximity to a pressurized stuffing
box is not advisable.
• Can be used on wells containing dangerous levels of H²S.
Figure 8-3 STUFFING BOX HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
Figure 8-4 HYDRAULIC STUFFING BOX

8-8 M HRD GEO 0009
8.2.1.3. Combined Stuffing Box
As the name implies the combined stuffing box combines both the manual and hydraulic
stuffing boxes packer compression methods. On top of the hydraulic actuator a packing nut
is attached which, in the event of pressure failure to the hydraulic actuator, can be manually
operated to compress packings to effect a seal.
8.2.1.4. Liquid Seal Slickline Control Head
The liquid seal slickline control head is used to seal off around slickline by using high
pressure fluid instead of conventional packings, resulting in very low line drag and wear.
The key component is a stack of flow tubes located inside the central body. A seal is
achieved by injecting viscous grease at a pressure above wellhead pressure into the flow
tubes via a manifold.
The assembly (Fig. 8-5) consists of an upper section with a sheave bracket and hydraulic
pack off, a central body containing the flow tubes and a bottom section with a blow out plug
and quick union connection. An optional glycol injection port can be inserted between the
pack off and flow tubes if required. Also available in stand alone form which can be attached
below conventional stuffing box (Fig. 8-6)
Figure 8-5 LIQUID SEAL CONTROL HEAD Figure 8-6 STAND ALONE
8.2.1.5. Eziload Stuffing Box
The lightweight modular design and through bore facility of EziLoad® (Fig 8-7) allows the
rope socket to be connected to the wireline pre-job, thus saving valuable rig time.
Other benefits include reduced handling weight with resultant reduction of operational risks
associated with manual handling, while the modular cartridge design increases operational
efficiency of the seal and is easily and safely installed, allowing quicker change outs, thus
saving valuable operational time.
Figure 8-7 EZILOAD STUFFING BOX
8.2.1.6. Stuffing Box Checks and Maintenance
Before rigging up for use, the following checks should be carried out on the stuffing box :
• Check packings are not worn out, If the packing nut is near the lower end of its
movement, there may not be sufficient movement remaining to increase the packing
compression force to maintain a seal during wireline operations.
• Check if the sheave is the correct size for the line in use.
• Check the upper and lower packing glands for wear. If they are worn or oversize they
should be replaced, as worn glands allow the wire to cut the packings faster.
• Check that upper and lower packing glands are compatable with wire being used,
steel for IPS and brass for alloy wire.
• Check the sheave bearings for free spinning, and replace the bearings if necessary.
8-10 M HRD GEO 0009
• Check the sheave bearings for side play, and replace if the side play is excessive.
The sheave should not touch the sides of the support arms. Excessive side play also
leads to a worn upper gland and subsequent reduction in packing life.
• Check the alloy side arms for damage from side play in the sheave wheel.
Thecomplete sheave staff should be replaced if cutting / wearing action has occurred
on the inside of these arms.
• Check the sheave staff for freedom of swivel movement. It is essential that the
sheave follows the wire direction during the rig-up or wire can jump out of the groove
and become damaged.
• Check if the sheave guard is tight and adjusted close to the sheave to ensure it will
trap the line in the event of a line break
• Check the BOP plunger for wear and freedom of vertical movement.
The life of the packings can be extended by keeping the line oiled while running into the well.
The choice of packings is also important. Packings are available in hard, soft, cloth filled and
polyurethane. Check with your supplier for the appropriate material for your field conditions.
8.2.1.7. Packing Replacement
When stuffing box packings need to be replaced the following procedure should be followed
(refer to fig. 8.2):
• Remove the packing nut (1) or hydraulic packing nut.
• Remove the upper gland (2).
• Remove the packings with a ‘packing hook’ or “packing plucker”. If no packing hook
or plucker is available the packing can be removed by removing plunger stop (5),
BOP plunger (7) and lower gland (4) and using brass shear stock and hammer they
can be removed from body.
• Count number of packing pieces removed, as different models require different

amounts of packing pieces to be fitted.
• The new packings should be reamed on a piece of wire which is the same diameter
that will be used. The wire should be long enough to pass through the stuffing box top
to bottom allowing excess to form a handle, and roughen up with cutter pliers to form
a file at the bottom end. Each individual piece should then be threaded to wire and
moved across roughened part of wire until it can be moved smoothly on the wire
above roughened section. Once the correct number of packing pieces have been
reamed, cut off previously roughened part of wire,
• Replace lower gland (4) if previously removed.
• Insert this wire through the lower packing gland from the top end and push each new
piece of packing into position with a piece of 3/16” brass shear stock.
• Replace the upper packing gland (2).

• Replace packing nut (1) or hydraulic packing nut.
• Replace BOP plunger (7) and plunger stop (5) if previously removed.
• If stuffing box is not to be used for some time leave wire threaded through packing
and bend end to form handle so that no sharp end of wire can cause injury to other
personnel. Leaving wire threaded does not allow packing to retract and makes it
easier to thread wire through when required and also gives indication that packings
have been replaced.
8.2.2. Hydraulic Line Wiper
The hydraulic line wiper, (Fig. 8-5), is used when conducting wireline operations with the use
of braided or electric conductor cable, it is positioned on top of the grease injection control
head and is designed to remove excess grease from braided cable when retrieving tools
from the well. Hydraulic line wipers are not pressure retaining. They are available for all
cable sizes.
Figure 8-5 HYDRAULIC LINE WIPER

8-12 M HRD GEO 0009
The assembly consists of a main body with a cable protector funnel on top and a quick union
or line pipe bottom connection, a hydraulic piston, upper and lower bushings and wiper seal.
When retrieving tools from the well, the wiper seal is hydraulically tightened against the cable
by the piston. This action removes excess grease from the cable into a chamber below the
seal. A port is provided on the side to allow the grease to drain, via a hose, to a waste oil
tank.
8.2.3. Swabbing Head
The swabbing head, also known as pack off or braided line stuffing box, (Fig. 8-6), is
designed to provide a fluid seal around a braided cable during a swabbing operation.and are
rated for 5000 psi working pressure.
Figure 8-7 HYDRAULIC SWABBING HEAD
The assembly consists of a main body with a top sub and a quick union bottom connection;
hydraulic piston(s), upper and lower bushings, and pack-off seal(s). The pack-off seal is
tightened against the wire by the hydraulic piston(s), in order to contain well fluid under
pressure. Working pressure 5,000 psi. Can be used separately or as part of grease injection
control head.
8.2.4. Grease Injection Control Head
The grease injection control head, (Fig. 8-8), is designed to provide a grease seal around a
braided or conductor cable during a swabbing operation or electric line operation and are
rated for 15,000 psi working pressure dependant on number of flow tubes used. The grease
injection control head is positioned on top of the lubricator stack and designed to seal and
contain well pressure around stationary or moving braided cable.
Figure 8-8 GREASE INJECTION CONTROL HEAD
A grease injection control head consists of quick union pin and collar with a ball safety check
valve, flow tube carriers, connectors and flow tubes, grease injection and return manifolds
and a hydraulic pack-off. Flow tubes are available for all cable sizes. A seal is attained by
pumping grease through the annular space between the flow tube and the cable: this action
causes a pressure drop to occur across each tube prior to the grease exiting through the
return manifold. The injection port is fitted with an integral ball check valve as a safety
precaution, in case grease seal is lost. The operational effectiveness of the grease injection
control head depends on: well pressure, flow tube clearance, number of tubes, temperature
and type of grease used. For operations below 5,000psi, three tubes are usually adequate.
For well pressures at and above 5,000psi, a minimum of four tubes is recommended.
8-14 M HRD GEO 0009
8.3. QUICK UNIONS
The connections used to assemble the wireline service lubricator and related equipment are
referred to as ‘Quick Unions’, and they are designed to be assembled by hand. Two types in
common use are the ‘Otis’ and ‘Bowen’ designs, (Fig. 8-9).
Figure 8-9 QUICK UNION CONNECTIONS
The main difference between the Otis and Bowen quick union connections is the angle of the
shoulder on pin connection, 45 degree angle on Otis connection and 90 degree angle on
Bowen connection. Previously you could tell them apart by the holes drilled on the Bowen
collar but now this is not the case as so many manufacturers fabricate these quick unions,
the only way they can be identified is by the angle of the shoulder on the pin connection.
All pressure control equipment in a particular rig up have to be fitted with either all Otis or all
Bowen quick union connections as they are not compatible ( they will fit together but will not
seal). If pressure control equipment quick union connections are not matched then additional
assemblies would have to be added to rig up to allow crossover from Otis to Bowen and
Bowen to Otis.
An O-ring on the pin section forms the seal when made up into the box. The collar has an
internal ACME thread to match the external thread on the box. This thread makes up quickly
by hand and should be kept clean. The O-ring should be thoroughly inspected for damage
and replaced if necessary before use. A light film of oil (or grease) helps to mate up the
unions box and pin and assists in preventing damage to the O-ring during assembly. When
the collar has made up fully, it should be backed off approximately one quarter of a turn to
eliminate any possibility of it sticking due to friction when it is removed.
If during removal, the quick union cannot be backed off by hand, rocking the lubricator to
ensure it is perfectly straight will assist in loosening the quick union.
Pipe wrenches, chain tongs, or hammers, should never be used to loosen the collar of the
union if it cannot be turned by hand, precautions must be taken to make sure that the well
pressure has been completely released.
8.4. LUBRICATOR/RISER
The Lubricator/Riser, (Fig. 8-10), enables wireline toolstring and equipment to be inserted
and removed from a well under pressure. It is a tube with quick union connections at each
end. The quick union connections can be welded, (only on older type lubricator), or threaded
to the tube. More recently the tube and quick union connection are machined from one piece
of metal, known as integral lubricator, (Fig. 8-11). All lubricators should be x-rayed,
magnifluxed, (NDT tested), for cracks, and visually inspected at regular intervals by a third
party certification authority. The usual period for these inspections is annually. Available in
5k, 10k and 15k working pressures.
Figure 8-10 LUBRICATOR/RISER LOWER SECTION

8-16 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 8-11 INTEGRAL LUBRICATOR SECTION
Lubricator and riser sections are designed to contain well pressure and act as a manifold for
tool deployment. When coupled together to the desired length, they form an effective
operating height to accommodate the tool string and sub-surface flow control being deployed
into the well. Longer sections are referred to as riser sections as they are used on platforms
to “raise” the working well containment manifold from the Christmas tree to the rig floor.
During slickline operations three sections are normally used. The standard length of the
lubricator is 8 feet, but shorter sections are available (4 to 5 feet).The lower section must be
of sufficient diameter to accommodate tools / equipment being run (usually the same size as
the tubing and wellhead). The lower section has a bleed off valve to vent pressure and / or
gauge point and the middle and upper sections are sized for the tool string. For electric line
operations the lubricators would typically have the same ID due to toolstring standard O.D.
size.
All lubricator sections should be tested annually to 1.5 x Rated Maximum Working Pressure.
8.5. WIRELINE VALVE/BOP
A wireline valve/BOP must always be installed when conducting wireline operations, it can
never be omitted from the rig up. Normally positioned between the wellhead/ xmas tree and
wireline lubricator. This valve is a piece of safety equipment that can close around the
wireline and seal off the well pressure below it without damaging or cutting the wireline. This
enables the pressure to be bled off above the valve, allowing work or repairs to be carried out
on equipment above the valve without pulling the wireline tools to surface. A positive seal is
accomplished by means of rams, which are manually or hydraulically closed without causing
damage to the wire. Manually operated wireline valves/BOP’s, (Fig. 8-12), can still be found
in certain areas but hydraulically actuated wireline valves/BOP’s, (Fig. 8-13), are more
commonly used because of the speed of closing action and ease of operation. During an
emergency, often the wireline valve/BOP is not easily accessible to safely allow fast manual
operation and therefore remote actuation is preferred. Single, dual, triple and quadruple ram
wireline valves/BOP’s are available in various sizes and in a full range of working pressure
ratings. Dual rams offer increased safety during slick line work and are compulsory when
using braided or electric line to allow the injection of grease between the sets of rams to form
a seal on braided wire. They are used particularly in gas wells, or wells with a gas cap.
Wireline valves/BOP’s are fitted with equalising valves that allow equalisation of pressure
above and below the rams prior to opening the valve when wireline operations are to be
resumed. If the wireline valve/BOP rams were to be opened without first equalising, the
pressure surge could blow the tool string or wire into the top of the lubricator, causing
damage or breakage, plus ram piston bores can be damaged due to rams retracting under
pressure.
—————————————————————————————————————————
Note: Since they are such a vital component controlling the safety of the well, it is important
that wireline valves/BOP’s are regularly pressure and function tested. Tests should be carried
out prior to transport offshore, before each new wireline operation and after any redress or
repair of the valve. These tests should be recorded and filed for history purposes.
—————————————————————————————————————————-
Figure 8.12 MANUALLY OPERATED SINGLE RAM WIRELINE VALVE/BOP

8-18 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 8-13 HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED DUAL RAM WIRELINE VALVE/BOP
8.5.1. Manual Wireline Valve/BOP Operation
The main components of a manual operated wireline valve/BOP consist of (refer Fig. 8-14) :
1. Operating Handle
2. Stem
3. Ram Outer Seal
4. Quick Union Box Connection
5. Ram Guide
6. Equalising Valve
7. Ram Inner Seal
8. Wireline Valve/BOP Body
9. Quick Union Pin Connection
10. Ram Assembly
11. End Cap

Figure 8-14 MANUAL WIRELINE VALVE/BOP
The manual wireline valve/BOP (Fig. 8-14), is closed by turning operating handles (1) in a
clockwise direction, the stems (2) which are directly attached to the ram assembies (10)
move inwards from either side. As the rams move inwards the ram guides (5) direct the wire
to the sealing area of the ram inner seal (7).
Once the valve has been closed, well pressure will be isolated below the valve by ram inner
seal (7) forming a seal around the wire and a seal between the ram body (10) and vertical
bore of the valve, seals in the end cap (11) forming a seal on the stem (2) and the outer seal
(3) forming a seal between the ram body (8) and ram cylinder. The well pressure present
below the valve assists in keeping the valve closed by exerting pressure behind the ram
body (10).
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Wireline valves/BOP’s only hold pressure from below.
—————————————————————————————————————————
The manual wireline valve/BOP should only be opened once pressure is equalised above
and below the ram assemblies (13) by opening the equalising valve (9). Failure to equalise
will result in damage to rams and ram cylinders. The operating handles (1) are then turned
anti clockwise retracting the rams (13) into ram cylinder allowing full bore access through the
vertical bore of the valve.
8-20 M HRD GEO 0009
8.5.2. Hydraulic Wireline Valve Operation
The main components of a hydraulic wireline valve/BOP consist of (refer Fig. 8-15) :
1. Operating Handle
2. Stem
3. Hydraulic Cylinder (hydraulic model only)
4. Piston (hydraulic model only)
5. Packing Unit (hydraulic model only)
6. Ram Outer Seal
7. Quick Union Box Connection
8. Ram Guide
9. Equalising Valve
10. Ram Inner Seal
11. Wireline Valve/BOP Body
12. Quick Union Pin Connection
13. Ram Assembly
14. Open Hydraulic Port (hydraulic model only)
15. Close Hydraulic Port (hydraulic model only)
16. End Cap
Figure 8-15 HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED WIRELINE VALVE/BOP

The hydraulic wireline valve/BOP (Fig. 8-15) is closed by applying hydraulic pressure via
hand pump or hydraulic control panel to close hydraulic port (15), pressure entering hydraulic
cylinder (3) moves piston (4) which is directly connected to ram assemblies (13) move
inwards from either side. As the rams move inwards the ram guides (8) direct the wire to the
sealing area of the ram inner seal (10). Once the valve is closed it is good practice to wind in
operating handles to keep rams in position in case of hydraulic pressure failure.
The hydraulic wireline valve/BOP can also be closed manually in the event of hydraulic
pressure failure by removing connection fitted to open hydraulic port (14) to allow hydraulic
oil in the hydraulic cylinder to vent, then turning operating handles (1) in a clockwise
direction, the stems (2) which are in contact with, but not connected directly to piston (4)
which in turn are directly attached to the ram assembies (13) move inwards from either side.
As the rams move inwards the ram guides (8) direct the wire to the sealing area of the ram
inner seal (10).
Once the valve has been closed, well pressure will be isolated below the valve by ram inner
seal (10) forming a seal around the wire and a seal between the ram body (13) and vertical
bore of the valve, packing unit in the hydraulic cylinder (5) forming a seal on the piston (4)
and the outer seal (6) forming a seal between the ram body (13) and ram cylinder. The well
pressure present below the valve assists in keeping the valve closed by exerting pressure
behind the ram body (13).
—————————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Wireline valves/BOP’s only hold pressure from below.
—————————————————————————————————————————
The hydraulic wireline valve cannot be opened manually due to the stem (2) not being
attached to the piston (4) thus when operating handles (1) are turned anti clockwise only the
stem (2) will move outwards.
Before opening the hydraulic wireline valve, check that the operating handles (1) have been
turned fully anti clockwise to ensure that piston (4) can move to the fully open position
without butting against the stem (2) which can become bent due to pressure applied to fully
open valve and that pressure is equalised above and below the ram assemblies (13) by
opening the equalising valve (9). Failure to equalise will result in damage to rams and ram
cylinders. The hydraulic wireline valve can now be opened by applying hydraulic pressure via
hand pump or control panel to open hydraulic port (14). Pressure entering hydraulic cylinder
(3) moves piston (4) which is directly connected to ram assemblies (13) retracting the ram
assemblies (13) into ram cylinder allowing full bore access through the vertical bore of the
valve.
Wireline valves/BOP’s are operated under the following circumstances :
• To enable well pressure to be isolated from the lubricator when leaks develop etc.
without cutting wire by closing the master valve.
• To permit assembly of a wireline cutter above the rams.
• To permit dropping of wireline cutter or cutter bar.
• To permit stripping of wire through closed rams (only when absolutely necessary).
8-22 M HRD GEO 0009
8.5.3. Ram Assembly Configuration
Ram assemblies (Fig. 8-16) vary in size and form depending on the manufacturer of the
wireline valve/BOP they are fitted to, but they all have four basic parts in one form or another:
• Ram Body
• Ram Guide
• Inner Seal
• Outer Seal
Figure 8-16 RAM ASSEMBLY CONFIGURATION

The inner seals and ram guides need to be changed depending on wire being used. When
using slickline the inner seal face is flat with no groove and the guides have a square cut
away in the centre, can be used with any size of wire and will also seal when no wire is
present. When using braided or electric line the inner seal has a groove cut in the face to
accommodate specific size of wire being used and the guides have slot cut of the specific
size of wire being used, will only seal if wire is present.
It is good practise to check condition of guides on a regular basis to ensure that wire will not
snag on guides as rams close, as this could lead to wire being cut by guides or inner seal.
When using braided or electric line, dual ram wireline valve/BOP should be used with the
bottom rams in an inverted position to allow grease to be injected between the upper and
lower rams to maintain an effective seal on the wire.due to the capillary effect which exists
between the individual strands.
—————————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: When using braided or electric line, ensure that the correct guide is installed as an
incorrect guide may damage or cut the wire.
——————————————————————————————————————
8.5.4. Equalising Valve
The equalising valve (Fig. 8-17), of the wireline valve/BOP, is situated on the outside of the
valve body and permits equalisation of pressure from below the closed rams, after bleed off
of the lubricator above. A check should be made to ensure that the equalising assembly is
not inverted and that the retainer screw is towards the bottom of the valve; The equalising
valve should be kept in the closed position to ensure that wireline valve will hold pressure in
an emergency situation.
—————————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: Pressure should always be equalised above and below the rams before opening
wireline valve to avoid damage to ram assemblies or ram cylinders.
——————————————————————————————————————
Figure 8-17 EQUALISING VALVE

8-24 M HRD GEO 0009
8.6. Tree Connectiion
The tree connection is used to cross over from specific connection available on top of tree to
the specific quick union connections of pressure control equipment.
All xmas trees have an internal thread on the top of the main body which was normally a
tubing thread such as EUE into which could be attached a crossover consisting of
appropriate tubing thread pin and quick union box connection, (Fig. 8-18), but because of the
regularity of these connections leaking at tree thread, they are very seldom used.
Figure 8-18 CROSSOVER EUE THREAD x QUICK UNION BOX THREAD
It is common now for Xmas Trees to be fitted with flanged connection bolted to top of the tree
and a quick union connection fitted with tree cap as standard (Fig. 8-19). In many cases this
quick union connection will be compatable with pressure control equipment quick union
connections but if not, crossovers are available to allow different sizes or types of quick
unions to be fitted (Fig. 8-20).
Figure 8-19 STANDARD TREE CONNECTION

Figure 8-20 CROSSOVER QUICK UNION PIN x QUICK UNION BOX
8.7. Lubricator Lifting Clamp
The lubricator lifting clamp, (Fig. 8-21), is bolted to the outside of lubricator section to allow
connection to the hoisting device. They are manufactured in two halves with either, single,
double, triple or four point lifting eyes for connecting slings, the internal diameter of clamp
matches the outside diameter of particular lubricator section being used. As these are
classified as lifting devices they require to be tested and certified annually or according to
local procedures and should only be used if certified.
Figure 8-21 SINGLE POINT LIFTING CLAMP
8.8. Wireline Clamp
The wireline clamp (Fig. 8-22) is designed to secure the wireline without damage enabling
the toolstring to be retained within the lubricator sections during rigging up or rigging down
operations. Can also be used to clamp wire in hole in the event of the necessity to slack of
wire on drum for any reason during operations. The clamp has a simple hand operated
latching/unlatching operation and is usually attached by a chain or strop to the bottom of the
lowest lubricator beneath the bleed off port. Clamps are available for slickline and braided
line wire and reduces the risk of damage to wire, tools or dropping of toolstring.
8-26 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 8-22 WIRELINE CLAMPS
8.9. Hay Pulley
The hay pulley, (Fig. 8-23), is used to control the route of the wireline or cable from the
winch to the stuffing box or grease injection head. Hay pulleys are attached to the martin
decker load cell by means of a hook or shackle and the load cell then secured by chain or
sling/strop at a suitable point on or near the lubricator rig up. Hay pulleys are also used
suspended from the drilling block or a relevant fixture when using braided line where no
sheave and bracket are available. In addition hay pulley stands, (Fig. 8-24), are available
which prevent the hay pulley from falling over when wireline or cable is slacked off.
Figure 8-23 HAY PULLEY
Figure 8-24 HAY PULLEY STAND

8-28 M HRD GEO 0009
8.9.1. Hay Pulley Line Wiper
The hay pulley line wiper, (Fig. 8-25), is generally attached to the hay pulley or when the
wireline is being retrieved from the well. The wiper cleans the line of all well fluids so that the
wire does not deteriorate on the drum during storage by means of a rubber element which is
compressed by turning a screw on the base of the unit.
Figure 8-25 HAY PULLEY LINE WIPER
8.10. Martin Decker Weight Indicator
The martin decker weight indicator is explained previously in section 6.5.
8.11. Ancillary Pressure Control Equipment
The following section describes equipment that could be added to the standard wireline rig
up depending on operation and procedure requirements.
8.11.1. Check Valve Union
The check valve union, (Fig. 8-26), is designed to seal off well pressure in the event of the
wireline parting from the toolstring. The steel ball is forced against the seat by the well
pressure, preventing flow from below. The Check Valve Union is manufactured as a one-
piece body assembly and is assembled below the stuffing box, (if no internal BOP plunger is
fitted) or grease injection head. The check valve design has added advantages in that the
internal check valve assembly can be accommodated as an integral part of the stuffing box
or grease injection head. This not only reduces the height of the lubricator rig up but also
offers an attractive financial benefit due to only requiring the one piece of equipment.
Figure 8-26 CHECK VALVE UNION
8.11.2. Chemical Injection Sub
The chemical injection sub or fluid chamber, (Fig. 8-27), is designed to allow the injection of
either a de-icing agent (i.e. Methanol or Glycol) or a corrosion inhibitor. It is mounted just
below the stuffing box or grease injection head. It has replaceable felt packings which are
kept constantly wet by chemical injection and therefore act as wipers to the wireline passing
through it.
Figure 8-27 CHEMICAL INJECTION SUB

8-30 M HRD GEO 0009
8.11.3. Hydraulic Tool Catcher
The hydraulic tool catcher (Fig. 8-28), is positioned below the stuffing box or grease injection
head and is designed to engage the rope socket of any toolstring that accidentally collides
with the stuffing box or grease injection head and strips the wireline from within the rope
socket. More commonly used when running electric line tools to avoid damage to electronics
if tools freefall into well. A collet at the bottom of the sub latches the fishing neck of the rope
socket and holds the toolstring in place preventing it from falling down hole, to release the
toolstring, hydraulic pressure is applied utilising a hand pump or control panel which moves a
piston attached to the collet upwards to release toolstring.
Figure 8-28 HYDRAULIC TOOL CATCHER
8.11.4. Hydraulic Tool Trap
The hydraulic tool trap (Fig. 8-29) is positioned between the wireline valve/BOP and the
bottom section of lubricator and is designed to stop wireline tools from falling back down the
well should the wireline accidentally break at the rope socket when pulling back into the
lubricator. Hydraulic actuation is required to open the flappers prior to running downhole.
Once the toolstring has passed, the sleeve is returned hydraulically to its first position,
allowing the flappers to close. When returning to the lubricator, the flappers automatically
hinge open to receive the toolstring, and close once the toolstring has passed, preventing the
toolstring from falling downhole.
A manual version is also available which utilises an external lever and counter balance
weight to actuate flapper. The lever is used to open flapper to allow toolstring to be run in
hole and when toolstring has passed the counter balance weight closes the flapper. When
returning to the lubricator the toolstring will open the flapper and when passed the counter
balance weight will close the flapper.
Figure 8-29 HYDRAULIC TOOL CATCHER
8.11.5. In-Situ Test Sub
When performing wireline operations it is often necessary to make adjustments to the

toolstring. To gain access, the lubricator is separated from the wireline valve/BOP by
breaking out a quick union connection. Before the toolstring can be re-deployed, it is good
practice to test the integrity of the quick union, requiring the entire lubricator to be filled with
test fluid. By fitting the in-situ test sub, (Fig. 8-30), at the lower most point in the lubricator
stack, pressurisation of the small volume between the double O-ring seals is all that is
required to confirm the integrity of the quick union connection. This not only cuts down on
expensive test fluids, but also saves time in pumping large volumes. The in-situ test sub
uses standard quick union thread/seal sizes, but utilizes a deeper seal bore to accommodate
the second O-ring. Because the seal bore is deeper than normal, the in-situ test sub is
capable of accepting a standard quick union pin and collar.
8-32 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 8-30 IN-SITU TEST SUB
8.11.6. Quick Union Crossover Adaptors
The quick union crossover adaptors, (Fig. 8-31), are essential for the connection of
incompatible pressure control equipment components required for well intervention
operations. Crossovers can be 'tailor made' to suit any combination of connections required
and can also be combined to include injection and bleed off facilities. Both the Bowen type
and Otis type quick unions can be utilised at either end of the adaptor.
Figure 8-31 QUICK UNION CROSSOVER ADAPTOR

8.11.7. Side Entry Sub/Pump-In Tee
The side entry sub, (Fig. 8-32), or pump-in tee’s main function is well control by pumping
fluids below a closed wireline valve. The side entry sub can also be used as a means of
pressure testing or inhibitor injection and is normally positioned below the wireline valve and
directly above the wellhead. The side entry sub comes with quick unions top and bottom and
a Weco type connection on the side entry to allow connection of high pressure chiksan or
coflexip lines from high pressure pump unit.
Figure 8-32 SIDE ENTRY SUB/PUMP-IN TEE

8-34 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 9
TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS
ELEMENT 1.3
9-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
9.1. Toolstring Components
The definition of a ‘Wireline Toolstring’ is the assembly of equipment connected with the
wireline to conduct downhole wireline operations in any well. It provides the weight and the
necessary impact forces to operate downhole tools.
Toolstring components are various tools connected together that is actuated by wireline from
the surface, in order to produce impact forces. It is the working method of providing
mechanical output in two directions. The first direction of mechanical output is accomplished
by dropping the toolstring by gravity to produces downward force and the second is
accomplished by pulling the toolstring up at speed to produce upward force.
The basic wireline toolstring assembly (Fig. 9-1) may be composed of the following
equipment although there are various permutations of these, which are optional dependent
upon the well operator’s policies and procedures in conjunction with historical information
obtained from the well files:
• Rope Socket.
• Stem.
• Jars.
• Knuckle joints.
For instance, in some well operations or conditions, the knuckle joint may be omitted and
other well operators insist that power jars be run in conjunction with mechanical jars, etc. It is
incumbent upon each wireline crew to check the work programme, operational manuals or
obtain instructions from their direct supervisor in order to determine the toolstring
configuration for each operation.
The operation specific service tools (e.g., running tools, pulling tools etc.) are not considered
to be an integral part of the wireline toolstring.
The standard sizes of components to make up wireline toolstrings are 11/2", 17/8", 21/8" and
21/2" OD although a smaller size of 11/4" may still occasionally be used in some areas of the
world where smaller tubing sizes are used or where there are restrictions.
The selection of the toolstring size is dependent upon the completion tubing size or the
operating company guidelines/procedures. Always check the well files to see the previous
sizes used and if any problems were encountered. If there is any doubt about the size of
toolstring to be used, consult with your direct line supervisor.
All the wireline string equipment must be provided with proper external fishing necks, able to
be retrieved with industry standard pulling tools.
9-4 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 9-1 BASIC SLICKLINE TOOLSTRING
The wireline toolstring components functions are described below and illustrated later in the
manual.
• Rope Socket - Provides a connection between the toolstring and the wireline.
• Swivel Joint - Attached between the rope socket and stem to minimise torque being
transmitted to wireline. (Optional)
• Accelerator - Compensate for loss of stretch in the wire at shallow depths. (Optional)
• Stem - To add weight./mass to the toolstring to overcome well pressure and friction
and provide impact downhole.
• Hydraulic Jar - To provide a powerful jar action in an upward direction. (Optional)
• Spring Jar - To provide a powerfull jar action in an upward direction. (Optional)
• Mechanical Jar - To provide a means of generating impact in both directions.
• Knuckle Joint - Provides Flexibility to toolstring. (Optional)
• Crossovers - To allow the connection of tools with different thread connections.

(Optional)
9.1.1. Rope Socket

The rope socket provides the means of attaching the wireline to the toolstring and the
following are the most commonly used :
• Disc Spring (knot type)
• Wedge (no knot type)
• Pear Drop (no knot type)
• Slip (braided line)
9.1.1.1. Disc Spring
The disc spring rope socket (Fig. 9-1) is used to attach wireline to the toolstring and are
predominately used with wireline sizes up to and including 0.092”. The rope socket assembly
consists of a body with external fishing neck, spring, support button and disc.
Figure 9-1 DISC SPRING ROPE SOCKET
The wireline is threaded through the stuffing box, passed through the body, spring and
support button before being wrapped tightly around the disc. The short end of the wireline is
firmly wrapped around the long end of the wireline using twelve to fifteen close wraps. A
clean break made close to the last wrap allows the spring and guide to pass over the wraps.
The knot is then installed into the body.
9.1.1.2. Wedge
The wedge type rope socket (Fig. 9-2) is used to attach wireline to the toolstring and are
predominately used with wireline sizes from 0.092” to 0.125”. The rope socket assembly
consists of a body with an external fishing neck and a brass wedge (“Thimble/Pear Drop”)
which is grooved to accommodate the wire.
9-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 9-2 WEDGE TYPE ROPE SOCKET
The wireline is threaded through the stuffing box, wrapped around the groove in the
thimble/pear drop, the end of the wire is then cut just below the top of the thimble/pear drop
and the thimble/pear drop is then pulled tightly up into the matching taper in the body.
Wedge type rope sockets have to be ordered to suit the wire size being deployed.
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: When using wedge type rope socket, a swivel joint has to be fitted below rope socket
to avoid torque being transmitted to wire.
——————————————————————————————————————
9.1.1.3. Pear Drop
The pear drop rope socket (Fig. 9-3) is easy to make up and little experience is necessary to
make up this connection reliably. In some areas using the smaller wirelines, the knot type
rope socket may still be encountered.
The benefits of this type of rope socket are that there are no sharp bends in the wire which
reduces its ultimate tensile strength, and is a simple and quick way to make the connection.
The principle of operation of the pear drop rope socket is that the wire, wrapped round a
groove in the thimble/pear drop, is wedged in a taper between the thimble/pear drop and the
mating sleeve. This wedge action grips the wire and is proportional to the tension applied to
the wireline.
The pear drop rope sockets is used to attach wireline to the toolstring and are predominately
used with wireline sizes from 0.092” to 0.125”. The rope socket assembly consists of a body
with an external fishing neck, thimble sleeve and a brass thimble/pear drop which is grooved
to accommodate the wire and comes complete with a securing grub screw.
Figure 9-3 PEAR DROP ROPE SOCKET
The wireline is threaded through the stuffing box, passed through the body and sleeve and
wrapped around the groove in the thimble/pear drop. The end of the wire is then cut below
the top of the thimble/pear drop and pulled tightly up into the matching taper on the sleeve.
The thimble/pear drop and sleeve is then installed into the body and checked that body can
rotate on wireline. Pear Drop rope sockets have to be ordered to suit the wire size being
deployed.
9.1.1.4. Time Delay Releasable Rope Socket
The Time Delay Releasable Rope Socket (T.D.R) (Fig. 9-4) is run in place of the standard
rope socket and provides a safe, reliable means of release should the toolstring become
stuck downhole. To release the TDR, the operator simply slacks off the line weight for a
predetermined time; this then activates the release system. The TDR release function can be
stopped at any time by re-applying line weight to the toolstring, the TDR is then reset. Once
the TDR release sequence has been completed the top section of the TDR can then be
retrieved with the wireline/braided line, leaving a clean fishing neck downhole for future
recovery operations.
The TDR can also be utilized as a soft release tool to deploy gauges and other delicate
instruments into completion profiles. The tool has been designed so that no presetting or
calibration is required prior to use. The tool is easy to maintain and redress without the need
for any specialist tools. Utilizing a hydraulic metering system similar to that used in the hydro-
mech jar, the materials have been matched to limit the effects of thermal expansion on the
release times. Using a balanced pressure system that also provides for hydraulic fluid
expansion the tool can operate throughout a wide range of conditions up to 200°C and
10,000 psi.
9-8 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 9-4 T.D.R. ROPE SOCKET
9.1.1.5. Releasable Rope Socket
The Releasable Rope Socket (RRS)(Fig. 9-5) can be utilised with either slick or braided type
wireline and is designed to release only in the event that the toolstring becomes stuck
downhole. The device is activated by a drop bar which is dropped down the wire in a similar
manner to a go-devil or snepper. When the drop bar contacts the release trigger, the collet
releases the lower fishing neck. The upper housing and drop bar are retrieved to surface
leaving a clean fishing neck. The releasable rope socket is multifunctional in that it can be
used with both slickline and braided line merely by changing the internal clamping
mechanism.
The releasable rope socket (RRS) Drop Bar (Fig. 9-6) is utilised to activate the release
trigger of the RRS and allow recovery of the wireline, drop bar and RRS upper section from
the wellbore. The drop bar is available to suit all wire sizes and can be fitted with centralisers
based on tubing size.
Figure 9-5 RELEASABLE ROPE SOCKET Figure 9-6 R.R.S. DROP BAR
9.1.1.4. Slip Type
The slip type rope socket (Fig. 9-7) is used to attach braided cables to the toolstring and are
predominately used with cable sizes up to and including 5/16”. The rope socket assembly
consists of a body with external fishing neck, threaded bottom sub and a slip carrier
complete with slips and grub screw. Slip type rope sockets are designed to cut the cable
internally to leave a clean fishing neck, in the event that toolstring becomes stuck in the well.
The special slips cut the cable under excessive loading, at a precise percentage of the
cables breaking strength.
Figure 9-7 SLIP TYPE ROPE SOCKET

9-10 M HRD GEO 0009
The cable is threaded through the grease injection head or swabbing head and then passed
through the rope socket body. The wire is then passed through the carrier and the grub screw
tightened to leave approximately ¼” wire protruding through bottom of carrier. The individual
strands of the protruding wire is then bent aganst bottom face of carrier and the slips fitted to
grooves in upper part of carrier. The complete carrier and slips are then pulled into rope
socket body and lower sub attached and tightened.
9.1.2. Swivel Joint
The swivel joint is positioned, if required, immediately below the rope socket and is designed
to minimise the twisting of the wire during deployment of the toolstring, due to torque being
transmitted from the toolstrings natural tendency to rotate.
Originally swivel jounts (Fig. 9-8) were similar in appearance to a knuckle joint but with
limited axial movement, (2-5 degrees). The swivel joint assembly consists of an upper body
complete with external fishing neck, ball pin, roll pin to secure ball pin and a lower body.
Figure 9-8 ORIGINAL SWIVEL JOINT
More recently the swivel joint (Fig. 9-9) is designed with a bearing to permit the easy rotation
of the toolstring, even under loads as tools move in/out of the well. The modern swivel joint
consists of an upper body complete with external fishing neck, roll pin to secure fishing neck
to upper body, roller bearing to allow rotation, shaft connecting upper and lower bodies and
roll pin to secure shaft to lower body
Figure 9-9 MODERN SWIVEL JOINT
It is essential to use a swivel between the rope socket and stem to prevent torque being
transmitted to the wireline in the following circumstances :
• When using a wedge (no-knot) type rope socket, as this design does not allow the
internal rotation of the components.
• When using a braided line rope socket, a swivel prevents the tool rotation being
transferred to the line. Twisting force on braided line can cause the braid to unwrap
and break a strand or open up causing a birds nest, which will result in the wire being
unable to be pulled through the flow tubes of the grease head or swabbing head.
A knuckle joint should never be used in place of a swivel joint. In the event of a line brake,
the swivel will keep the rope socket fishing neck near straight and make latching possible. If
a knuckle joint has been used in place of a swivel, it allows the rope socket to ‘fall over’
making latching difficult. Knuckle joints are not designed to rotate under load.
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Swivels and knuckle joints are not interchangeable.
——————————————————————————————————————
9-12 M HRD GEO 0009
9.1.3. Accelerator
Accelerators, (Fig. 9-10), also known as stretch simulators, are installed, if required, directly
below the rope socket in order to compensate for loss of stretch in the wire or cable when
spring or hydraulic jars are to be used at shallow depths. The spring in the stretch simulator
replaces the ‘stretch’ of the wireline that normally exists when jarring up at deeper depths. It
reduces the shock loading at the rope socket and causes the stem to ‘accelerate’ faster
when the spring or hydraulic jars fire. This creates a more effective impact. However, even in
deep well operations, an accelerator may be used in order to deliver higher impact from the
Jar. The device operates through wireline tension applied to the top section which
compresses the spring while the bottom section is held stationary through the pulling tool.
When the jar below fires, The spring expands and in consequence accelerates the toolstring,
providing more impact force. This reduces the loading on the wireline.
Figure 9-10 ACCELERATOR
9.1.4. Stem
Standard solid steel wireline stem or ‘sinker bar’ (Fig. 9-11) is required as part of the wireline
toolstring to add weight and overcome the well pressure, any frictional effects and provide
energy for jarring.
A ‘rule of thumb’ to determine the weight of solid steel stem is:
OD2 x 8
= Weight of stem in lbs/ft
3
An increase in stem weight increases the impact force delivered by the jar action. The
toolstring should not be over-weighted with stem as the excessive mass dampens the ‘feel’
and may cause premature shearing of shear pins to occur.
Machined flats on the stem for wrenches are provided and should be used. Do not grip the
tool on the fishing neck as this may damage the fishing neck shoulder.
All connections should be clean and dry. Do not lubricate toolstring threads as this can lead
to unscrewing downhole during extended periods of jarring.
Stem consists of a steel bar complete with fishing neck and industry standard threaded pin
and box connections top and bottom. Standard lengths of stem are one, two, three and five
feet.
Figure 9-11 STANDARD STEM
9.1.4.1. Leaded Stem
Leaded stem (Fig. 9-12) is used to provide greater weight for the same diameter and length.
This type of stem has regular steel pin and box connections and a tubular steel outer barrel
the inside of which is filled with lead to provide more weight.
This stem is primarily used to run pressure and temperature survey tools to obtain maximum
weight with minimum cross-sectional area to protect against "floating" or being blown up the
hole by pressure surges.
The Filled Type Stem external barrel must have an equalising hole and the threads locked by
an Allen screw.
9-14 M HRD GEO 0009
Other high density, heavy weight filled stem is available and includes: tungsten, uranium and
mallory (mercury alloy).
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Do not use lead-filled stem for jarring as the lead will tend to creep downwards and
split the outer barrel.
——————————————————————————————————————
Figure 9-12 LEAD FILLED STEM

9.1.4.2. Roller Stem

Roller stem (Fig. 9-13) is used for work in deviated wells. It allows the stem to roll down the
tubing wall, hence, cutting down friction incurred when using regular stem.
Figure 9-13 VARIOUS TYPES ROLLER STEM

——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: Nylon or Teflon rollers should be used in chrome and/or plastic coated tubing.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Rollers and axles should be inspected for wear before use. Ensure the retaining
pins are secure.
——————————————————————————————————————
The table below shows a selection of some of the most common stem OD sizes, thread
sizes, fishneck sizes and lengths that are available for use:
Size Thread Size Fishneck OD Max OD Length

1 15
1 /2” (1.5”) /16” Sucker Rod 1.375” 1.5”
7 1
1 /8” (1.875”) 1 /16” Sucker Rod 1.75” 1.875”
21/8” (2.125”) 11/16” Sucker Rod 1.75” 2.125”
1 9 2ft, 3ft,
2 /2” (2.5”) 1 /16” Sucker Rod 2.313” 2.5”
5ft
17/8” Roller Stem 11/16” Sucker Rod 1.75” 2.125” Rollers
21/8” Roller Stem 11/16” Sucker Rod 1.75” 2.5” Rollers
1 9
2 /2” Roller Stem 1 /16” Sucker Rod 2.313” 3.125” Rollers
9-16 M HRD GEO 0009
9.1.5. Connections/Crossovers
The threads machined on wireline tools are termed ‘sucker rod’ threads. The three most
common sizes of thread are:
• 15
/16”
• 11/16”
• 19/16”
Operators need to commit these sizes to memory.
As wireline tools can be fitted with any of the three sizes listed above, the toolstring would
normally be made up of the same size of thread but if this is not possible. a crossover would
have to be used to connect threads that are not compatible. The crossover (Fig. 9-14) allows
incompatible threads to be connected together by supplying different combinations of pin and
box connections to suit the three standard threads.
Figure 9-14 CROSSOVER
All threads should be checked before rig up and also after use. ‘Flaring’ (Fig. 9-15) is a fault
that can occur on any threads, indicated by peaks on one or more of the threads being
angled upwards rather than at right angles to the stem, this is caused by the piece of stem
being continually used on heavy jarring operations or by over tightening of connection,
therefore, any component with flared threads should be replaced immediately and the item
sent back to base for checking with Go and No-Go thread gauges. This applies to all
equipment with threaded connections.
Figure 9-15 THREAD FLARING

9.1.5.1. Quick Lock System

All threaded wireline tools when assembled together require the connections to be tightened
using pipe wrenches or spanners to avoid the possibility of threaded connections unscrewing
and falling downhole. As the use of pipe wrenches is time consuming and prone to causing
hand injuries, an alternative method of connecting individual tools together is the qiuick-lock
system. There are many types of quick-lock connectors on the market, the following sections
describe those most commonly used:
9.1.5.2. Petroline Quick-Lock System

Quick-lock systems toolstrings (Fig. 9-16) may be used instead of (or in conjunction with) the
threaded type. The quick-lock system, is built for the whole range of toolstring equipment.
There is no need for wrenches when making up this system. The male end is mated to the
female end, then rotated through 90°. A spring loaded locking slip engages a slot and locks
the assembly in place. To release the locking device it is mechanically lifted by means of a
cut away window in the stem body.
This system is faster and easier to make up than the threaded type. It is stronger and will not
accidentally back off since it does not incorporate threads.
The advantage of using a quick-lock connector is that no wrench marks (and hence no burrs)
are induced on equipment (cutting down wear and hand injuries.)
Figure 9-16 PETROLINE QUICK-LOCK SYSTEM

9-18 M HRD GEO 0009
9.1.5.3. Trinity Quick-Lock System

The most striking feature of the trinity quicklock (Fig. 9-17) is its triangular shape. Like the
Petroline quick-lock it is easy to make-up and adds strength by evenly distributing load round
the circumference of the connection. In addition to this the connection employs a support
shoulder to absorb side impacts and strengthens the female connection with the support
below the bottom lug. The locking and release mechanism is by means of a trigger mounted
in the female end which, unlike the Petroline quick-lock system, is operated by hand,
therefore, does not require the use of any additional implements to release. It is also
available as crossovers or integral parts of toolstring components.
Figure 9-17 TRINITY QUICK-LOCK SYSTEM

9.1.5.4. BDK QRJ Quick-Lock System
The original BDK Quick Release Joint (Fig. 9-18) is a single shoulder contact connection
designed as an alternative to a conventional threaded toolstring. This offers the operator an
increase in speed, efficiency and, most of all, safety at the well head. The operation is similar
to Petroline QLS.
Figure 9-18 ORIGINAL BDK QRJ
The BDK Heavy Duty Quick Release Joint (Fig. 9-19) is offered as an alternative to the
original BDK Quick Release Joint. It has been developed for ultimate strength specifically for
use in H2S / CO2 harsh well environments. The unique finger release feature eliminates the
need for a release tool providing a connection which is fast and simple to use. The stepped
double shoulder contact design is efficient and safe in comparison to the conventional
threaded toolstring, which can prove to be time consuming and sometimes hazardous during
wireline operations, often leading to damaged tools or the possible risk of injury.
Figure 9-19 BDK HEAVY DUTY QRJ

9-20 M HRD GEO 0009
Crossovers can now be found with any combination of thread or quick-lock system (Fig. 9-
20) male or female connection to allow assembly of tools with incompatible connections.
Figure 9-20 VARIATIONS OF CROSSOVERS AVAILABLE
9.1.6. Jars
Jars are a principal component included in every toolstring. Their purpose is to act as a
downhole hammer and provide impact force to operate, set and retrieve downhole
equipment. Wireline alone cannot impart sufficient force due to its low breaking strength and
wellbore friction. Wireline is only used to convey and position the toolstring in the wellbore.
Jars are activated by hand or winch movement of the wireline and it is essential that the
operator can recognise the precise opening and closing point of the jars on the wireline unit
weight indicator. If the jars are not being operated correctly or if the jar action is lost then very
little force can be exerted on the tools.
There are two main types of jar
• Upstroke/Power
• Mechanical
9.1.6.1. Hydraulic Jar
Hydraulic upstroke jars (Fig. 9-21) are placed between the stem and mechanical jars in the
toolstring when extra jar up action is required or anticipated. This is especially important
when conventional jar up action is difficult because of deviation or high viscosity well fluid.
Figure 9-21 TYPICAL HYDRAULIC JAR

9-22 M HRD GEO 0009
Hydraulic jars, are used in similar circumstances to spring jars, i.e.. where mechanical jars
have been unsuccessful, or are likely to be unsuccessful. The main advantage of the
hydraulic jar is that the jarring force is adjustable, since it is determined by the tension
applied to the wire. In addition, this type of jar (in common with spring jars) is more suited to
extended jarring operations as wireline speeds can be lower, since the impact force of these
jars is not dependent on speed. This results in less wear and tear on the wire.
Hydraulic jars can only be used for upward jarring and, because their construction includes
many elastomeric seals, regular maintenance is required since well fluid and debris can enter
the hydraulic chamber.
In the presence of gas, the hydraulic oil can become contaminated with gas termed 'gassing
up'. This alters its volume and compressibility, reducing the jarring efficiency and may
prevent the jar closing. In addition, a gassed-up hydraulic jar can seriously affect the
downward jarring action of the mechanical jar in the string. Since the hydraulic jar is usually
placed between the stem and the mechanical jar, it acts as a shock absorber, reducing the
weight transmitted to the tools.
Upward pull on the wire pressurises the oil contained in the upper chamber. The piston and
piston chamber are designed to allow slow bypass of the oil around the piston and controls
the speed of opening providing time to apply the desired tension to the wire. When the piston
travel sufficiently upwards it encounters a wider bore section of the chamber, at this point
there is no longer any significant resistance to the oil flowing past the piston, hence enables
rapid movement upwards to produce the jarring action.
To speed up the resetting action (closing) of the mechanism, the piston contains a bypass
port with a one-way check valve which opens as the piston moves back down.
Size available in 1¼”, 1½” and 1¾”
Always INCLUDE mechanical jars in the toolstring to provide downward jar action to shear
off if necessary (run with shear down tool).
.
Oil viscosity may be varied to suit downhole temperatures. Jars should operate after
approximately 30 seconds of pull.
Never place hydraulic jars BELOW mechanical jars. If hydraulic jars become ‘gassed up’
(especially in high pressure gas wells) they will act as a shock absorber. In their correct
position, mechanical jars can still be used to shear downwards to release the tool.
——————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION : Always CLOSE THE JARS as the toolstring is lowered from the lubricator,
BEFORE laying the tools down.
——————————————————————————————————————
Failure to do so will result in the following damage to hydraulic jars :
• Bent or cracked piston shaft.
• Piston shaft* exposed to corrosion
* This surface is hard chromed to ensure a seal against the O-rings. Any pitting will impair
the operation of the jars.
9.1.6.2. Petroline Spring Jar

Spring upstroke jars, (Fig. 9-22), are used in situations where the use of mechanical jars has
been, or is likely to be, unsuccessful. This may be, for example, in deviated wells when wire
speed is insufficient or, more commonly, when more jarring force is required.
As with hydraulic jars, they are installed in the toolstring between the stem and mechanical
jars. An upward pull is applied via the wireline. With the pulling/fishing tool latched, the line
tension is stored until a mechanical release mechanism retracts and permits the rapid
upward movement which creates an upward impact force. Some designs permit the
adjustment of the release mechanism, which alters the amount of tension required to ‘fire’
the jars. Hence the magnitude of the resulting impact is variable.
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE : Mechanical jars should always be included to enable downward jarring to shear if
upward jarring does not achieve the desired result.
——————————————————————————————————————
Figure 9-22 TYPICAL PETROLINE SPRING JAR AND ACTION

9-24 M HRD GEO 0009
Increasing the line tension (Fig. 9-22A) moves the “jar rod” upward from its static position,
slowly compressing the main “disc spring” via the “trip keys” and “trip housing”.The amount of
tension required is adjustable by rotating the “spring rod” with the “calibrating key”. The “jar
rod” and “trip housing” are gripped together by the”trip keys”. As the “trip keys” move
upwards (Fig. 9-22B) with increasing line tension, they move outwards (expand) into the
recess in the “main housing” (Fig. 9-22C). The “jar rod” is released and moves rapidly
upwards to strike the inside of the “main housing”, thus creating upward impact proportional
to mass (stem weight) above the jars and velocity at impact. The “trip housing” returns to the
central position as soon as the “jar rod” releases. To reset the jars back to their original
position, the weight of the stem forces the “jar rod” and “trip housing” down by compressing
the “cocking spring” (Fig. 9-22D). This causes the “trip keys” to retract into the lower recess
in the “main housing”. The “trip keys” relatch the groove on the “jar rod” and the jarring cycle
can be repeated.
Spring jars are used to jar-up but, because of their construction, it is possible for debris to
enter the mechanism and make them difficult to reset. They also require regular
maintenance.
They have an application in gas wells in preference to hydraulic jars since they are not
dependent on any elastomeric seals. In general, they are more durable than hydraulic jars as
their construction is purely mechanical.
The impact force of a spring jar is set by the selection, or adjustment, of the spring release
mechanism. This release mechanism prevents any relative movement of the two parts of the
jar until a predetermined wire pull is reached. The first relative motion between the two parts
is to overcome the spring or release mechanism tension, this in turn allows the release
mechanism to actuate, freeing the inner rod to move upwards without restriction and induce
the jarring action.
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: When the Belleville springs are replaced during servicing, the new springs must be
bedded in by pulling at the maximum impact force a minimum of three times.
——————————————————————————————————————
If a spring jar malfunctions, it is not normally detrimental to the function of the rest of the
toolstring. If a toolstring is unable to be released, it behaves like a rigid section of toolstring. If
unable to be closed, it operates as an additional spang jar.
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: When rigging up, or down, heavy toolstrings, the hydraulic jars can be opened under
toolstring weight alone. If possible make up the toolstrings with the jars open.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: Both spring and hydraulic jars should be fully closed prior to laying down the
toolstring to avoid bending and damaging the jar rods.
——————————————————————————————————————
Advantages of Using Spring Jars.
• No O-ring seals to leak and allow internal pressure build-up.

• Fluid bypass permits free access of well fluids through the jars.
• Generally greater upward impact than comparable hydraulic jars.
Design Variations.
• Use of key segments in the release mechanism.

• Position of release mechanism (middle or bottom)
• Adjustable release tension.
• Use of coil springs or ‘Belleville’ disc springs.
9.1.6.3. Flopetrol Spring Jar
The Flopetrol spring jar (Fig. 9-23) incorporates a ball locking mechanism, and a
compression spring tensioning system. The central shaft is abruptly unlocked when the
compression force of the spring is reached. Jarring is brought about by pulling on the
wireline, without acceleration.
Figure 9-23 FLOPETROL SPRING JARS AND OPERATION

9-26 M HRD GEO 0009
The operation of the Flopetrol spring jar is as follows :
• Line overpull compresses lower spring against balls.
• As ball gauge moves upwards balls move out into groove.
• Link rod releases and accelarates upward to create impact.
• Stem weight resets jars as ball retract into space above internal ring.
9.1.6.4. Spang Jar
Spang jars; (Fig. 9-24), are the most commonly used type of jars as they are mechanically
simple, require little maintenance and can be used for both upward or downward jarring.
However, due to their open construction, they may become fouled by well debris or any loose
wire in the hole and the jar action lost. Therefore, during fishing operations, it is not good
practise to use this jar.
Jarring force in both directions is governed by stem weight and wire speed and, to a lesser
extent, stroke length. However, the efficiency of downward jarring is affected by the viscosity
of the well fluids, the well deviation and the friction of the wire through the stuffing box.
In deeper wells, long stroke jars can help provide more pronounced opening and closing
indication at surface. However, long stroke jars in large bore wells are prone to permanent
buckling caused by downward jarring. When this buckling is great enough it can lead to an
effect termed ‘scissoring’ where the upper and lower parts become misaligned. This effect is
more prone in larger tubing as smaller bore tubing helps prevent any possible misalignment.
Available with 20” or 30” Stroke
Figure 9-24 MECHANICAL SPANG JAR

9.1.6.5. Tubular Jar
Tubular jars, (Fig. 9-25), are most commonly used when fishing for wireline or working below
the tubing into the sump. Its moving components are for the most part enclosed inside
housing, protecting it from entanglement with wireline when fishing or other well debris.
Tubular jars have threaded connections on the components, which may be susceptible to
backing off during prolonged jarring operations. The efficiency of jarring down may also be
decreased due to the viscosity effects of the fluid displaced from inside the housing.
Figure 9-25 BARREL DRIVE AND JAR ROD DRIVE TUBULAR JAR
9-28 M HRD GEO 0009
9.1.6.6. Linear Jar
The Multi-Roller Wheel Linear Jar (Fig. 9-26) is designed for use in highly deviated wells.
The design offers a 360 degree wheel contact which reduces the friction caused by contact
with the tubing wall. The multi-roller wheel linear jar is a telescoping jar that should be run in
conjunction with wireline stem and installed immediately below. The linear bearings create a
frictionless action, allowing full force of impact from the stem above. The multi-roller wheel
linear jar has the advantage of being sturdy in construction making it an ideal tool for use in
deviated wells and heavy wireline situations as an alternative to link/spang jar.
Proven success in wells up to 72 degrees deviation.
9.1.6.7. Knuckle Jar
The Knuckle Jar (Fig. 9-27) is similar in construction to the knuckle joint. The knuckle jar
design incorporates a length extension of the socket that allows the ball to move vertically for
light jarring.
Figure 9-26 LINEAR JAR Figure 9-27 KNUCKLE JAR

9.1.7. Knuckle Joints

Knuckle joints (Fig. 9-28) are included in the wireline toolstring to offer some degree of
lateral flexibility. They are usually positioned immediately below the mechanical jars.
However if additional flexibility is required, a further knuckle joint can be included between
the stem and jars.They incorporate a ball joint assembly allowing rotation and some angular
movement.
During wireline operation in deviated wells, long toolstrings without knuckle joints may be
forced to bend during running following doglegs in the tubing. This causes increased friction
and both the upward or downward mobility can be seriously impaired. They are also used
during fishing operations to provide flexibility between the fishing tool and the jars to aid in
latching the fish.
Extended periods of jarring can seriously damage knuckle joints and, hence, their use in
toolstrings should be minimised. The ball joints, threads and any pins should be thoroughly
inspected prior to use.
Dual fish neck types, as shown in (Fig. 9-28), should be used in preference to the single fish
neck type to allow recovery with standard pulling tool in the event of the knuckle joint parting.
Knuckle Joints are used to add flexibility to the toolstring and should be used in deviated
wells.
Figure 9-28 KNUCKLE JOINT

——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Do not confuse knuckle joints with swivels. Swivels permit only limited movement, and
have a bearing to allow easy rotation even when under tension.
——————————————————————————————————————
9-30 M HRD GEO 0009
9.1.8. Centraliser
Centralisers are designed to centralise the toolstring inside the tubing during wireline
operations in deviated wells. The centraliser is normally positioned above the running or
pulling tool and its OD is determined by the tubing size. The positioning of the centraliser
also serves as a drift or gauge of the tubing.
9.1.8.1. Fluted Centraliser
Fluted Centralisers (Fig. 9-29) are available in various diameters and lengths. They are
supplied with industry standard pin by box connections complete with fishing necks.
Figure 9-29 FLUTED CENTRALISER
9.1.8.2. Bow Spring Centraliser
The bow spring centraliser (Fig. 9-30) is designed to centre the toolstring in the tail pipe
while deploying gauges. The bow spring centraliser will keep the toolstring and gauge
correctly positioned in tail pipes with ID's ranging from 2.00" to 4.00". Bow spring centralisers
are supplied with industry standard pin by box connections complete with fishing neck.
Figure 9-30 BOW SPRING CENTRALISER
9.1.8.3. Adjustable Spring Centraliser
The adjustable spring centraliser (Fig. 9-31) is designed to centralise toolstrings and gauges
during slickline operations, in the production tubing and exiting into the casing. Its flexible
design allows it to pass through restricted i.d.’s within the production tubing and tail pipe.
While expanding, and being held central in the casing. The operating parameters of the tool
allow it to pass through 2.1/4” i.d., while being able to expand up to 7” o.d. Tension on the
bow spring mandrel can be adjusted to accommodate toolstring weight being deployed. The
adjustable spring centraliser comes with industry standard pin by box connections complete
with fishing neck.
Rev 0 [06.02]
9-32 M HRD GEO 0009
ing Neck Connection
Figure 9-31 ADJUSTABLE SPRING CENTRALISER
9.1.8.4. Spring Roller Centraliser
The spring roller centralizer (Fig. 9-32) has been developed to improve the effectiveness of
wireline operations in highly deviated wells. The centralizer is usually positioned in the
toolstring immediately above the running or pulling tool. The rollers rotate freely to minimize
friction resistance against the tubing wall.
Figure 9-32 SPRING ROLLER CENTRALISER
Spring Force Adjustment
The spring force from the stack of disk (Belleville) springs is adjustable to suit the well
conditions/deviation. Adjustment is made by removing the “grub screw” (20) and backing off
the locking sleeve” (3). The “locking segment” (4) is removed and the “top sub” (2) rotated to
adjust the spring force. The locking segment, sleeve, and group screw are returned to their
original positions.The spring force is directed to the end of each “arm” (14) which presses the
“roller” (17) against the tubing wall. Nylotron composition rollers are available for use in
plastic coated and fiberglass lined tubing. Top connection is available in QLS or sucker rod
threads.
A swivel should always be included in the toolstring while using centralizers to prevent the
rotation being transferred to the wire. The new versions of the Petroline centralizer have a
swivel built into the top sub immediately below the connection.
9-34 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 10
OPERATIONAL SAFETY
ELEMENT 1.4
10-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
10.1. OPERATIONAL SAFETY
Safe working practices must be used when making up and handling toolstrings. Toolstrings
may be very long and heavy, and may cause injury when handling and lifting up into the
lubricator. Making up the tools may also cause injury to hands and feet if the correct
procedures are not used.
10.1.1. Toolstring Make-Up
After the individual tools and components have been checked and confirmed fit for use, the
proper make up procedure should be used.
• Always use the correct Personnel Protection Equipment.
• Check that the threads or quick connections are in good condition and never use
equipment which is suspect.
• Take care to observe for wrench marks and metal slivers which can cut hands. The
use of quick connections is preferred to reduce this risk and save make-up time.
• Assemble the toolstring on the floor or on a suitable surface which is not slippery.
• On threaded connections, if flats are provided, use the proper wrenches for make-up.
• Check the wrenches for wear on faces or insert teeth.
• Prop the components up on wood or similar if necessary to get the wrenches on the
tool.
• Always place pipe wrenches if used on the tool joint area provided and never on the
actual fish neck area causing damage to the fish neck shoulder.
• Make up threaded connections by hand until they shoulder out and then use the
wrenches to apply the torque. Never use cheater bars.
• Take care not to get fingers or hands trapped between wrenches.
• Do not over-torque the connections by jumping on the wrenches. This can cause
injury by falling.
• When moving the toolstring ensure fingers do not get caught in the jars.
10-4 M HRD GEO 0009
10.1.2. Toolstring Handling

Once the toolstring is made up, pull it up into the lubricator and attach a clamp. Never rely on
lubricator thread protector cap to stop toolstring dropping out bottom of lubricator.
• Always ensure the lifting equipment is appropriate and in good working condition.
• When picking up the lubricator, never stand below the toolstring in case of wire
breakage at the rope socket. Use a tooltrap if applicable.
• When raising or lowering toolstrings up to the lubricator, again never stand below the
toolstring
• For attaching the appropriate service tools to toolstrings, try and use a quick
connection.
• Keep feet clear of the tool when making it up to the toolstring in case the tool is
dropped.
• If using threaded connections, watch hands and fingers while torquing the connection.
• Never use cheater bars on the wrenches.
• If the tool is heavy, stand it on its end and lower the toolstring to the tool avoiding
lifting.
• When pulling up into lubricator, pull slowly so that if toolstring accidentally snags, the
winch will stop before the wire breaks.
• When lifting personnel ensure that winch being used is man rider certified.
• Whenever spooling in loose wire while rigging up, ensure personnel are cleared from
the area and that wire does not snag or catch.
SECTION 11
WIRELINE OPERATIONS OVERVIEW
ELEMENT 1.4
11-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
11.1. OPERATIONS OVERVIEW
The following chapter gives an overview of the different phases of drilling operations and
production operations in which wireline services are involved with.
11.1.1. Completions
In combination with the disciplines of geology, geophysics, and geochemistry, the usual
purpose of drilling a well is to establish the subsurface location of hydrocarbon reservoirs.
The term completion is derived from the operation to complete a well for production after it
has been successfully drilled. Dependent upon the reason for a well to be drilled (i.e. wildcat
exploration, appraisal or production) and the results of logging and/or well test results, the
well will then be:
• Plugged and abandoned (as it has no further use, i.e. a duster).
• Suspended as a future or possible production well.
• Completed as a production well.
In the early days, if the well was to be completed, the hardware installed, i.e. packer, tubing,
Xmas tree and other accessories, was termed the completion. The purpose of completing a
well is to produce hydrocarbons to surface production facilities. Commercial reasons demand
that this is achieved in an efficient, cost effective and safe manner throughout the producing
life of the well. Completing a well consists of a series of operations that are necessary to
enable a well to produce (and to sustain the production of) hydrocarbons following the
installation and cementing of the casing. Well completion operations include:
• Perforating.
• Sand control.
• Production packer installation.
• Tubing (completion) string / tubing hanger installation.
• Downhole safety valve installation.
• Xmas tree installation.
• Bringing the well onto production.
Well servicing methods must be considered as a fundamental element in the planning and
completion design process. For example, early measurement of formation parameters
(porosity, permeability) may indicate the need to stimulate (fracturing, acidising) a well to
enhance the production rate. An appropriate completion design must cater for these and any
future possible well servicing operations, both planned and unplanned. Similarly, subsea
completions will necessitate operations such as flowline and surface safety valve
installations. It should be emphasised here that such completion operations are not
independent and the engineer needs to understand the basics in every area to be most
effective in producing a completion design to cater for all contingencies.
11-4 M HRD GEO 0009
Slickline activities conducted during completion phase include :
• Drifting tubing on surface.
• Completion Assemblies inventory.
• Drifting Completion Assemblies on surface.
• Pressure testing Completion Assemblies.
• Function testing Completion Assemblies.
• Gas Lift Valve Change-out.
• Tubing Integrity.
• Tubing Drift.
• Setting Packer.
• Circulation.
• DHSV Installation.
• Setting Plugs.
• Pulling Plugs.
• Gas Lift Valve Change-out.
• DHSV Installation.
• Zone Isolation.
• Activating Tubing Conveyed Perforating Guns.
11.1.2. Well Intervention
Well intervention is the term used for any entry to the well under pressure, after the well is
completed, to conduct remedial work to keep the well in production or improve the production
rate in later stages of a wells life.
Well intervention work can be conducted by various means using wireline, slickline, coiled
tubing etc.
Slickline conduct many different and varied operations which all can be classed under the
Well Intervention bracket.
• Changing out of DHSSSV
• Drifting the well for operations

• Opening and closing Sliding Side Doors to change producing zones
• Changing out of gas lift valves
• Running gauge surveys
• Running memory production logging tools
• Setting and pulling various plugs
• Running investigative tools
• Clearing deposits in tubing
• Checking sand build up in well
• Locking open TRSSSV
• Setting insert valves in TRSSSV
11.1.3. Workover
Workover is the term used for major remedial work which requires the completion to be
retrieved from the well by rig operations, such as burst tubing, leaking tubing and parted
tubing to mention just a few. This is only done when all other avenues of repair by standard
Well Intervention methods have been unsuccessful. This is a very expensive form of well
repair as a workover rig has to be hired for the operations, the wellhead has to be removed
before pulling tubing and the well killed, which means that the formation pressure has to be
overcome by injecting fluids into the well to exert a higher hydrostatic pressure than the wells
formation pressure thus preventing the well from flowing.
Slickline operations conducted during a workover operation :
• Opening SSD to facilitate tubing annulus communication for killing well
• Installing circulating valve in SPM to facilitate tubing annulus communication
• Perforate tubing using mechanical tubing punch to facilitate tubing annulus

communication
• Setting and retrieving various plugs
11.1.4. Fishing
Fishing techniques are extremely varied and depend largely on the circumstances and well
conditions for each individual situation.
The aim of wireline is to complete the set programme as quickly and safely as possible
without getting the tools stuck or breaking wire. Towards this objective the following practices
should be observed:
11-6 M HRD GEO 0009
• Check and maintain equipment regularly
• Function test hydraulic jars and equipment to be run
• Check pulling / running tools move to the sheared position by removing the shear
pins and function test.
• Run the gauge cutter – larger than the tools to be run – before running the tools.
• Always be sure to run a tool with an OD larger than the rest of the toolstring, BELOW
the jars.
• Observe load limitations on the wire – DO NOT OVERPULL
• Keep the wire oiled – to reduce wear and friction
• Avoid kinking the wire by correct handling
• Check if the counter is correctly threaded and zeroed (odometer re-engaged)
• Keep the hydraulic pressure relief valve correctly adjusted
• Use correct equalizing procedures - Correct prongs - Wait until equalization is

complete
• Concentrate on what you are doing
• Try to ‘visualize’ (i.e. sense) what is occurring downhole, as the wire is manipulated
on the surface.
• If you are unsure – ask for assistance
• Keep a careful record of the toolstring lengths and OD’s
• Think AHEAD – Prepare for the unexpected !
• Check the well records for previous problems encountered.
Unfortunately however careful an operator is, fishing jobs will still occur.
REMEMBER : The practical skills of fishing are the most difficult, but the most important is
that you can learn.
EVERY TIME YOU RIG UP WIRE YOU HAVE A POTENTIAL FISHING JOB
When working in the wellhead area a steel headed hammer should never be used to make
up connections as sparks can be generated.
ALWAYS USE A BRASS HEADED HAMMER TO AVOID GENERATING SPARKS
During any wireline work a Quality Assurance Manual should always be present so that
company policies are followed.
SECTION 12
BASE/WORKSHOP
ELEMENT 1.4
12-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
12.1. BASE/WORKSHOP
The Base / Workshop is responsible for checking , maintaining , testing, repairing any
equipment required in the field.
Base /workshop staff will check that all equipment required for any operation is available and
in a working condition which includes the pressure testing of Pressure Control Equipment
and furnishing test certificates, load test certifcates, making sure all certification is available
and kept up to date.
Specialised containers (Fig. 12-1 and Fig. 12-2) are supplied for transporting equipment to
wellsite, such as Completion Baskets to accomodate different completion items such as
SCSSV’s, Side Pocket Mandrels, Sliding Sleeves etc.
Wireline Tool Containers/ toolbox contain specialised tools and spares for conducting
wireline operations such as hand toolbox, toolstring components, standard running / pulling
tools, plugs and spares and accessories for wireline equipment such as japy pump ( fluid
transfer pump), test pump, hoisting equipment etc.. In the case of Wireline Barge or Wireline
Truck all the equipment would already be stowed and available onboard barge or truck.
Figure 12-1 COMPLETION BASKET
Figure 12-2 COMPLETION BASKET

12-4 M HRD GEO 0009
The following would be considered standard equipment furnished by base/workshop, or in

the case of a permanent contract, on board equipment for beginning of any wireline
operations:
• Wireline toolbox/container
• Fire extinguisher
• Wireline Unit
• Surface equipment ( PCE)
• Hoisting Equipment
All of the above would be checked by base staff or ideally by crew assigned to conduct the
relevant wireline operation. All malfunctioning of equipment during operations should be
reported to base/workshop to be rectified on equipments return to base.
If the above equipment is permenantly on site, it is the wireline crews responsibility to check
condition and maintain the equipment to a serviceable condition. Any repairs required that
cannot be rectified on site, or certification of equipment that is not valid, should be reported
to immediate supervisor and base/workshop.
The following would be considered the standard spares that should be available in the
wireline toolbox/container :
• Stuffing box packing and glands
• Spare engine oil filters
• Hydraulic oil
• Spare air Filter
• Spare ‘O’ ring kits for all Pressure Control Equipment
• Shear Stock
• BOP redress kits
• Spare counter cable
• Spare counter Wheel
• Spare pressure wheels
• Spare depth counter
• Spare weight indicator
• Spares for standard toolstring

• Spares for Running /Pulling tools
The wireline crew is responsible for maintaining the spares to the required levels and
reporting all spares used to the base/workshop who are responsible for furnishing
replacement spares.
The wireline crew should also have available to them, in the wireline toolbox container (Fig.
12-3), a hand toolbox containing the following minimum list of hand tools.
• Packing plucker
• Pliers
• Wire cutters
• Small pipe wrench
• Adjustable wrench
• Assorted screwdrivers
• Centre punch
• Rubber headed hammer
• Assorted files
• Allen Keys ( metric and imperial )
• Hacksaw
• Spare hacksaw blades
• Caliper
• Measuring tape
• Hammer 2lb
• Assorted pin punches
• Rasp
• Various sizes and and types of shear stock
• Teflon tape
• Wire brush
12-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Hand tools should be checked for damage and fit for use. If hand tool cannot be repaired
they should be disposed of and replacement ordered from base, if hand tool can be repaired
they should be returned to base to be refurbished and inventory updated accordingly.
Figure 12-3 WIRELINE CONTAINER

SECTION 13
SITE AND EQUIPMENT
ELEMENT 2.1
13-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
13.1. SITE AND EQUIPMENT
Wireline Operation with Well Head Pressure require well trained operators and well
maintained equipment. A Wireline operation conducted under pressure, especially with the
presence of gas, needs careful preparation and equipment adapted to the job to be
performed.
A Quality Assurance manual should always be available at wellsite for reference which lists
company procedures.
A perfect understanding of all operational steps, possible hazards and any emergency shut-
in procedures is a prerequisite for all operations conducted under pressure and should be
discussed on the site with the client before starting any operation.
A risk assessment should be conducted before every operation even if work has been
completed before on a particular site as the conditions could have changed from previous
operation.
Normally on most sites, a permit to work is necessary before any work can be commenced.
A safety meeting or toolbox talk should be conducted before any work commences to make
all personnel aware of possible hazards, escape routes and operations to be conducted.
13.1.1. Moving Equipment
While positioning Wireline unit the following precautions should be taken :
• Wear appropriate PPE.
• Know the hand signals being used.
• Only one designated Banksman.
• Do not stand under suspended load.
• Do not stand between the load and an area of no escape.
• Always have the load and hoist operator in clear sight.
13.1.2. Wireline Unit Checks
Once the Wireline Unit has been positioned and securely tied down to avoid movement of
the unit during operations, the following checks should be made prior to starting the power
pack :
• Coolant level.
• Hydraulic oil level.
• Diesel oil level.

13-4 M HRD GEO 0009
• All valves are in the open position on hydraulic system.
• Winch unit is in neutral gear.
• Winch unit brake is applied.
It is good practice to check diesel level in the power pack, before, during and after operations
to ensure diesel fuel starvation is avoided resulting in the fuel injectors having to be primed
and any air locks bled from the system. This causes an unacceptable delay/downtime which
could result in the person in charge of the wireline crew not being allowed to continue
working on site and could be dismissed from the company.
13.1.3. Personnel Safety
• Always wear your safety equipment when working on Pressure Control Equipment
(boots, hard hat, overall, gloves, safety glasses).
• If H2S is present or suspected, always carry an escape mask around the neck during
the operation
• In the presence of H2S, bleeding off lubricator must be performed by an operator

wearing a self breathing apparatus. H2S Can Kill You. Make sure that nobody is
standing downwind.
Any operation on the well head and associated equipment (disconnection, actuation of BOP
or valves …. Etc) must be monitored by senior member of crew or someone from the rig
crew, ready for emergency action.
Crews working in isolated locations must always carry a FIRST AID KIT.
13.1.4. Well Site Safety
• NO SMOKING Is allowed on or near the well site.
• CLEAR THE WAY to the X-Mas tree wellhead. Handling heavy equipment can be
hazardous if the ground is littered with loose boards, scraps of oil field equipment,
nails, mud-filled holes …… etc.
• DO NOT JUMP from platforms, use the stairs and ladders.
• When working above water, wear your LIFE-JACKET.
• Take care where you place your feet when climbing the X-mas tree. Do not grasp any
part of the tree which is not firmly secured. (valve handles ….. etc).
• Should night work be foreseen, take the appropriate steps to ensure PROPER
LIGHTING is available.
13.1.5. Wire Handling
When handling wire the following precautions should be taken :
• Appropriate PPE is being worn, especially safety glasses.
• When cutting wire. The wire either side of the cut should be firmly held to avoid the
wire coiling into its natural curvature and causing injury.
13-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 14
TOOLS
ELEMENT 2.2
14-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
14.1. DOWNHOLE TOOLS
Downhole tools are attached to the standard toolstring to allow manipulation, pulling and setting
of flow control equipment and they all fall into one of the following categories:
• Investigative Tools
• Running/Pulling Tools
• Specific Running/Pulling Tools
• Lock Mandrels
• Probes
• Prongs
• Shifting Tools
• Kickover Tools
• Flow Control Devices
14.2. INVESTIGATIVE TOOLS
14.2.1. Gauge Cutter (Gauge Ring)
A gauge cutter, (Fig. 14-1), consists of a short bar with a machined bore extending up the centre,
with elongated windows to permit fluid by-pass. The up-set gauge ring on the bottom is sized for
the application and has a large bevel cut to provide a scraping edge. The top comes with an
industry standard thread connection complete with fishing neck. Gauge cutters have no moving
parts and require very little maintenance.
Figure 14-1 GAUGE CUTTER

14-4 M HRD GEO 0009
14.2.1.1 Uses
Originally developed for removing paraffin / wax from the I.D. of the wellbore, gauge cutters, are
now commonly used to perform ‘gauge’ or ‘drift’ runs prior to retrieval of flow control devices and
to check that landing nipples are not coated with deposits such as scale or wax prior to
installation of a flow control device. The gauge cutter should be the first run in hole of any wireline
program to ensure that the tubing is clear for running any subsequent wireline tools.
• To check the tubing I.D.
• To tag the total depth.
• To locate nipple I.D. and No-Go. (refer section 3.3.3.2.)
• To locate restrictions.
• To cut sand, scale, paraffin, and other deposits from the tubing wall.
• To determine the profile of a bridge by running successively smaller gauge cutters and
plot the depth, versus the size to establish the shape of restriction.
14.2.2. Lead Impression Block (LIB)
A lead impression block (Fig. 14-2) consists of a steel housing filled with lead which extends past
the bottom of housing and held in place by a spiral pin. The lead and housing have the same
O.D. size. The top end of housing comes with an industry standard thread connection complete
with fishing neck. Lead impression blocks have no moving parts and require very little
maintenance.
Figure 14-2 LEAD IMPRESSION BLOCK

14.2.2.1. Uses
The lead impression block is used primarily in fishing operations to identify what is uppermost on
the fish but can also be used to identify any restrictions in the tubing string.
14.2.3. Blind Box
A blind box (Fig. 14-3) consists of a solid bar with a flat hardened bottom end to reduce wear and
damage and an industry standard thread connection with fishing neck on top. Blind boxes have
no moving parts and require very little maintenance.
Figure 14-3 BLIND BOX
14.2.3.1. Uses
The blind box is designed to be used when heavy downward jarring is required to dislodge a fish
or push an obstruction downward through the tubing string to a position where it can cause least
inconvenience. Blind boxes can also be used as a means of breaking the wire at the rope socket,
allowing the wire to be recovered to surface.
14.2.4. Tubing Swage
A tubing swage (Fig. 14-4) consists of a solid bar with an up-set in the middle and tapered at both
ends, a centre bore with lateral ports provide fluid bypass. An industry standard thread connection
with fishing neck is provided on the top. Swages have no moving parts and require little
maintenance.
14-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure14-4 TUBING SWAGE
14.2.4.1. Uses
A tubing swage is designed to be used to restore minor restrictions caused by light collapse in the
tubing string. Be aware that tubing can collapse again once swage jarred through restriction.
14.2.5. Tubing End Locator (TEL)
A tubing end locator (Fig. 14-5) consists of a solid body with a milled pocket to accommodate the
latch finger. The latch finger is spring loaded and retained by a latch pin. A shear pin is installed
below the latch finger, which retains the finger at 90 degrees. An industry standard thread
connection with fishing neck is provided on the top and an industry standard thread connection on
bottom. Tubing end locators have very few moving parts and are quick and easy to maintain.
Figure 14-5 TUBING END LOCATOR

14.2.5.1. Uses
A tubing end locator is designed to locate the end of the tubing when running the completion as a
cross reference check of the tubing tally. Also used to correlate hold up depth (HUD), or plugged
back total depth (PBTD) accurately from the bottom of the tubing, the depth of which is known
from completion records
14.2.6. Tubing (Wire) Scratcher
A tubing (wire) Scratcher (Fig 14-6) consists of a solid bar with a series of drilled holes to accept
the wireline and Allen screws for securing the wire. An industry standard thread connection with
fishing neck is provided on the top.
Figure 14-6 TUBING (WIRE) SCRATCHER
14.2.6.1. Uses
A tubing (wire) scratcher (Fig. 14-7) is designed to loosen paraffin, scale and other deposits from
the inside wall of production tubing. Wire scratchers can also be used to fish small pieces of
wireline lying loose in the well, locate nipples, side pocket mandrels etc., clean nipple profiles that
are suspected to have debris or deposits causing difficulty to set flow control devices.
14-8 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-7 BAITED TUBING (WIRE) SCRATCHER
14.2.7. Tubing (Wire) Brush
A tubing (wire) brush (Fig. 14-8) consists of a solid bar with a series of drilled holes to accept the
wireline and Allen screws to secure the pieces of wire. An industry standard thread connection
with fishing neck is provided on the top.
Figure 14-8 TUBING (WIRE) BRUSH

14.2.7.1. Uses
A tubing (wire) brush (Fig. 14-9) is designed to loosen paraffin, scale and other deposits from the
inside wall of production tubing, locate nipples, side pocket mandrels etc., clean nipple profiles
that are suspected of having debris or deposits causing difficulty to set flow control devices etc.
Figure 14-9 BAITED TUBING (WIRE) BRUSH
14.2.8. D & D Holefinder
The D&D holefinder is a tubing testing apparatus that is capable of conducting multiple tests
inside the tubing in one single run.
14.2.8.1 Uses
The D&D holefinder (Fig. 14-10) is used to test the entire tubing string, isolate sections of tubing
to locate a leak, test gas lift mandrels or can be used as a circulating plug.
14-10 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-10 D&D HOLEFINDER C/W TUBING STOP

14.3. STANDARD RUNNING/PULLING TOOLS
Running/Pulling tools are designed to insert and remove various subsurface equipment into and
out of the well. They can only be used to insert and remove an item of equipment that has a
standard fishing neck. If in the event that equipment cannot be set in the well and running tool pin
has not sheared, the equipment can be pulled back to surface and if it is impossible to retrieve
the equipment, the pulling tool can be released by shearing a pin and returning to surface leaving
equipment in well.
Running/Pulling tools may be designed for either external or internal fishing necks and the
shearing of the pin may be achieved by jarring up or down. (Table 14.1)
Jar Direction Type Fishing Neck Tool Manufacturer/Type

Jar Up External Otis RB, RS / Camco JUC, JUS
Jar Down External Otis SB, SS / Camco JDC, JDS
Jar Up Internal Otis GR
Jar Down Internal Otis GS / Camco PRS
Table 14.1 RUNNING/PULLING TOOL JAR DIRECTION TO SHEAR
Running/Pulling tools have correspondingly shaped dogs (Fig. 14-11), hence a Camco or
Petroline tool should not be used to fish Otis, Bowen or Baker equipment and vice versa as
damage to the fishing neck and pulling dogs can result.
Figure 14-11 COMPARISON OF EXTERNAL FISHNECKS AND DOGS

14-12 M HRD GEO 0009
It is essential that the operator selects a tool which shears in the direction OPPOSITE to which
jarring is required, to achieve movement downhole. i.e. JAR DOWN action is required to unlock
the mandrel, so a JAR UP TO SHEAR tool must be used.
14.3.1 Otis ‘R and ‘S’
The operator must be able to immediately identify in which direction a particular tool will shear.
As an aid, these features (Fig. 14-12) should be remembered to differentiate between the Otis ‘R’
and ‘S’ tools.
Figure 14-12 OTIS ‘R’ and ‘S’ TOOL FEATURES
An easy way to remember in which direction they shear is, ‘R’ for roof, which is up and ‘S’ for soil,
which is down.
The construction of the tools vary internally (Fig. 14-13). In the ‘R’ tool the core is attached
directly to the top sub and the skirt is pinned to the core. In the ‘S’ tool the skirt is attached to the
top sub and the core is pinned to the skirt.
Figure 14-13 CONSTRUCTION OF ‘R’ and ‘S’ TOOLS

14.3.1.1. Otis ‘R’ Series
The ‘R’ series pulling tools (Fig. 14-14) are designed to engage an external fishing neck and
shear to release by an upward jar action. There are three different versions of the ‘R’ series tool,
RB, RS and RJ. The difference in the three types is only in the length of the core which is
installed in the tool. The type RB uses the longest core, the RS uses the intermediate length core
and the type RJ the shortest core.
Figure 14-14 OTIS ‘R’ SERIES PULLING TOOL

14-14 M HRD GEO 0009
The pulling tool is attached to a standard toolstring and lowered into the well. Upon contact with
the subsurface equipment, the lower portion of the cylinder passes over the fishing neck or
pulling flange because of the force of the dog spring. Upward impact of the jars are utilised to pull
the subsurface equipment from the well.
When tools reach surface the subsurface equipment can be released from pulling tool by use of a
releasing tool (Fig. 14-15) which is inserted below the upper tapered end of the dogs
Figure 14-15 RELEASING TOOL
The shear pin should withstand considerable jarring before shearing. When the pin shears the
main spring acts between the top sub and cylinder which moves the core upwards within the
cylinder. This action causes the dogs to move upwards against the force of the dog spring and
their tapered upper ends are forced inwards thereby moving the lower end of the dogs outwards
releasing their grip on fishing neck of subsurface equipment.
If shear pin in pulling tool has sheared, a new pin can be fitted using a pinning tool (Fig. 14-16),
which is screwed into core of tool and the plate screwed aganst bottom of cylinder/skirt and
tightened until shear pin holes are aligned. Once the pieces of the sheared pin have been
removed a new shear pin can be fitted and pinning tool unscrewed from core.
Figure 14-16 REPINNING TOOL
The reach of the pulling tool is determined by the length of the core (Fig. 14-17). Reach is the
distance from the lower end or face of the core, down to the engaging shoulder at the lower end
of the pulling tool dogs. Therefore the type RB pulling tool which has the longest core would have
the shortest reach, and the type RJ pulling tool with the shortest core would have the longest
reach. Any one of these three tools (type RB, RS and RJ) may be changed to either of the two
other types simply by changing the core. All other parts of the three types of tools are identical
and are completely interchangeable.
Figure 14-17 CORE REACH
The type of lock mandrel or other downhole device to be retrieved will determine which type of
pulling tool must be used. Most of the locking mandrels will require a specific type of pulling tool
and no other type of pulling tool should be used.
All shear up pulling tools have a larger shear pin than the equivalent shear down tool.
14-16 M HRD GEO 0009
14.3.1.2. Otis ‘S’ Series
The ‘S’ series running/pulling tools (Fig. 14-18) are designed to engage an external fishing neck
and shear to release by a downward jar action. There are four different versions of the ‘S’ series
tool, SB, SS, SSJ and SM. The difference in the SB and SS types is only in the length of the core
which is installed in the tool. The type SB uses the longest core, the SS uses the intermediate
length core and the SSJ uses the shortest length core with double shear down adaptor fitted. The
type SM is only made in one size, has the short core and is only used for gaslift valves.
Figure 14-18 OTIS ‘S’ SERIES RUNNING/PULLING TOOL

The tool is attached to a standard toolstring and lowered into the well. Upon contact with the
subsurface equipment, the lower portion of the cylinder passes over the fishing neck or pulling
flange because of the force of the dog spring. They are designed to pull equipment utilising
upward impact of the jars or to run and release equipment by harnassing the downward impact of
the jars.
When tools reach surface the subsurface equipment can be released from pulling tool by use of a
releasing tool (Fig. 14-15) which is inserted below the upper tapered end of the dogs
main spring acts between the core nut and cylinder which moves the core upwards within the
cylinder. This action causes the dogs to move upwards against the force of the dog spring and
their tapered upper ends are forced inwards thereby moving the lower end of the dogs outwards
releasing their grip on fishing neck of subsurface equipment.
If shear pin in tool has sheared, a new pin can be fitted using a pinning tool (Fig. 14-16), which is
screwed into core of tool and the plate screwed aganst bottom of cylinder and tightened until
shear pin holes are aligned. Once the pieces of the sheared pin have been removed a new shear
pin can be fitted and pinning tool unscrewed from core.
The reach of the tool is determined by by the length of the core (Fig. 14-19). Reach is the
of the tool dogs. Therefore the type SB tool which has the longest core would have the shortest
reach, and the type SJ tool with the shortest core would have the longest reach. The type SB and
SS may be changed to either type simply by changing the core. All other parts of the SB and SS
are identical and are completely interchangeable.
The type of lock mandrel or other downhole device to be set or retrieved will determine which
type of tool must be used. Most of the locking mandrels will require a specific type of tool and no
other type of tool should be used.
All shear down tools have a smaller shear pin than the equivalent shear up tool.
14-18 M HRD GEO 0009
14.3.1.3. Otis ‘SSJ’ Double Shear Down Adapter
The ‘SSJ’ double shear down adapter (Fig. 14-20) is designed to be added to an ‘S’ series
running/pulling tool when a ‘J’ (long reach) core is fitted.
The SSJ adapter permits the ‘S’ series tool to be sheared by jarring downwards on either the
core or skirt. The core on an SB and SS tool must have contact to enable the pin to be sheared.
The SSJ combination is easier to repin and can also be added to ‘S’ tools with B and S cores, i.e.
SSB and SSS combinations.
Figure 14-20 SSJ DOUBLE SHEAR ADAPTER

14.3.2. Camco JU and JD Series Tools
The operator must be able to immediately identify in which direction a particular tool will shear.
As an aid, the JU is a Jar Up tool and the JD is a Jar Down Tool and the external feature used to
differentiate between the two tools is, the visible grub screw on the top sub of a JU which is not
visible on the JD.
The ‘J’ series tools have a larger O.D. than the equivalent Otis tool and the dogs are machined
from one piece of steel, as opposed to the Otis type which have three independent dogs This
design is more robust and ensures that the load is equally dispersed to all three dog fingers.
No releasing tool is required as the dogs can be retracted manually by compressing the external
dog spring.
The construction of the tools vary internally (Fig. 14-21). In the JU tool the core is attached
directly to the top sub and the skirt is pinned to the core. In the JD tool the skirt is attached to the
top sub and the core is pinned to the skirt
Figure 14-21 CONSTRUCTION OF JU and JD SERIES TOOLS

14-20 M HRD GEO 0009
14.3.2.1. Camco ‘JU’ Series
The ‘JU’ series tools (Fig. 14-22) are designed to engage an external fishing neck and shear to
release by an upward jar action. There are three different versions of the ‘JU’ series tool, JUC,
JUS and JUL. The difference in the three types is only in the length of the core which is installed
in the tool. The type JUC uses the longest core, the JUS uses the intermediate length core and
the type JUL the shortest core.
Figure 14-22 CAMCO ‘JU’ SERIES TOOL

flange because of the force of the dog spring. Upward impact of the jars are utilised to pull the
subsurface equipment from the well.
When tools reach surface the subsurface equipment can be released manually by pulling up on
dogs by hand to compress dog spring.
main spring acts between the top sub and skirt which moves the top sub and core up. This action
causes the core to lift the pawls which in turn lift the dogs and the bottom end of the dogs are
moved outwards due to the design of the dog aperture in the skirt, thereby releasing the grip on
fishing neck of subsurface equipment.
shear pin holes are aligned. The top sub and dog spring is removed to allow removal of sheared
pin, once the pieces of the sheared pin have been removed a new shear pin can be fitted and the
dog spring and top sub replaced.
The reach of the tool is determined by the length of the core (Fig. 14-23). Reach is the distance
from the lower end or face of the core, down to the engaging shoulder at the lower end of the
pulling tool dogs. Therefore the type JUC tool which has the longest core would have the shortest
reach, and the type JUL tool with the shortest core would have the longest reach. Any one of
these three tools (type JUC, JUS and JUL) may be changed to either of the two other types
simply by changing the core. All other parts of the three types of tools are identical and are
completely interchangeable.
The JU series tool can be changed to a JD series tool by changing the following parts.
• Top Sub
• Core Nut
• Retainer Screw

14-22 M HRD GEO 0009
The type of lock mandrel or other downhole device to be retrieved will determine which type of
pulling tool must be used. Most of the locking mandrels will require a specific type of pulling tool
and no other type of pulling tool should be used.
All shear up pulling tools have a larger shear pin than the equivalent shear down tool.
14.3.2.2. Camco ‘JD’ Series
The ‘JD’ series tools (Fig 14.24) are designed to engage an external fishing neck and shear to
release by a downward jar action. There are three different versions of the ‘JD’ series tool, JDC,
JDS and JDL. The difference in the JDC, JDS and JDL types is only in the length of the core
which is installed in the tool. The type JDC uses the longest core, the JDS uses the intermediate
length core and the JDL uses the shortest core.
Figure 14-24 CAMCO ‘JD’ SERIES TOOL

flange because of the force of the dog spring. They are designed to pull equipment utilising
upward impact of the jars or to run and release equipment by utilising downward impact of the
jars.
dogs by hand to compress dog spring.
main spring acts between the core nut and skirt which moves the core nut and core up within the
skirt and top sub. This action causes the core to lift the pawls which in turn lift the dogs and the
bottom end of the dogs are moved outwards due to the design of the dog aperture in the skirt,
thereby releasing the grip on fishing neck of subsurface equipment.
shear pin holes are aligned. The top sub and dog spring is removed to allow removal of sheared
pin, once the pieces of the sheared pin have been removed a new shear pin can be fitted and the
dog spring and top sub replaced.
The reach of the tool is determined by by the length of the core (Fig. 14-25). Reach is the
of the tool dogs. Therefore the type JDC tool which has the longest core would have the shortest
reach, and the type JDL tool with the shortest core would have the longest reach. The type JDC,
JDS and JDL may be changed to either type simply by changing the core. All other parts of the
JDC, JDS and JDL are identical and are completely interchangeable.
The JD series tool can be changed to a JU series tool by changing the following parts.
• Top Sub
• Core Nut
• Retainer Screw

14-24 M HRD GEO 0009
The type of lock mandrel or other downhole device to be set or retrieved will determine which
type of tool must be used. Most of the locking mandrels will require a specific type of tool and no
other type of tool should be used.
All shear down tools have a smaller shear pin than the equivalent shear up tool.
14.3.3. Fishing Necks
All wireline toolstring components, downhole tools and flow control devices are manufactured
with either an external or internal industry standard fishing neck. This fishing neck allows
toolstring components and downhole tools to be recovered or fished from well in the event they
are lost downhole. The fishing neck fitted to flow control devices allows them to be set and
retrieved from well using appropriate running and pulling tools.
14.3.3.1. External Fishing Neck
The external fishing neck (Fig. 14-26) is found on all toolstring components, downhole tools and
various flow control devices. Table 14.2 shows the industry standard sizes of external fishing
necks found on different O.D. sizes of toolstring components.
Figure 14-26 EXTERNAL FISHING NECK
Toolstring Diameter ‘A’ Diameter ‘B’

Size Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
(Nominal)
¾” 0.750” 0.740” 0.630” 0.620”
1” 1.000” 0.990” 0.880” 0.870”
1 ¼” 1.187* 1.177” 1.060” 1.030”
1 ½” 1.375” 1.365” 1.190” 1.160”
1 ⅞” 1.750” 1.740” 1.500” 1.470”
2 ⅛” 1.750” 1.740” 1.500” 1.470”
2 ½” 2.313” 2.303” 2.060” 2.030”
Table 14.2 STANDARD FISHING NECK SIZES

The external fishing neck size fitted to downhole tools depends on the manufacturer, but will be
one of the industry standard sizes listed in table 14.2 to enable tool to be recovered by standard
size of pulling tool.
14.3.3.2. Internal Fishing Neck
The internal fishing neck (Fig. 14-27) is normally found only on flow control devices locking
mechanisms. Some flow control devices can be set and retrieved with standard running/pulling
tools but the majority are set and retrieved using specific tools manufactured specifically for this
purpose. Table 14.3 shows typical internal fishing neck sizes of locking mandrels used in specific
sizes of tubing in which the flow control device would be used.
Figure 14-31 INTERNAL FISHING NECK SIZES
Tubing Size Diameter ‘A’ Diameter ‘B’

(Nominal)
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
2.062” 1.06” 1.08” 1.22” 1.24”
2⅜” 1.38” 1.40” 1.57” 1.59”

2⅞” 1.81” 1.83” 2.00” 2.02”
3½” 2.31” 2.33” 2.50” 2.52”
Table 14.3 INTERNAL FISHING NECK SIZES

14-26 M HRD GEO 0009
14.3.4. Otis ‘G’ Series
The ‘G’ series tools are designed to latch an internal fishing neck and are designed to set or
retrieve downhole flow control devices fitted with locking mandrels such as Otis ‘X’ and ‘XN’ lock
mandrels, soft set bomb hangers etc. There are two different versions of the ‘G’ series tool, GS
and GR. The difference between the GS and GR types is the direction in which the tool shears.
14.3.4.1. Otis ‘GS’
The ‘GS’ running/pulling tools (Fig. 14-28) are designed to latch an internal fishing neck and
shear to release by a downward jar action.
Figure 14-28 OTIS ‘GS’ RUNNING/PULLING TOOL

subsurface equipment, the dogs move upwards against the dog spring until they are forced
inwards into recess in core allowing the dogs to pass the upper I.D. of the fishneck and return to
original position by tension in dog spring, latching the fishneck. They are designed to pull
equipment utilising upward impact of the jars or to run and release equipment by utilising
downward impact of the jars.
dogs retainer by hand to compress dog spring and lift dogs allowing them to retract into recess in
core.
main spring acts between the top sub and core. This action causes the core to move downwards
allowing the dogs to retract into recess in the core thus releasing the tools grip on the fishneck.
If shear pin in tool has sheared, a new pin can be fitted using a ‘GU’ adapter (Fig. 14-29), which
is screwed onto fishneck of GS until pin holes align, once sheared pin pieces have been
removed, a new shear pin can be fitted and GU adapter removed. If no GU adapter is available, a
vice can be used as a lever to align shear pin holes.
Figure 14-29 OTIS ‘GU’ ADAPTER

14-28 M HRD GEO 0009
14.3.4.2. Otis ‘GR’
The ‘GR’ tools (Fig. 14-30) are designed to latch an internal fishing neck and shear to release by
a upward jar action. There are two types of GR tools, the GR and GRL, the only difference
between the two tools is that the GRL has an extension fitted to the core.
Figure 14-30 OTIS ‘GR’ TOOL
The ‘GR’ consists of a standard ‘GS’ with a ‘GU’ adapter screwed on top sub to change the GS
into a GR jar up tool.
REMEMBER: The shear pin must be removed from GS before running the GR combination,
failure to do so will result in the ‘GR’ being unable to be sheared in either direction.
14.3.5. Petroline ‘DU’ Pulling Tool
The Petroline ‘DU’ pulling tool (Fig. 14-31) is used to pull locks etc. fitted with an internal fishing
neck. It has been designed to overcome the limitations imposed by the single shear direction of
the Otis ‘GS and ‘GR’ pulling tools.
The ‘DU’ provides the option to jar down with no chance of shearing the pin until upward jarring
prepares the tool to be sheared, in the event that flow control device cannot be pulled, by further
downward jarring. This means that locks can be jarred downwards to break the ‘set’ of the keys in
the locking profile and any ‘bonding’ which may occur between the packing and the seal bore.
This has always been the desired action before attempting to pull a lock and the reason why the
‘GR’ is the recommended pulling tool but the ‘GS’ is often utilised. The ‘DU’ permits downward
jarring to loosen the lock, followed by upward jarring to unlock the keys.
Figure 14-31 PETROLINE ‘DU’ PULLING TOOL

14-30 M HRD GEO 0009
The pulling tool is attached to a standard toolstring and lowered into the well. Upon contact with
the subsurface equipment, the latch fingers move upwards against the dog spring until they are
forced inwards into recess in inner core allowing the dogs to pass the upper I.D. of the fishneck
and return to original position by tension in dog spring, latching the fishneck. They are designed
to pull equipment utilising downward action to break the ‘set’ of the keys in the locking profile and
any ‘bonding’ which can occur between the packing and the seal bore and then upward jarring to
unlock the keys and retrieve downhole flow control equipment.
finger retainer by hand to compress dog spring and lift latch fingers allowing them to retract into
recess in inner core.
14.3.5.1. Sequence of Operations
Refer to Figure 14.31
The ‘DU’ is pinned with two shear pins, shear pin ‘A’ and shear pin ‘B’ which allows unlimited
downward jar action to break the ‘set’ of the keys in the locking profile and any ‘bonding’ which
can occur between the packing and the seal bore as there is no force applied to either shear pin.
Upward jar action shears pin ‘A’ and the upper sections of the ‘DU’ move upwards. The lockdown
keys are forced inwards by the steel spring belt and the ratchet grips the ratchet mandrel. These
two devices prevent the upper section from returning to its original position. This position is
known as the pre-release position.
In this position the downhole flow control equipment can be retrieved to surface. In the event that
flow control equipment cannot be released and retrieved to surface, downward jar action can be
applied to shear pin ‘B’ with the jarring force being transmitted through the lockdown keys, ratchet
and inner core. This allows the inner core to move down and latch fingers to retract into recess in
inner core, thus releasing their grip on fishing neck and allowing toolstring and pulling tool to be
recovered to surface.
The telescopic inner mandrel permits the shear mechanism to function even if the primary device
fails.
This design permits shearing and releasing of the tool, even if the fishing neck is partially blocked
with debris, preventing the core moving down far enough to permit contact between the outer
sleeve and and the fishing neck.
14.3.6. Camco ‘PRS’ Pulling Tool
The Camco ‘PRS’ series pulling tools (Fig. 14-32) are designed to latch and pull locks etc. fitted
with an internal fishing neck. There are three types of PRS series pulling tools, the PRS, PRS-2
and PRS-3. The differences between the three tools are that the PRS shears downwards to
release, the PRS-2 has a reversible shear releasing mechanism and the PRS-3 has a reversible
shear releasing mechanism with an extended core to release the Otis ‘D’ lock.
Figure 14-32 CAMCO ‘PRS’ AND ‘PRS-2’ PULLING TOOLS

14-32 M HRD GEO 0009
The PRS pulling tool (Fig. 14-33) is attached to a standard toolstring and lowered into the well.
Upon contact with the subsurface equipment, the collet moves upwards against the spring
allowing the collet fingers to move inwards into recess in collet core allowing the collet fingers to
pass the upper I.D. of the fishneck and return to original position by tension in spring, latching the
fishneck. They are designed to pull equipment utilising upward jar action to unlock the keys and
retrieve downhole flow control equipment.
When tools reach surface the subsurface equipment can be released by inserting pin punches
through the j-slots in the collet housing and into hole in collet, pulling pin punches upwards and
locking them into j-slot allows the subsurface equipment to be released.
In the event that the subsurface equipment cannot be retrieved, downward jarring on the PRS will
shear the shear pin, the inner mandrel and collet core will move down allowing the collet fingers
to collapse into the recess in collet core thus releasing the hold on fishing neck. Once the tool is
sheared the ratchet sleeve holds the inner mandrel in the downward position allowing the
toolstring and pulling tool to be retrieved to surface.
Figure 14-33 CAMCO ‘PRS’ PULLING TOOL

14.4. SPECIFIC RUNNING/PULLING TOOLS
Specific running/pulling tools are required to set and retrieve particular manufacturers lock
mandrels and flow control devices in the tubing or landing/seating nipples such as safety valves,
separation tools, pack offs, plugs etc. Each specific running/pulling tool can only be used with the
manufacturers specific equipment that they have been designed for.
Specific running/pulling tools are illustrated in section 14.5. along with particular manufacturers
lock mandrels which they are designed to be used with to facilitate the setting and retrieval of
downhole flow control equipment.
14.5. LOCK MANDRELS
A lock mandrel is a device which can be set in the tubing or landing nipple by utilising slips, dogs
or keys to provide an anchor for various flow control devices such as plugs, safety valves,
separation tools etc. and has a means of sealing around its outside diameter (OD) to form a seal
to hold pressure from above, below or both directions dependant on utilisation.
There are three main groups of lock mandrel types:
• Slip Lock
• Collar Lock
• Nipple Lock
14.5.1. Slip Locks
The slip lock was the the first type of lock to be designed and can be set at any depth in any
tubing apart from internally plastic coated tubing. They have limitations which make them less
useful than the other types of lock mandrels.
• Maximum pressure differential 1500 psi.
• Will hold pressure from below only.
• Will not pass a nipple bore of the same nominal size as the tubing.
• Can be unlocked by excessive flow from above.
14.5.1.1. ‘W’ Slip Lock
The ‘W’ slip lock (Fig. 14-34) is designed to be set at any position in the tubing. The slip lock,
flow control device and ‘W’ running tool (Fig. 14-34) is attached to standard toolstring (Fig. 14-
35) and lowered into the well until required setting depth is reached. An upward pull on the
toolstring will grip the tubing with the slips sufficiently to allow the jars to be closed gently to allow
upward jarring. The slips are expanded outwards by the upward movement of the main mandrel,
element assembly, element expander and slip mandrel. Once the slips are fully expanded the
aluminium pin shears which ensures the slips are fully set before the element is expanded by the
upward movement of the main mandrel and element expander to form a seal between tubing
and slip lock body.
14-34 M HRD GEO 0009
Further upward jarring shears the shear pin in the ‘W’ running tool, allowing the toolstring and
and running tool to be retrieved to surface leaving the ‘W’ slip lock and flow control device set in
the tubing.
When retrieving the ‘W’ slip lock with an RB pulling tool and suitable pulling prong for flow control
device, the core of the RB strikes the main mandrel which moves the element expander
downwards, allowing the element assembly seal to retract and equalise, before the RB latches
the slip carrier, further jarring down moves the slip mandrel downwards releasing the grip of the
slips to the tubing. The toolstring, RB pulling tool, slip lock and flow control device can now be
retrieved to surface due to the RB being attached to the fishneck of the slip carrier which ensures
the slips remains retracted during retrieval.
Figure 14-34 ‘W’ RUNNING TOOL AND ‘W’ SLIP LOCK

Figure 14-35 ‘W’ SLIP LOCK RUNNING AND SETTING SEQUENCE

14-36 M HRD GEO 0009
14.5.2. Collar Locks
The collar locks are designed to securely lock flow control devices in the tubing by means of dogs
which extend outwards and locate into the collar recess of external upset (EU) and non-upset
(NU) type tubing. They have the following features and limitations.
• Will hold approximately 5,000 psi. from above and below.
• Can be set in any collar recess of EU and NU tubing.
• Pressure set and pressure balanced element.
• Element expansion can be adjusted to seal in varying weights of tubing.
• Difficult to set in badly corroded or rough tubing.
• Will not pass a nipple bore of the same nominal size as the tubing.
• Will not set in premium type tubing such as Vallourec VAM, New VAM or Hydril.
14.5.2.1. ‘D’ Collar Lock
The ‘D’ collar lock (Fig. 14-36) is designed to be set in any collar recess in the tubing. The collar
lock, flow control device and ‘D’ running tool (Fig. 14-36) is attached to standard toolstring (Fig
14-37) and lowered into the well to stop one tubing joint above the desired setting joint. Pulling
the assembly up slowly locates the collar recess, identified by an overpull of less than 200 lbs.
Assembly is then moved downwards to a depth approx 10-12 feet below the target collar, the
assembly is then pulled up until the collar recess is located. An overpull of approximately 300 lbs.
will move and latch the locking sleeve onto the collet lock which locks the dogs into the expanded
position within the collar recess. The jars are then closed slowly without any downward jar action,
followed by a hard upward jar which will move the element expanders together, expanding the ‘G’
element to form a seal between the lock and tubing wall. Further upward jarring shears the shear
pin in the ‘D’ running tool, allowing the toolstring and and running tool to be retrieved to surface,
leaving the ‘D’ slip lock and flow control device set in the tubing.
When retrieving the ‘D’ collar lock with a GRL pulling tool and suitable pulling prong for flow
control device, the GRL latches the internal fishing neck of the collar lockand the extended core
of the GRL pushes the locking sleeve down, releasing the element and dogs. The toolstring, GRL
pulling tool, slip lock and flow control device can now be retrieved to surface due to the GRL
being latched onto the internal fishing neck of the collar lock.
Figure 14-36 ‘D’ RUNNING TOOL AND ‘D’ COLLAR LOCK

14-38 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-37 ‘D’ COLLAR LOCK RUNNING, SETTING AND PULLING SEQUENCE
14.5.3. Nipple Locks
Nipple locks are designed to securely lock flow control devices in various landing nipples which
are an integral part of the tubing string located at varying depths which has been determined at
the completion phase of the wells design. The nipple lock utilises keys or dogs to locate in a
corresponding key or dog profile machined in the landing nipple and form a seal around its OD by
the use of chevron vee packings or rubber elements sealing in a polished seal bore also
machined in the landing nipple.
Nipple locks can be divided into three categories:
• Selective – Due to nipple profile.
• Selective – Due to running tool.
• Non-selective (No-Go) – Due to no-go ring in the nipple.
Nipple locks offer greater versatility, reliability and pressure rating than either the slip or collar
type locks.
14.5.3.1. AVA Lock Mandrels
The ‘AVA’ No-Go Bore-sensing lock mandrel (Fig. 14-38) is a wireline run assembly used to
position and secure a wireline tool such as a safety valve, blanking plug, choke or instrument
hanger in a specific landing nipple. The No-Go bore-sensing lock incorporates unique sensing
devices that positively identify its No-Go landing nipple before allowing the lock to set. This
eliminates the risk of the lock being set in the wrong landing nipple, a tubing thread joint or any
other obstacle. Once the lock is in the proper landing nipple, it will set without jarring unless
packing element friction is greater than stem weight. When fully set, a collet secures the lock in
the set position and automatically releases the ‘SRT’ soft release running tool. (Fig.14-39)
The No-Go bore-sensing lock will unset only when the ‘DPT’ down release pulling tool (Fig. 14-
40) is properly landed in its fishing neck. Straight pull on the wireline will unset the lock. Again, no
jarring is necessary other than that required for packing element friction.
14-40 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-38 ‘AVA’ No-Go BORE SENSING LOCK

Figure 14-39 SRT RUNNING TOOL Figure 14-40 DPT PULLING TOOL
14-42 M HRD GEO 0009
14.5.3.2. Baker Lock Mandrels
The Baker W-type lock subassemblies (Fig. 14-41) are top no-go style locks. With a no-go
shoulder located just below the locking dogs, these locks will land and lock flow control devices in
the F-type no-go seating nipples. These locks are designed for low volume or non-flowing
applications due to the latching dogs protruding into the flow path.
Figure 14-41 BAKER ‘W’ TYPE LOCK
The Baker Z-type lock subassemblies (Fig. 14-42) are bottom no-go style locks. With a no-go
shoulder located on the flow control accessory, these locks will land and lock flow control devices
in the R-type no-go seating nipples. These locks are designed for low volume or non-flowing
applications due to the latching dogs protruding into the flow path.
Figure 14-42 BAKER ‘Z’ TYPE LOCK

The Baker S-type lock subassemblies (Fig. 14-43) are selective style locks. This means that they
can be run through any number of seating nipples of the same sealbore diameter until the
selected nipple is reached. With dog type locks facing both upward and downward (instead of a
no-go shoulder), these locks will land and lock flow control devices in the F-type no-go seating
nipples. Installation and retrieval requires no movement relative to the seating nipple. These locks
are designed for low volume or non-flowing applications due to the latching dogs protruding into
the flow path.
Figure 14-43 BAKER ‘S’ TYPE LOCK
The Baker ‘N’ and ‘G’ (Fig. 14-44) and ‘M’ and ‘F’ (Fig. 14-45) type lock subassemblies are top
no-go style locks. Designed with a collet-type lock to prevent upward movement and a no-go
shoulder just below prevents downward movement. These locks will land and lock flow control
devices in the F-type no-go seating nipples. The smooth ID and uninterupted flow path allow
these locks to be used in high volume completions. Model ‘N’ and ‘G’ locks have external fishing
necks and model ‘M’ and ‘F’ locks have internal fishing necks.
Figure 14-44 BAKER ‘N’ & ‘G’ TYPE LOCK Figure 14-45 BAKER ‘M’ & ‘F’ TYPE LOCK
14-44 M HRD GEO 0009
The Baker ‘L’ and ‘R’ (Fig. 14-46) and ‘K’ and ‘E’ (Fig. 14-47) type lock subassemblies are
bottom no-go style locks. Designed with a collet-type lock to prevent upward movement and a
no-go shoulder located on the flow control accessory prevents downward movement. These
locks will land and lock flow control devices in the R-type no-go seating nipples. The smooth
ID and uninterupted flow path allow these locks to be used in high volume completions. Model
L and R locks have external fishing necks and model K and E locks have internal fishing
necks.
Figure 14-46 BAKER ‘L’ & ‘R’ TYPE LOCK Figure 14-47 BAKER ‘K’ & ‘E’ TYPE LOCK
BAKER FLOW CONTROL LOCK SYSTEM

14-46 M HRD GEO 0009
Baker Equipment Summary Sheet

Baker `Sur-Set’ Lock Mandrels
There are two versions of the Sur-Set lock mandrels.
The type ‘AF’, ‘HF’ and ‘VF’ lock mandrels (Fig. 14-48) are top No-Go type locks designed to
locate and lock in the Baker ‘AF’, ‘HF’ and ‘VF’ landing nipples. These locks have a No-Go
shoulder located below the locking dogs.
Figure 14-48 BAKER AF, HF and VF LOCK MANDREL
The type ‘AR’, ‘HR’ and ‘VR’ lock mandrels (Fig. 14-49) are bottom No-Go type locks designed to
locate and lock in the ‘AR’, ‘HR’ and ‘VR’ landing nipples. These locks have a No-Go shoulder
located, either on the packing mandrel or, in cases where packing is not required, on the flow
control device.
Figure 14-49 BAKER AR, HR and VR LOCK MANDREL

14-48 M HRD GEO 0009
Lock selection should be compatible with the size and model designation (based on designed
pressure rating) of the selected seating nipple. The lock mandrel pressures are listed below:
‘AF’ or ‘AR’ - 10,000psi max. working pressure
‘HF’ or ‘HR’ - 15,000psi max. working pressure
‘VF’ or ‘VR’ - over 15,000psi max. working pressure.
The Baker ‘F’ indicates a top No-Go system and ‘R’’ bottom No-Go.
The Sur-Set lock mandrels are installed with the model ‘A’ running tool with the ‘D’ probe and
pulled with the Otis/Halliburton types ‘GS’, ‘GR’ and Petroline type 'DU' pulling tools.
When these lock mandrels are locked in position within their respective nipples, the large
pressure bearing locking dogs lift the lock and separates the No-Go shoulders. This eliminates
No-Go shoulder swaging.
These locks can be used for installing plugs, chokes, check valves, instrument hangers etc.
Due to the design of the Baker Sur-Set system, the running tool will retrieve the lock if it is not
properly set in its nipple profile. When fully locked in the nipple profile the lock mandrel fishing
neck ‘C’ ring locks it in place to prevent the lock unseating due to friction or vibration while the
well is flowing.
The selective Sur-Set line utilises all the features from the standard top and bottom no-go Sur-
Set locking mandrels with the added benefit of maintaining one seal bore diameter for the entire
production string. This is accomplished by adding a model A-4 or model H-4 (Fig. 14-50) locator
to a model AR lock.
Figure 14-50 BAKER A-4 or H4 SELECTIVE LOCATOR

The Shear-Lok locking mandrels (Fig. 14-51) are a version of the Sur-Set locking mandrels that
have an additional locking ring. This ring works with the standard snap ring used in all Sur-Set
designs.
With the added locking ring, the locking mandrel cannot be released until a 10,000 lb force is
applied upward by jarring action on the fishing neck. This force shears the shear screws after the
standard c-ring has snapped out of the set position groove. In this design, the standard c-ring
absorbs all the smaller forces caused by fluid flow, vibrations, etc., thus preventing the shear
value of the shear screws to be weakened. This feature makes the Shear-Lok ideal for safety
valve applications where high turbulent flow rates are typically encountered.
Figure 14-51 BAKER SUR-SET SHEAR-LOK LOCK MANDREL
The Short Sur-Set locking mandrels (Fig. 14-52) are a version of of the Sur-Set locking mandrels
that have a reduced linear length from the locking dogs to the top of the fishing neck. Utilised in
standard Sur-Set hanger profiles and also in HP/HT operations, this feature is critical when
moving wellheads on or off, preventing damage to the flow control device that would otherwise be
protruding above the flange face.
Figure 14-52 BAKER SHORT SUR-SET LOCKING MANDREL

14-50 M HRD GEO 0009
The Baker model ‘A’ running tool (Fig. 14-53) is used to run and set all ‘Sur-Set’ locking
mandrels. It is designed to prevent accidental setting even if tight spots are encountered while
running in the well The running tool and lock will not separate until the locking dogs on the
locking mandrel are fully expanded into the nipple locking profile. If this does occur, the running
tool will not release and will bring the lock back out of the well when retrieving the running tool.
The model ‘A’ running tool is designed to be used in conjunction with the model ‘D’ probe. (Fig.
14-53)
Figure 14-53 BAKER MODEL ‘A’ RUNNING TOOL AND MODEL ‘D’ PROBE
14.5.3.3. Camco Lock Mandrels
The Camco DB-6 lock (Fig. 14-54) is a non-selective no-go locking device designed to to be
landed and locked in a Camco type DB-6 series landing nipple and Camco B-6 hydraulic safety
valve landing nipple. The lock anchors and seals an attached pressure control device in position
in the tubing string. The lock is used in applications involving differential pressures up to 5,000
psi from below the lock assembly. Pressure ratings for differential pressures from above vary with
each assembly.
Each lock features an internal fishing neck which allows a large bore through the lock and a no-
go shoulder positioned just below the locking dogs. When set in position, an internal sleeve
(collet) is held in the locked position by both a collet type latch and shear pins, preventing the
possibility of unlocking at high flow rates. The DB-6 is also designed to allow the use of tattle-tale
type running tools. These tools give the wireline operator a clear indication that the assembly is
locked correctly by the position of the tattle tale when tool retrieved to surface.
The DB-6 lock is installed in the appropriate landing nipple using standard wireline methods. The
lock and attached flow control device are attached to the appropriate Z-6 series running tool (Fig.
14-55) and lowered into the tubing until the no-go of the lock lands on the nipple no-go shoulder.
Downward jarring moves the internal sleeve (collet) downward, forcing the locking dogs of the
lock into the locking profile of the nipple, anchoring the assembly.
When removing the lock after pressure equalisation, upward jarring with the appropriate PRS
pulling tool (Fig. 14-56) is applied to move the internal sleeve (collet) upward allowing the locking
dogs to retract and allow the assembly to be returned to surface.
Figure 14-54 CAMCO DB-6 LOCK MANDREL

14-52 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-55 CAMCO Z-6 RUNNING TOOL
Figure 14-56 CAMCO PRS PULLING TOOL

Camco Equipment Summary Sheet

14-54 M HRD GEO 0009
14.5.3.4. Otis Lock Mandrels
The ‘X’ lock mandrel (Fig. 14-57) is a selective type lock mandrel designed to locate and lock into
a compatible ‘X’ nipple. This lock mandrel can be run in two modes: selective or non-selective.
The mode is determined prior to installation by selecting the running position of the running tool.
This lock mandrel is installed using the type ‘X’ running tool and pulled with the type ‘GS’ or ‘GR’
pulling tool.
When combined with an equalising assembly and valve cap, this lock mandrel can be used as a
tubing plug capable of holding pressure differentials from either direction. The ‘X’ lock mandrel
can also be used as a locking device for various other flow controls such as chokes, check
valves, pack-offs, instrument hangers etc. When the ‘X’ lock is used as part of a wireline
retrievable sub-surface safety valve system, the lock mandrel can be modified to prevent flow
vibrations from vibrating the expander mandrel upwards and thus unlocking the mandrel. This
modification is to install a lock pin which locks the expander mandrel and the main body of the
lock together after the expander is moved downwards. This shear pin is held in place with a leaf
spring and an Allen cap screw.
Simply by changing the keys, a ‘X’ lock mandrel can be converted into an ‘XN’ lock mandrel. The
pressure rating of the ‘X’ lock mandrel to be used must be thoroughly checked as the various
sizes and models in various materials vary considerably. The pressure rating of the lock should
never just be assumed.
Figure 14-57 OTIS ‘X’ LOCK MANDREL

The ‘XN’ lock mandrel (Fig. 14-58) is the non-selective version of the ‘X’ lock mandrel and is
designed to land and lock sub-surface flow control devices in the type ‘XN’ nipple profile. It is a
bottom No-Go type lock with the No-Go shoulder machined on the equalising valve, attached to
the packing section. The locking shoulders on the keys are chamfered to prevent them locating in
any type ‘X’ landing nipple. This lock mandrel is installed using the type ‘X’ running tool and pulled
with the type ‘GS’ or ‘GR’ pulling tool.
The type ‘XN’ lock mandrel can be used for the same applications as the type ‘X’ lock mandrel,
except that it mates with the ‘XN’ nipple.
In general’ a ‘XN’ plug assembly has a higher pressure rating from above than the equivalent ‘X’
plug because it incorporates a relatively larger No-Go shoulder area. Since the No-Go shoulder
provides positive location, this lock is easy to locate and lock into its nipple. By changing the keys
the ‘XN’ lock mandrel can be converted into a type ‘X’ lock mandrel.
The pressure rating of the ‘XN’ lock mandrel to be used’ similar to the ‘X’ previously’ must be
thoroughly checked as the various sizes and models in various materials vary considerably. The
pressure rating of the lock should never just be assumed
Figure 14-58 OTIS ‘XN’ LOCK MANDREL

14-56 M HRD GEO 0009
The ‘R’ and ‘RN’ lock mandrels are designed for heavy weight tubing. They are similar to the ‘X’
and ‘XN’ lock mandrels except that the locking keys (Fig. 14-59 and Fig. 14-60) have an
additional groove to provide more shoulder area for the greater pressures they require to hold.
Figure 14-59 Otis ‘R’ Key Figure 14-60 Otis ‘RN’ Key
The ‘RPT’ lock mandrel (Fig. 14-61) is a non-selective No-Go lock mandrel and is designed to
land and lock sub-surface flow control devices in the type ‘RPT’ nipple profile. It is a top No-Go
type lock with the No-Go shoulder machined on the packing section. The locking shoulders on the
keys are chamfered so as to raise the lock up off the No-Go shoulder and hence provide much
higher pressure ratings from above. The small No-Go shoulders allows a number of ‘RPT’ nipples
to be installed with little reduced flow area. This lock mandrel is installed using the type ‘RXN’
running tool and pulled with the type ‘GS’ or ‘GR’ pulling tool.
The ‘RPT’ lock mandrel can be used to locate and lock various flow control devices in the tubing
string, e.g. surface controlled sub surface safety valves, direct controlled safety valves, plugs,
chokes, check valves, and instrument hangers.The Otis range of ‘X’ and ‘PX’ plugs can be run
with the ‘RPT’ lock.
In general a ‘RPT’ plug assembly has a higher pressure rating from above than the equivalent ‘X’
plug because it does not use the No-Go shoulder for downward pressure. Since the No-Go
shoulder provides positive location, this lock is easy to locate and lock into its nipple.
The ‘RPT’ has a lock down feature which positively locks the expander down until pulling when
the lock down pin is sheared allowing the fish neck to move upwards.
Figure 14-61 OTIS ‘RPT’ LOCK MANDREL
The ‘X’ running tool (Fig. 14-62) is a selective running tool that can be used for running both Otis
selective or non-selective lock mandrel systems.
The type ‘X’ and ‘R’ running tools were developed to enable the ‘X’ or ‘XN'/'R’, ‘RN’ or ‘RQ’ lock
mandrels to be run in either the selective or non-selective position (described below) into ‘X’ or
‘XN’/’R’, ‘RN’ or ‘RQ’ landing nipples. The running position is determined by the mode of the
running tool and should be manually set up at surface prior to running the assembly into the well.
The type ‘R’ running tool is identical in design and operational concept to the type ‘X’ running tool.
The ‘R’ range of downhole equipment was designed for sizes of higher weight ranges of tubing
and higher pressure rating.
On occasions an ‘R’ or ‘RN’ nipple is used in step down completion nipple designs where a
mixture of ‘X’ and ‘R’ ranges can provide larger nipple bore sizes than could be achieved using
the ‘X’ range only.
One running tool can be used for both selective and non-selective mandrels.
The running tool is attached to the lock mandrel by a shear pin through the core and by a set of
dogs to the lock mandrel fish neck. The tool will be positioned in either the selective or non-
selective mode. The plug can then be attached to the bottom of the lock mandrel.
When the assembly is run to depth, if it has been run in the selective mode, it needs to be moved
to the non-selective position by running through the landing nipple and then pulling back through.
This moves the tool to the selective position whereby the assembly is lowered into and locates
the nipple. Downward jarring ensures the lock is properly located and the fish neck closed.
Upward jarring then confirms plug location and shears the shear pin in the core allowing release
of the running tool.
14-58 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-62 OTIS ‘X’ AND ‘R’ LINE RUNNING TOOL

The Otis RXN Running Tool (Fig. 14-63) sets Otis X, XN, R, RN, RPT and RQ Lock Mandrels in
their respective landing nipples. It replaces the older ‘RX’ and ‘RQX’ running tools.
This tool is generally used for installing tubing safety valves in the uppermost landing nipple. With
this tool, the lock mandrel may be run with the keys in the selective or non-selective positions.
The lock mandrel keys or no-go serve to locate the nipple rather than the dogs on the running
tool. When a non no-go lock is being run, the keys must be run in the selective position and the
lock must be set in the first nipple in the bore of that lock size. The tool gives a positive indication
when the lock is fully set.
It has been designed such that the retainer dogs on the running tool will not release the fishing
neck of the lock mandrel until the fishing neck and expander sleeve have moved at least 80% of
their travel. With this increased assurance of lock mandrel closure, no ‘tell tale’ devices are
required.
The ‘RXN’ features an offset retainer pin to transfer the upward action from the core through to
the main mandrel and backs up as an alignment device for pinning in the selective or non-
selective position.
Figure 14-63 OTIS ‘RXN’ RUNNING TOOL

14-60 M HRD GEO 0009
14.5.3.5. Petroline Lock Mandrels
The ‘QX’ lock mandrel (Fig. 14-64) is designed to be compatible with the Petroline ‘QN’ landing
nipple but can also be adapted to be installed in any other manufacturer’s nipples in existing
completion strings.
The ‘QX’ lock mandrel can be used for any downhole flow control, e.g. safety valves, plugs,
chokes, gauges, flowmeters, etc.
The ‘QX’ lock mandrel can be supplied to fit any seal bore in either Petroline or third party nipple
sizes. The standard pressure rating is 10,000psi but 15,000psi versions are also available. Large
sizes are available with ultra light weight running tools to ease installation.
The inner mandrel moves in the direction of flow to lock the keys out. There is no need for a
secondary lock down mechanism to prevent flow induced vibration from unseating the lock
mandrel. This makes the Uniset lock design the leader in safety and reliability in flowing well
service. The lock mandrel design can be customised to maximise its through bore. This minimises
the well fluids velocity and hence the flowing pressure drop. The highly polished inner mandrel
minimises frictional pressure loss, and the tendency for scale adhesion.
The lock is installed on the ‘QX’ running tool. When the lower shear pins in the fish neck are
sheared by downward jar action, the inner mandrel moves upwards by spring pressure locking
the keys partially out. Upward pull confirms location of the lock and then upward jar action
enables the keys to fully expand into the nipple profile. Continued jarring shears the upper shear
pins and releases the running tool. The collet on the inner mandrel allows passage of the tell-tale
collet on the running tool confirming that if the shear pins are unbroken the lock has properly set.
Figure 14-64 PETROLINE ‘QX’ LOCK MANDREL

The ‘QX’ running tool (Fig. 14-65) is designed to run and set the Petroline lock mandrel systems.
The ‘QX’ running tool is used to run and install ‘QX’ lock mandrels in either Petroline or other
manufacturer’s nipples. It was designed to provide the advantage of the modern small No-Go
nipple shoulders for location only and high pressure differentials from above and below.
It incorporates a tell-tale feature that indicates whether or not the lock is correctly set once the
running tool is retrieved to surface. The running tool will not release the lock mandrel unless it has
gone through the complete setting sequence and therefore will retrieve it back to surface. If in the
event a lock becomes stuck due to sand or scale, the running tool can be released in order to
allow a retrieving string to be run with power jars, etc.
When run into a nipple attached to a ‘QX’ lock, light downward jarring positions the assembly into
the nipple. Further downward jarring shears the lower shear pins in the fishing neck which allows
the inner mandrel to move upwards into the locking position. Tension applied to the wireline
confirms the proper location of the lock and upward jarring then shears the top pins releasing the
running tool from the lock. When the running tool is pulled from the lock, the tell-tale collet should
not contact the inner sleeve, hence, the shear pin should remain intact.
Figure 14-65 PETROLINE ‘QX’ RUNNING TOOL

14-62 M HRD GEO 0009
14.6. PROBES and SHANKS
Probes and shanks are normally attached to the cores of running/pulling tools to retract the
latching dogs in particular lock mandrels when setting or retrieving flow control devices.
14.6.1. Baker Model ‘A’ and ‘AC’ Probes
The model ‘A’ and ‘AC’ probes are used to retrieve Baker model ‘S’ locks.
As the probe penetrates the fishing neck of the lock, the blade automatically swivels and
bypasses the downfacing locking dogs, retracting the upfacing locking dogs before the pulling
tool latches the fishing neck of the lock.
The model ‘A’ probe (Fig. 14-66) has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end in place of
the set screw to allow equalisation of flow control devices.
The model ‘AC’ probe has no set screw and does not have facility to attach a prong. So should
only be used when no equalisation is required.
Figure 14-66 BAKER MODEL ‘A’ PROBE

14.6.2. Baker Model ‘B’ Probe
The model ‘B’ probe (Fig. 14-67) is used to retrieve Baker model ‘W’ and ‘Z’ locks.
As the probe penetrates the fishing neck of the lock, the locking dogs are retracted by the probe
before the pulling tool latches the fishing neck of the lock.
The model ‘B’ probe has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end to allow equalisation of
flow control devices.
Figure 14-67 BAKER MODEL ‘B’ PROBE
14.6.3. Baker Model ‘M’ Probe
The model ‘M’ probe (Fig. 14-68) is used to run and retrieve Baker model ‘E’ and ‘F’ locks.
As the probe penetrates the fishing neck of the lock, the collet type locking dogs are allowed to
retract by the probe moving the plunger downwards and compressing the spring after the pulling
The model ‘M’ probe has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end to allow equalisation of
14-64 M HRD GEO 0009
Figure 14-68 BAKER MODEL ‘M’ PROBE
14.6.4. Baker Model ‘M-1’ Probe
The model ‘M-1’ probe (Fig. 14-69) is used to run and retrieve Baker model ‘E-1’ and ‘F-1’ locks.
tool latches the fishing neck of the lock. The probe consists of two parts held together by a shear
pin which will shear if lock keys do not expand fully when setting in the nipple, leaving the bottom
half of probe in lock which gives a positive indication of correct setting of lock.
The model ‘M-1’ probe has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end to allow equalisation
of flow control devices.
Figure 14-69 BAKER MODEL ‘M-1’ PROBE

14.6.5. Baker Model ‘MA’ Adjustable Probe
The model ‘MA’ adjustable probe (Fig 14-70) is used to run and retrieve flow control equipment
attached to Baker model ‘M’ locks.
tool latches the fishing neck of the lock. The probe is adjustable to compensate for different
lengths of GS running / pulling tools
The model ‘MA’ probe has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end to allow equalisation of
Figure 14-70 BAKER MODEL ‘MA’ ADJUSTABLE PROBE

14-66 M HRD GEO 0009
14.6.6. Baker Model ‘N-1’ Probe
The model ‘N-1’ probe (Fig. 14-71) is used to retrieve flow control equipment attached to Baker
model ‘N’, ‘G’, ‘L’ and ‘R’ locks.
The model ‘N-1’ probe has the facility to make up a prong to the lower end to allow equalisation
of flow control devices.
Figure 14-71 BAKER MODEL ‘N-1’ PROBE
14.6.7. Baker Model ‘A’ Shank
The model ‘A’ shank (Fig. 14-72) is used in conjuction with the model C-1 running tool to run and
set flow control equipment attached to Baker model ‘S’, ‘W’ and ‘Z’ locks.
The shank keeps the downfacing locks retracted whilst running in the hole and once running tool
is sheared and pulled out of lock along with shank, the downfacing locks locate and set in the
nipple profile anchoring the lock mandrel.
The model ‘A’ shank has the facility to make up a running prong to the lower end if required to set
Figure 14-72 BAKER MODEL ‘A’ SHANK
14.6.8. Baker Model ‘N-1’ Shank
The model ‘N-1’ shank (Fig. 14-73) is used in conjuction with the model C-1 running tool to run
and set flow control equipment attached to Baker model ‘G’ and ‘R’ locks.
The shank keeps the plunger in a downward position, compressing the spring and allowing the
collet-type finger locks to retract until the running tool is sheared and pulled out of lock along with
shank, the plunger is then forced upwards by spring and locates behind collet-type finger locks
locking them in the nipple profile anchoring the lock mandrel..
The model ‘A’ shank has the facility to make up a running prong to the lower end if required to set
Figure 14-73 BAKER MODEL ‘N-1’ SHANK

14-68 M HRD GEO 0009
14.7. PRONGS
Prongs are used in conjuction with running/pulling tools when setting and retrieving Wireline
Retrievable Surface Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valves (WRSCSSSV), Wireline Retrievable
Sub Surface Safety Valves (WRSSSV), plugs and various flow control devices. Basically they are
a metal rod of specific length and shape which are attached to a specific running/pulling tool to
allow the following functions.
• Hold the ball or flapper closure device of a WRSCSSSV or WRSSSV in the open position
while setting or retrieving.
• Manipulate the sealing and equalisation device of a particular plug while setting or
retrieving.
• Provide the means of sealing and equalising particular plugs once plug body has been set
and before plug body is retrieved.
14.7.1. WRSCSSSV Prong
The prongs used when retrieving WRSCSSSV’s (Fig. 14-74) are a metal rod of sufficient length
to allow the flapper or ball closure device to close on the rod, thus allowing fluid bypass through
the valve when setting or retrieving, normally the lower end of prong is brass to avoid damage to
the closure device. The different types of safety valves will have a specific running and pulling
prong designed by the manufacturer for each particular model. In some cases the running prong
is a short metal rod designed to hold the valves hydraulic piston partially compressed allowing
fluid bypass while setting safety valve.
Figure 14-74 VARIOUS SAFETY VALVE PRONGS

14.7.2. Plug Manipulation Prongs
Manipulation prongs are used with particular types of plugs that utilise a movable melon
assembly to seal and equalise. When setting the plug the running prong (Fig. 14-75) is latched
onto the melon assembly holding it in position below the equalising ports, allowing fluid bypass
while running in hole. Once the plug is set in the nipple and the running tool is disengaged the
prong pulls the melon assembly upwards sealing off the equalising ports (Fig. 14-77). When
pulling the plug the pulling prong (Fig. 14-76) knocks the melon assembly downwards, allowing
pressure to equalise through the equalising ports, before the dogs of the lock assembly are
retracted allowing the plug to be retrieved.
Figure 14-75 TYPICAL RUNNING PRONG Figure 14-76 TYPICAL PULLING PRONG
Figure 14-77 PLUG ASSEMBLY WITH MELON

14-70 M HRD GEO 0009
14.7.3. Sealing Prongs
Sealing prongs are used to seal off equalising ports on specific plug types that do not utilise
melon assemblies, they consist of a metal bar with either ‘V’ packing or sealing elements at the
lower end which, when inserted in plug body (Fig. 14-78), seal the equalising assembly of the
plug and when removed from the plug body, allows the pressure to equalise above and below the
plug before retrieving the plug body. The disadvantage of this type of plug is that they require two
trips to set and two trips to pull.
Figure 14-78 SEALING PRONG SET IN EQUALIZER HOUSING OF PLUG

14.8. SHIFTING TOOLS
Shifting tools are designed to open and close Sliding Side Doors (SSD’s) to allow communication
from the annulus to the tubing, to bring a well into production after drilling or workover by
circulating the completion fluid out of the tubing and replacing it with a lighter under balanced
fluid, kill a well prior to pulling the tubing in a workover operation and provide selective zone
production in a multiple zone well completion.
This is achieved by the shifting tool latching into an internal sleeve within the SSD and by
manipulating the toolstring in either an upward or downward direction, moves the internal sleeve
to the open or closed position.
14.8.1. Otis ‘BO’ Shifting Tool
The Otis ‘BO’ shifting tool (Fig. 14-79) is used to move the inner sleeve of an Otis sliding side
door to its open or closed position. The shifting tool engages the recess in the upper (or lower)
end of the internal sleeve to permit the sleeve to be shifted by a jarring action. The tool is
designed to release itself only after the sleeve reaches its fully open or closed position. This
automatic releasing feature incorporates a releasing profile on the key itself that acts to compress
the key spring and release the shifting tool. A shear pin is an added feature designed to release
the tool in the event well conditions make it impossible to shift the sleeve.
A set of positive keys is available to permit upward movement of the inner sleeve of one among
several sliding side doors in one well bore. These keys do not have a releasing profile, the
shifting tool pin must be sheared to release.
Figure 14-79 OTIS ‘BO’ SHIFTING TOOL

14-72 M HRD GEO 0009
14.8.2. Otis ‘BO’ Selective Shifting Tool
The selective shifting tool (Fig. 14-80) is designed to selectively position Otis sliding side door
inner sleeves to the down position only. It is designed so that one sleeve can be shifted to the
down position at any level in the tubing string without shifting any other. This shifting tool is
designed with dogs that serve to locate the designated sliding side door to be shifted and release
the spring loaded keys to engage the profile in the inner sleeve. The tool is designed to release
itself only after the sleeve reaches its full down position. This automatic release feature
incorporates a releasing profile on the key that acts to to compress the key spring and release
the shifting tool. The tool can then be raised to the next sliding side door to position its sleeve
down or return to surface.
Figure 14-80 OTIS ‘BO’ SELECTIVE SHIFTING TOOL

14.8.3. Otis ‘X’ Selective Shifting Tool
The ‘X’ selective shifting tool (Fig. 14-81) is designed to permit selectively shifting up or down of
a specific sliding side doors inner sleeve positioned among several sliding side doors in a tubing
string. A running J-design in the release profile permits the tool to be positioned to contact or to
go through the inner sleeve profile. Upward or downward movement of toolstring in the tubing
bore above or below the sliding side door moves the releasing profile of the tool to the desired
position.
Figure 14-81 OTIS ‘X’ SELECTIVE SHIFTING TOOL

14-74 M HRD GEO 0009
14.8.4. Baker ‘D-2’ Shifting Tool
The ‘D-2’ shifting tool (Fig. 14-82) is used to to provide a safe, selective and controlled method of
opening and closing Baker model ‘L’ sliding side doors. Spring loaded shifting dogs are held in
the retracted position by the spring loaded retractor, if the retractor is moved away from the
shifting dogs they automatically open. In operation, any time the collet engages the bore of the
inner sleeve of a sliding side door and either slack off weight (for opening operation) or upstrain
(for closing operation) is applied, the effect at the tool is to move the retractor away from the
shifting dogs allowing them to engage the inner sleeve of the sliding side door. At this point
jarring up will open the sleeve and jarring down (when tool is run in the inverted position) will
close the sleeve.
The tool is spaced so that upon completion of the shift the retractor is once again in position to
close the shifting dogs. When the shifting dogs collapse, the tool is released from the inner
sleeve, automatically signalling that the the shifting operation is complete. In the event that due to
well conditions the sleeve cannot be moved the tool is fitted with pins that can be sheared to
release.
Figure 14-82 BAKER ‘D-2’ SHIFTING TOOL

14.9. KICKOVER TOOLS
Kickover tools are designed to enable the installation of side pocket subsurface control devices
into side pocket mandrels (SPM) or the retrieval of the devices as required.
14.9.1. Camco ‘K’ Series Kickover Tool
Camco K series kickover tools (Fig. 14-83) are wireline service tools that are used to install 1"
OD side pocket subsurface control devices into Camco KBM series side pocket mandrels or to
retrieve those devices as required. The K series tool, which must be used with either a running or
a pulling tool, consists of a fishing neck with a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a
knuckle joint, a mandrel, a centering spring assembly with three spring loaded bow springs,
ratchets above and below the bow springs and a lower bushing with a threaded box connection
for attachment to a running or pulling tool.
An upward movement of the kickover tool will shift the centering spring assembly downwards until
it is captured by the ratchets. A downward movement of the tool into the chosen mandrel will then
allow the expanded bow springs to kick the running tool and its attached control device (or pulling
tool) over into alignment with the mandrel pocket.
Figure 14-83 CAMCO ‘K’ SERIES KICKOVER TOOL

14-76 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.2. Camco ‘R’ Series Kickover Tool
Camco R series kickover tools (Fig. 14-84) are wireline service tools that are used to install 1 ½"
OD side pocket subsurface control devices into Camco MM and MMA series side pocket
mandrels, or retrieve those devices as required. These tools must be used with either a running
or a pulling tool.
The R series kickover tool consists of a fishing neck and a threaded pin connection on the upper
end, a mandrel, a barrel assembly with three spring loaded centering arms that feature carbide
wear pads, two locking fingers and a threaded box connection on the lower end for attachment of
a running or pulling tool.
An upward movement of the tool will shift the barrel assembly downward until it is captured by the
locking fingers. A subsequent downward movement of the kickover tool into the chosen mandrel
then allows the expanded centering arms to kick the tool and its attached control device (or
pulling tool) over into alignment with the mandrel pocket. Spacer bars may be required when
retrieving subsurface control devices. The R series kickover tools do not incorporate a knuckle
joint, therefore one must be installed in the wlreline tool string directly above the tool.
Figure 14-84 CAMCO ‘R’ SERIES KICKOVER TOOL

14.9.3. Camco ‘L’ and ‘L-2D’ Kickover Tool
Camco L (Fig. 14-85) and L-2D (Fig. 14-86) series kickover tools are wireline service tools that
are used to install 1" and 1 ½" OD side pocket subsurface control devices in Camco KBM and
MM series side pocket mandrels, or to retrieve those devices as required.
The L and L-2D series kickover tools, which must be used with either a running or a pulling tool,
consist of a fishing neck with a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a knuckle joint, a
mandrel, a barrel assembly with two spring-loaded centering arms that feature carbide wear
pads, two locking dogs and a threaded box connection on the lower end for attachment to a
running or pulling tool.
An upward movement of the tool will shift the barrel assembly downward until it is captured by the
locking dogs. A downward movement of the kickover tool into the chosen mandrel will then allow
the expanded centering arms to kick the running tool and attached control device (or pulling tool)
over into alignment with the mandrel pocket. Spacer bars may be required when retrieving
subsurface control devices.
Figure 14-85 CAMCO ‘L’ KICKOVER TOOL Figure 14.86 CAMCO ‘L-2D’ KICKOVER TOOL
14-78 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.4. Camco ‘OK’ Kickover Tool
Camco OK series kickover tools (Fig. 14-87) are wireline service tools that are used to install 1"
OD side pocket subsurface control devices into Camco KBG and KBMG series side pocket
mandrels, or to retrieve those devices as required. These tools must be used with either a
running or a pulling tool.
Especially suited for use in highly deviated wells, the OK kickover tool consists of a fishing neck
with a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a locating finger, kick springs, an arm assembly
with a box thread connection on the lower end for attachment to a running or pulling tool and an
arm housing with a nose on the lower end.
An upward movement of the tool through the chosen mandrel will position the locating finger in
the mandrel orienting sleeve and rotate the tool into alignment with the mandrel pocket. The kick
springs then pivot the arm to kick the attached running tool and control device or pulling tool
outward, directly above the mandrel pocket. The arm housing protects the arm and attached
devices during installation and retrieval.
These tools do not incorporate a knuckle joint, therefore one must be installed in the wireline tool
string directly above the tool.
The OK series of kickover tools includes the following models:

• UK-5
• OK-1
• OK-5
• OK-6
All the OK series tools share the same basic features. However, some differences exist between
different models, as follows:
• UK-5 kickover tools have a reduced OD for use in reduced ID side pocket mandrels.
• UK-5, OK-5 and OK-6 kickover tools can be repinned without disassembly and feature
stainless steel arm assemblies.
• The OK-1 kickover tool requires minimal disassembly for repining.

Figure 14-87 CAMCO ‘OK’ SERIES KICKOVER TOOL

14-80 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.5. Camco ‘OM’ Kickover Tool
Camco OM series kickover tools (Fig. 14-88) are wireline service tools that are used to install
1½" OD side pocket subsurface control devices into Camco MMG series side pocket mandrels or
to retrieve those devices as required. These tools must be used with either a running or a pulling
tool.
Especially suited for use in highly deviated wells, the OM kickover tool consists of a fishing neck
with a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a locating finger, kick springs, an arm assembly
with a threaded box connection on the lower end for attachment to a running or pulling tool and
an arm housing.
An upward movement of the tool through the chosen mandrel will position the locating finger in
the mandrel orienting sleeve and rotate the tool into alignment with the mandrel pocket. The kick
springs then pivot the arm and attached running tool and control device (or pulling tool) outward,
directly above the mandrel pocket. The arm housing protects the arm and attached devices
during installation and retrieval. Spacer bars are required when retrieving subsurface control
devices.
These tools do not incorporate a knuckle joint, therefore one must be installed in the wireline tool
string directly above the tool.
The OM series of kickover tools includes the following models:
• OM-5
• OM-2V
• OM-1-D
• OM-1
All these tools share the same basic features. However, some differences exist between different
models, as follows:
• OM-5, OM-2V and OM-1-D tools can be repinned without disassembly and feature
stainless steel arm assemblies.
• The OM-1 requires minimal disassembly for repinning.
• The OM-2V features a selective orienting system for use with mandrels that have two
pockets.
Figure 14-88 CAMCO ‘OM-1’, ‘OM-5’ and ‘OM-2V’ KICKOVER TOOLS

14-82 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.6. Merla ‘TMP’ Positioning Tool (Kickover Tool)
Merla TMP series positioning tools (Fig. 14-89) are wireline service tools that are used to install
or retrieve 1" OD gas lift valves into Merla TMP and TMPD types of side pocket mandrels.
For running a valve, the Merla TMP positioning tool can be used either with a Merla MR or MER
running tool or alternatively with a Camco JK running tool. For pulling a valve, the TMP
positioning tool can be used with either a Merla MP, Camco's 1 ¼" JDC or an Otis 1 ¼" SM
pulling tool.
Especially suited for use in deviated wells, the TMP positioning tool consists of a fishing neck
with a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a main housing containing a locating key,
trigger, latching and kick springs, a pivot arm assembly and a knuckle joint with box threaded
adapter on the lower end for attachment to a running or pulling tool.
Tool operation is the same whether running or pulling a valve, except for the use of a running tool
or pulling tool attached to the bottom of the positioning tool. For example, to install a gas lift
valve, the running tool is first lowered past the target mandrel, then the string is slowly moved
back up, which causes the positioning tool to position the locating key in the mandrel's orienting
sleeve. Further upward movement causes the positioning tool to rotate until the key enters the
orienting slot in the sleeve. A noticeable increase in tension will occur when the tool reaches the
end of the slot. A further gradual increase in tension will then cause the tool to "kick over" and
latch in place directly above the mandrel's pocket. The tool string is then lowered slowly until the
line tension drops off, indicating that the valve has entered the pocket. The tool string is then
jarred to seat the valve in the pocket and shear it off the running tool. Once the tool is sheared off
the valve, the tool trigger will come back into the orienting slot and will shear a pin holding the
guide key in place. Once this is done, the tool will no longer orient in each mandrel as it is pulled
to surface. As the tool is pulled through the orienting sleeve, the "kicked over" arm will straighten
and lock in the straight position. This feature eliminates unnecessary wear on the tool caused by
rubbing on the tubing wall when pulling out of the well. Merla TMP series tools do not incorporate
a knuckle joint; if one is required, it must be installed directly above the running or pulling tool.
A heavy duty (HD-TMP) version is also available. Any HD-TMP tool of a given size is
interchangeable with the standard positioning tool and the operating procedures are identical.
The HD tool has a narrower trigger and is shorter than the standard tool, therefore it can be used
in some non-Merla mandrels.
Figure 14-89 MERLA ‘TMP’ POSITIONING TOOL

14-84 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.7. Merla ‘TP’ Positioning Tool (Kickover Tool)
Merla TP series positioning tools (Fig. 14-90) are wireline service tools that are used to install or
retrieve 1 ½" OD valves into Merla TGPD and TGD types of side pocket mandrels.
For running a valve, the TP positioning tool can be used with either a Merla TER or Merla RR
running tool or alternatively a Camco JC-3 running tool. For pulling a valve, the TP positioning
tool can be used with either a Merla TRP, Camco's 2" JDC or an Otis 2" SM pulling tool.
Especially suited for use in deviated wells, the TP positioning tool consists of a fishing neck with
a threaded pin connection on the upper end, a main housing containing a locating key, trigger,
latching and and kick springs, a pivot arm assembly and a knuckle joint with box threaded
adapter on the lower end for attachment to a running or pulling tool. Running and pulling
procedures are identical except for the use of a running tool or pulling tool. For example, to install
a gas lift valve, the running tool is first lowered past the target mandrel, then the string is slowly
moved back up, which causes the positioning tool to position the locating key in the mandrel's
orienting sleeve. Further upward movement causes the positioning tool to rotate until the key
enters the orienting slot in the sleeve. A noticeable increase in tension will occur when the tool
reaches the end of the slot. A further gradual increase in tension will cause the tool to "kick over"
and latch in place, directly above the mandrel's pocket. The tool string is then lowered slowly until
the line tension drops off, this being a positive indication that the valve has entered the pocket.
The tool string is now jarred to seat the valve and separate it from the running tool. Further
upward travel will cause the trigger to reorient in the positioning sleeve, then the tool is jarred
once more to shear the pin holding the guide key in place, after which the tool will no longer
orient in each mandrel as it is pulled to surface. As the tool is pulled through the orienting sleeve,
the "kicked over" arm will straighten and lock in the straight position. This feature eliminates
unnecessary wear on the tool caused by rubbing on the tubing wall when pulling out of the well.
Figure 14-90 MERLA ‘TP’ POSITIONING TOOL

14-86 M HRD GEO 0009
14.9.8. Kickover Tool Summary

14.10. FLOW CONTROL DEVICES
The subsurface control of fluid flow, both tubing to casing and within the tubing is a very
important part of efficient completion and production practices. Flow control devices designed to
set in sliding sleeves and seating nipples can be described as consisting of two basic modules.
The lock module that holds the particular product in place and the flow control module. The
interchangeability of the two basic components, plus adaptors in some cases, means that many
specifically tailored products can be assembled together easily and quickly from a minimum
number of stocked modules. This interchangability means that flow control equipment is both
economical as well as versatile.
Flow control modules that blank off flow, check flow from above or below, choke flow along with
separation sleeves and instrument hangers can be made up to the bottom of the locks which has
already been covered in section 14.5.
The flow control device can be any of the following:
• Plug
• Safety Valve
• Seperation Tool
• Sliding Side Door Choke
• Test Tool
• Back Pressure Valves (BPV)
14.10.1. Plugs
Due to the extensive variations in type of plugs manufactured by the various suppliers, it is
impossible to explain operation of them all in this section but specific types of plugs manufactured
is covered in Wireline Level 2 Manual section 4.
This section gives the fundamental purpose, use and components required to form a plug.
Plugs are flow control devices that are designed to blank off flow in the tubing and are divided
into three categories:
• Hold pressure from below only
• Hold pressure from above only
• Hold pressure from both directions
They can be set in the tubing, collar recess, landing nipple or tubing hanger to form a barrier
against well pressure, to allow pressure testing of tubing and to allow the setting of hydraulic
packers.
14-88 M HRD GEO 0009
All plugs, irrespective of type or manufacturer consist of the following components in some form
dependant on manufacturer. (Fig. 14-91)
• Lock Mandrel – To secure plug assembly in the tubing, collar recess, landing nipple or
tubing head.
• Packing Stack or Seal Assembly – To form seal against the tubing, landing nipple seal
bore or tubing head seal bore.
• Equalising Assembly – To allow equalisation above and below the plug assembly.
• Blanking Assembly or End Cap – To seal off plug assembly.
Figure 14-91 TYPICAL PLUG COMPONENTS
Whenever a plug is installed in a well an equalising assembly must always be present in the plug
assembly to allow equalisation of pressure above and below the plug assembly and this
equalisation must always occur fully before the unlocking of the lock mandrel.
Failure to equalise correctly could be caused by any of the following:
• No equalising prong
• Wrong equalising prong
• Equalising prong too short
• Insufficient time allowed for equalisation
• Blocked equalising ports
14.10.2. Safety Valve (SV)
Safety valves are covered in this manual under Completions, Section 3.3.12. page 3-39
14.10.3. Separation Tool
Separation tools (Fig. 14-92) are designed to be set in a sliding side door to plug a lower zone
and permit flow from the upper zone. While the same result could be achieved by inserting a plug
in the lower nipple and flowing the well through the sliding side door, this may cause a problem in
a sand producing zone. As the the production and sand enters the SSD, the abrupt change in
direction will permit some of the sand to settle out onto the plug which can make recovery of the
plug difficult and time consuming as the sand may have to be removed by the use of a sand
bailer.
By running a separation tool directly into the SSD the same effect is achieved. i.e. The bottom
zone is plugged and the upper zone is allowed to flow. However, there is insufficient space
between flow ports and integral plug to allow sand to accumulate.
Figure 14-92 SEPARATION TOOL

14-90 M HRD GEO 0009
14.10.4. Sliding Side Door Choke
The sliding side door choke (Fig. 14-93) is used to seal a leaking sliding side door. While its
installation reduces the flow area through the SSD, it permits continued production of the lower
zone without communication with the upper zone.
Similar in appearance to a separation tool assembly but the flow port assembly is replaced by an
equalising assembly which seals off any flow through the sliding side door.
Figure 14-93 SLIDING SIDE DOOR CHOKE

14.10.5. Test Tool
Test tools only hold pressure from above and are used for the following operations:
• Pressure testing the production tubing string after it has been run and prior to perforating.
• Setting the Hydraulic Packer, usually immediately after the production tubing string has
been pressure tested.
• Protecting a lower zone during the stimulation of an upper zone.
• Locate leaks in tubing.
14.10.5.1. Otis ‘N’ Test Tool
The Otis ‘N’ test tool (Fig. 14-94) is designed to be set in an Otis ‘XN’ landing nipple and seat
against the no-go ring while sealing in the landing nipple seal bore. As pressure will only be
applied from above no lock mandrel is required to secure tool in place.
A built in check valve permits easy equalisation which has a rubber seal for low pressure sealing
and a metal to metal seal for high pressure sealing.
Figure 14-94 OTIS ‘N’ TEST TOOL

14-92 M HRD GEO 0009
14.10.5.2. Otis ‘X’ Selective Test Tool
The Otis ‘X’ selective test tool (Fig. 14-95) is designed to be set in an Otis ‘X’ or Otis ‘XN’ landing
nipple in the tubing string and SSD’s with Otis ‘X’ profiles.
The tool is run in hole with the keys retracted (selective position) to a position below the desired
nipple, then picked up to locate the dogs in the nipple to trip tool into non-selective position,
allowing the expandable keys to locate in nipple profile.
Figure 14-95 OTIS ‘X’ SELECTIVE TEST TOOL

14.10.6. Back Pressure Valves (BPV)
Back pressure valves are installed in the tubing hanger to hold pressure from below during the
following operations:
• Nipple down or up the drilling BOP
• Nipple up or down the Xmas tree
• Test the Xmas tree
• Replace the master valve
14.10.6.1. Cameron Type ‘H’ BPV
The Cameron type ‘H’ back pressure valve (Fig. 14-96) is designed to set in Cameron tubing
hangers to safely seal well pressure of 20,000 psi while removing the drilling BOP after running
the production tubing and installing the Xmas tree. Fluid may be pumped through the BPV if
required and will only hold pressure from below.
If during the life of a well it becomes necessary to remove the Xmas tree or replace the lower
master valve, the back pressure valve can be reinstalled using a special lubricator designed for
installing valve under pressure. The lubricator consists of a polished rod which works through a
yoke provided with two stuffing boxes to contain well pressure. By closing a vent valve and
opening an equalising valve, the rod can be moved up or down by means of a friction wrench
(Parmalee). Experienced operators can utilise the well pressure to move the rod by manipulation
of the vent and equalising valves.
Figure 14-96 CAMERON TYPE ‘H’ BPV

14-94 M HRD GEO 0009
14.10.6.2. Cameron Type ‘H’ Two-Way Check Valve
The Cameron type ‘H’ two way check valve (Fig. 14-97) is designed to set in Cameron tubing
hangers to safely seal well pressure of 20,000 psi while removing the drilling BOP after running
the production tubing, installing the Xmas tree and testing the Xmas tree. Fluid may be pumped
through the BPV if required and will hold pressure from above and below.
If during the life of a well it becomes necessary to remove the Xmas tree or replace the lower
master valve, the back pressure valve can be reinstalled using a special lubricator designed for
installing valve under pressure. The lubricator consists of a polished rod which works through a
yoke provided with two stuffing boxes to contain well pressure. By closing a vent valve and
opening an equalising valve, the rod can be moved up or down by means of a friction wrench
(Parmalee).
Figure 14-97 CAMERON TYPE ‘H’ BPV (TWO-WAY CHECK VALVE)
14.10.6.3. Cameron Type ‘H’ BPV Running/Pulling Tool
The Cameron type ‘H’ BPV running tool (Fig. 14-98) is inserted into the left hand thread at the top
of the valve and then attached to the polished rod. When the valve has been lowered into the
hanger, the polished rod is lowered so that the cross pin in the running tool engages in the slot on
the top of the valve. Right hand (clockwise) rotation is applied to screw the valve into the hanger
until fully seated, the polished rod is then lifted up to release the cross pin from the slot on the top
of the valve and continued right hand rotation backs out the running tool from the valve body.
Figure 14-98 CAMERON TYPE ‘H’ BPV RUNNING TOOL
The Cameron type ‘H’ BPV pulling tool (Fig. 14-99) is attached to the polished rod. When the
running tool has been lowered to the valve, left hand rotation is applied to screw the running tool
into the thread in the top of the valve and when fully engaged knocks the valve off seat to
equalise, further left hand rotation unscrews the valve from hanger thread allowing the valve to be
retrieved.
Figure 14-99 CAMERON TYPE ‘H’ PULLING TOOL

14-96 M HRD GEO 0009
14.10.6.4. Petroline ‘ABC’ Back Pressure Valve
The Petroline ‘ABC’ back pressure valve (Fig. 14-100) is designed primarily to be set in tubing
hanger containing Petroline ‘QXT’ nipple profile but can be adapted to be set in any tubing
hanger containing a nipple profile by simply changing the lock mandrel fitted to the ‘AB’
equalising device by means of the lock cross-over. The valve is set and retrieved using standard
slickline procedures dependant on type of lock mandrel fitted.
Figure 14-100 PETROLINE ‘ABC’ BACK PRESSURE VALVE

SECTION 15
RIG UP PROCEDURE
ELEMENT 2.3
15-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
15.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT (PCE) RIG-UP
The following section explains the procedures and checks that should be followed when
rigging up pressure control equipment on a well.
These procedures are guidelines only and may differ from procedures at a particular location.
15.1.1. Rig-Up Checks
The following should be checked on arrival at site or before rig up of any equipment to
conduct operations.
• Check that wellhead crossover supplied is compatible with connection on xmas tree,
connection on wireline valve/BOP or riser and that I.D of crossover matches I.D. of
xmas tree.
• If wireline work is to be conducted from deck above wellhead, check that riser or
risers supplied are of the correct length as usually only certain lengths of riser will be
supplied for the particular location. Additional riser sections may have to be called out
from base. Riser should be long enough to reach working deck plus enough length
above working deck to conveniently and safely stab on wireline valve/BOP.
• Check that riser top connection is compatible with wireline valve/BOP.
• Check that lower lubricator section connection is compatible with top connection of
wireline valve/BOP.
• Check that wireline valve/BOP inner seals and guides are compatible with wire to be
used.
• Check that enough sections of lubricator are available for operation to be conducted
and for the possibility of a fishing operation.
• Check stuffing box connection is compatible with top section of lubricator connection.
All of the above equipment should also be checked for current certification and that pressure
rating and service is suitable for use.
15.1.2. Installation Preperation
Conduct a pre-job meeting with the client to discuss the well program of work.
A client work permit for rig-up on the well should be completed to ensure that you have the
authority from the client to rig up on well and conduct wireline operations. Approval
signatures on the client permit to work should include the onsite ‘Client Supervisor’ and the
site ‘Operations Supervisor’.
A client ‘Well Entry’ permit may be required to give you authority to enter well. Approval
signatures on the client wireline entry permit should include the onsite ‘Client Supervisor’ and
the site ‘Operations Supervisor’.
15-4 M HRD GEO 0009
A well handover form may be required to document the custody and status of the well
between ‘Producing Operations’ group and the ‘Wireline Operations’ group, complete as per
client site requirements.
In most circumstances NO WORK can commence until relevant permits have been signed by
clients representative but this may vary according to particular site requirements.
A crew pre-job safety or Job Safety Analysis (JSA) meeting should be carried out before any
work commences to ensure that all members of the crew are aware of the hazards, safety
precautions and scope of work of the operation. The completed pre-job safety meeting or rig-
up JSA should be attached to the Permit To Work (PTW).
15.1.3. Xmas Tree Isolation and Pressure Bleed Down for Rig-Up
The xmas tree should be shut-in and isolated as well as depressurised to enable rig-up to be
carried out. This should be carried out by qualified production personnel.
The xmas tree valve isolations should provide a minimum of two (2) valves closed against
the source of well pressure and the opened tie-in point, (namely the xmas tree swab cap
connection). Each of the two (2) valves shall have been previously, independently tested to
assess their pressure holding condition prior to the well being handed over to the wireline
personnel to rig-up. Two (2) valves shall also isolate the surface facilities pressure sources,
providing the same barrier protection to the crew as required for the well isolations.
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Where possible double block and bleed shall be the required goal for isolations. This
may be explained as being: two (2) valves closed with a bleed point between the two (2)
closed valves, that should be monitored for pressure build-up for a suitable test period AND
also monitored while the work is being conducted.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Ensure that adequate isolation exists so that pressure cannot leak back from any
surface production facilities, particularly from gas lift supply lines connected to the production
annulus.
——————————————————————————————————————
Where double block valve isolation is not achievable. Shut down of the process may be
required to install a line rated skillet or blind to provide adequate isolation and protection.
Confined space entry permit is required to enter the well cellar on a land well. Due to the risk
to personnel of hazardous gas in the well cellar, do not enter until a complete gas check is
done as per confined space entry procedures.
15.1.4. Removal of Wellhed Covers
A valid permit to work should be in operation and have been signed by client representative.
An inspection of wellhead covers should be carried out to confirm the lifting points have
integrity and will not fail during lifting.
The crane should always be used to lift and remove wellhead covers to reduce risks of
dropping wellhead covers into the well bay area. Removing well bay covers by hand has
higher risk of being dropped into well bay and should not be carried out.
No lifting of covers or any other lifts over the well should be conducted while personnel are
working below. Personnel must stand clear when lowering equipment down through the
wellhead opening.
Wells that are to be worked on should be shut-in and depressurised prior to lifting well bay
covers and before lowering lifts from above the well and into the well bay area.
Adjacent wells in close proximity to equipment lifts may need to be isolated and
depressurised if there is a risk of damage from equipment being moved in/around the well
bay to eliminate the risk of hydrocarbon release.
Once well bay covers are removed, the opening must be roped off to protect personnel from
falling through the opening. A standby man should be positioned at all times when there is a
risk of personnel falling through the well bay opening during equipment rig up.
Tag lines should be attached to all lifts to assist controlling lifts into the well bay area.
15.1.5. Removal of Tree Swab Cap
Do not proceed unless cap is fitted with needle valve and working gauge.
Ensure pressure below cap has been bled to ZERO.
Remove needle valve and gauge and fit ½” NPT lifting eye.
Ensure that lifting device can supply straight lift to cap to avoid damaging ‘O’ ring seals.
If at all possible never remove cap by hand.
15.1.6. Working at Heights
Any work carried out above 6 feet (2 metres), requires personnel to use approved fall
restraint safety devices, including a safety harness fitted with a shock absorbing lanyard and,
where appropriate, a self retracting lifeline to protect personnel from falling injury.
All Safety Harnesses should be checked prior to work use to ensure that it is in a safe
condition. Webbing, buckles and safety latches (locking type snap hooks) should all be
checked to be in good condition for use. A fall arrester (shock absorbing lanyard) should be
fitted to all safety harnesses.
15-6 M HRD GEO 0009
A self retracting life line should be used where it is appropriate when working at heights.
The use of ladders, work stands, and scaffolding where appropriate, should be used to work
at heights on tall wellhead xmas trees so that climbing hazards for personnel are eliminated.
Inspection of ladders, stands and scaffolding should be carried out prior to work use.
Ladders are required to be securely tied-off at the top when in use. As a guideline follow the
rule of 1 in 4. Example, bottom of ladder 1 meter out from the wall, for every 4 meters in
height of the ladder. Ladders should be laid down, suitably stowed, when not in use. (not left
standing to create a trip hazard).
15.1.7. Crossovers, Risers and Wireline Valve/BOP Installation
The use of flange to flange type crossovers or quick union crossovers is the recommended
practice to connect to the xmas tree. Threaded crossovers require a thorough inspection of
xmas tree threads which may have deteriorated on older Xmas tree installations. In some
locations these threaded connections have been banned and can no longer be used. Ensure
crossovers are correctly made up.
ONLY Brass hammers (non sparking) should be used in wellhead areas to make up any
connections to xmas tree.
Installation checks of a wire line riser from xmas tree top connection to the main deck level
should ensure that connections (and O’rings where appropriate) are checked prior to
installation. The wire line riser pressure rating should meet the required pressure rating for
pressure equipment in use (either equal to or higher than xmas tree working pressure).
Wireline valves/BOP’s should be installed so that adequate easy access is always available
to operate the wireline valve/BOP’s, particularly in an emergency situation. Handles shall be
fitted to wireline valve/BOP operating shafts, whether manually or hydraulically operated.
Wireline valve/BOP equalising valve should be positioned facing away from wireline unit and
closed.
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Wireline valve/BOP should have been function tested at base before shipment to site
but it is good practice to function test every time they are rigged up on a well to confirm that
they will operate correctly in an emergency situation.
——————————————————————————————————————
15.1.8. Lubricator Rig-Up
Before make up of any lubricator sections, check condition of ‘O’ rings, back up rings, if
fitted, and thread condition of quick connection pin and box.
Before threading wire through stuffing box and making up rope socket to wire, wire should be
tested as explained in section 6.1.7. and noted in wireline cable record book.
Ensure all lubricator hang-off slings, shackles and lifting clamps are correctly rated and
certified, attached and secured for use prior to lifting. Fit tag lines to lubricator to assist
controlling lubricator during pick-up.
Wireline clamp of the correct size for wire being used should be installed before picking up
lubricator.
During initial pick-up of the lubricator, observe and take care to ensure lubricator hang-off
slings do not hang-up and foul top sheave, causing damage.
While picking up and stabbing on lubricator personnel should not stand under the suspended
load and only one person (Banksman) is designated to give signals to hoisting device
operator.
If a long lubricator rig-up is required, ideally only a crane should be used for this operation,
check before lifting that, hang off slings and lifting clamps are rated for the load, appropriate
number of tag lines are attached and that Banksman is in full view of the load and hoisting
device operator.
If no crane is available it may be necessary to for some lubricator sections to be made up in

the vertical position. Lubricator sections standing in the vertical must be adequately secured
(tied-back) prior to, and during, make-up to reduce risk of sections falling onto personnel.
The lower sheave should be installed with correct wire angle relationship (90 degrees) to
ensure accurate weight measurement and reduce side loading strain on the lubricator.
Ensure the lower sheave anchor point is adequately secured to a suitable strong point.
Ensure that shackles securing the anchor point and lower sheave have safety pins fitted or
are suitably locked to avoid loosening and opening during wire line operations.
Ensure the safety latch on the lower sheave is latched and has safety pin fitted to avoid
opening during wireline operations.
Check the function and operation of the weight indicator and the wire counter after making
up the lubricator on the well. Flush the weight indicator hydraulic system, if necessary, with
clean recommended hydraulic oil, and ensure all air is bled at the load cell to obtain ⅜” gap
between sensors.
If hydraulically operated wireline valve/BOP is being used, the bridle hoses should be
connected to wireline valve/BOP and a suitable hydraulic pump attached at all times. To
facilitate the quick closure of wireline valve/BOP in an emergency situation.
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Hydraulically operated wireline valve/BOP can be closed manually in the event of
hydraulic pump failure provided that opening ports on wireline valve/BOP can be vented, but
can only be opened by applying hydraulic pressure to the opening ports.
——————————————————————————————————————
15-8 M HRD GEO 0009
15.2. PRESSURE TESTING PCE
pressure testing pressure control equipment once installed on a well.
These procedures are guidelines only and may differ from procedures at a particular location.
15.2.1 Pressure Testing On The Well
A crew pre-job safety or JSA meeting shall be carried out before any pressure testing
commences, to ensure that all members of the crew are aware of the hazards, safety
precautions and scope of work of the operation.
A valid permit to work shall be in operation and have been signed by client representative.
Well site personnel must be informed that pressure testing is about to commence and to
keep clear of area. Usually by tannoy announcement, if available.
Pressure test area should be cordoned off by taping off the area and if available, pressure
testing warning signs erected. Safety clamps/slings shall be installed on pressured lines to
prevent failed lines becoming uncontrolled and injuring personnel or damaging equipment.
Test area should be cleared of all non essential personnel.
Check that all quick unions are tight, all needle valves are closed, rope socket is against
stuffing box to avoid the toolstring being lifted due to pressure applied which could cause the
wire to kink or even break.
In most areas, using the well pressure to test assembly is forbidden, but if no alternative
means of pressure testing is available, then care should be taken to open well slowly to the
lubricator in small steps in case any leaks develop.
Lubricator should be filled with water for hydro testing complete assembly from xXmas tree to
stuffing box against a closed swab valve. Pressure test medium may be dictated by client
and the program of work should be checked and followed
Two (2) tested, independent pressure gauges should be monitored during pressure testing to
reduce the risk of overpressure due to gauge error.
A chart recorder should be used to document pressure testing, particularly initial rig-up
pressure test. Charts should be clearly labelled, dated, and signed by pressure test operator
and site supervisor.
Pressure test pumps pressure safety valve (PSV) or pressure relief valve (PRV) shall be
checked prior to use to ensure that it has been tested and meets certification requirements
as per the attached test tag. The PSV/PRV relief setting may restrict the maximum test
pressure attainable, and should be confirmed prior to testing.
Pressure testing should be carried out at low pressure 250psi for 5 minutes and the high
pressure test should always be a minimum of 1.5 times maximum Shut In Tubing Head
Pressure (SITHP) for 10 minutes OR test to the maximum pressure rating of the lowest
pressure equipment.
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: This may be the xmas tree rating. The client program of work or client procedures
may dictate this high pressure test requirement.
——————————————————————————————————————
A visual check should be conducted of the pressurised equipment to identify leaks that may
not be evident on the test chart or gauge.
On completion of the satisfactory pressure test, the lubricator should be drained of liquids
prior to opening the well to reduce risk of hydrates forming in gas wells.
Ensure a correctly ranged and accurately calibrated pressure gauge is installed to enable
pressure gauge readings to be determined for the Tubing Head Pressure (THP) and the
annulus pressure.
——————————————————————————————————————
NOTE: Ensure that adequate isolation exists so that pressure cannot leak back from the
annulus.
——————————————————————————————————————
Once pressure test is complete, if applicable the wireline control panel can be connected to
SCSSSSV and upper master valve (UMV), to enable wireline crew to have control of all
hydraulically operated valves that could close during an emergency shut-down.
15.3. PRESSURE TESTING WIRELINE VALVE/BOP
In some locations the clients procedures may require the wireline valve/BOP to be pressure
tested from below, with the rams closed on wire, prior to any operation being carried out on
the well.
This type of pressure test can only be conducted if some form of injection and bleed off point
is available between the swab valve and wireline valve/BOP.
The pressure test can be conducted either when the wireline valve/BOP is initially rigged up
onto well or after pressure testing the complete pressure control equipment rig-up.
pressure testing wireline valve/BOP once installed on a well, either initially or after complete
PCE pressure test.
These procedures are guidelines only and may differ from procedures for particular locations.
15.3.1. Pressure Testing On Initial Wireline Valve/BOP Rig-Up
A crew pre-job safety or JSA meeting shall be carried out before any pressure testing
commences, to ensure that all members of the crew are aware of the hazards, safety
precautions and scope of work of the operation.
A valid permit to work shall be in operation and have been signed by client representative.
15-10 M HRD GEO 0009
Well site personnel must be informed that pressure testing is about to commence and to
Wireline valve/BOP should be installed so that adequate easy access is always available to
operate the wireline valve/BOP, particularly in an emergency situation. Handles shall be fitted
to wireline valve/BOP operating shafts, whether manually or hydraulically operated. Wireline
valve/BOP equalising valve should be positioned facing away from wireline unit and closed.
If hydraulically operated wireline valve/BOP is being used, the bridle hoses should be
connected to wireline valve/BOP and a suitable hydraulic pump attached to enable the
closure of the wireline valve/BOP rams.
Wireline valve/BOP should be filled with water for hydro testing, from xmas tree to wireline
valve/BOP against a closed swab valve. Pressure test medium may be dictated by client and
the program of work should be checked and followed
Two (2) tested, independent pressure gauges should be attached to injection/bleed off point
below wireline valve/BOP and monitored during pressure testing to reduce the risk of
overpressure due to gauge error.
A chart recorder should be used to document pressure test. Charts should be clearly
labelled, dated, and signed by pressure test operator and site supervisor. If no chart recorder
available, pressure test should be witnessed by client representative.
The wireline valve/BOP rams should be closed on certified test rod of the same size as wire
to be used, once closed, the test rod should be pulled up to the bottom of rams before
commencing to pressure test, avoiding upward movement of the test rod once pressure is
applied, which could result in damage to the rams.
If no test rod is available, a suitable length of wire attached to a rope socket can be used.
If wire and rope socket is used, the rope socket should be pulled up against bottom of rams
before commencing to pressure test, to avoid rope socket moving upwards once pressure is
applied which could result in damage to the rams.
Pressure test pumps pressure safety valve (PSV) or pressure relief valve (PRV) shall be
checked prior to use to ensure that it has been tested and meets certification requirements
as per the attached test tag. The PSV/PRV relief setting may restrict the maximum test
pressure attainable, and should be confirmed prior to testing.
pressure test should always be a minimum of 1.5 times maximum SITHP for 10 minutes OR
test to the maximum working pressure of the lowest pressure equipment.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
means of pressure testing is available, then care should be taken to open well slowly in small
steps in case any leaks develop.
A visual check should be conducted of the pressurised equipment to identify leaks that may
not be evident on the test chart or gauge.
On completion of the satisfactory pressure test, the pressure should be bled off from below
wireline valve/BOP and the rams opened. The remainder of the pressure control equipment
can now be rigged up and pressure tested.
If hydraulically operated wireline valve/BOP is being tested the bridle hoses and hydraulic
pump should be disconnected, to avoid damage while rigging up remainder of pressure
control equipment.
15.3.2. Pressure Testing After Complete PCE Pressure Test
This method of testing the wireline valve/BOP can only be conducted if there is enough
height between the swab valve and bottom of wireline valve/BOP to accommodate length of
toolstring being used.
On completion of satisfactory pressure test of complete pressure control equipment rig-up as

per section 15.2.1., pressure should be bled off and fluids drained from above wireline
valve/BOP, the toolstring should then be run below wireline valve/BOP and sat on top of
swab valve, avoiding the toolstring falling and damaging the swab valve in the event that
wireline valve/BOP cuts wire when closing rams.
The rams should be partially closed to allow the wire to pass freely but not allow the
toolstring to pass through.
The toolstring should then be pulled back up until rope socket tags the bottom of the rams
before commencing to pressure test, avoiding upward movement of the toolstring once
pressure is applied, the wireline valve/BOP can then be fully closed.
Pressure is then applied from below wireline valve/BOP and pressure monitored above
wireline valve/BOP for any increase.
pressure test should always be a minimum of 1.5 times maximum SITHP for 10 minutes OR
test to the maximum working pressure of the lowest pressure equipment.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
15-12 M HRD GEO 0009
means of pressure testing is available, then care should be taken to open well slowly in small
steps in case any leaks develop.
On completion of satisfactory pressure test, the equalising valve should be opened which
confirms correct operation.
On completion of the satisfactory pressure test, the pressure control equipment should be
drained of fluids prior to opening the well to reduce risk of hydrates forming in gas wells.
SECTION 16
WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING
COMPLETIONS
ELEMENT 3.1
16-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
16.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS
During the installation and running of a completion string, the wireline crew will be on site to
conduct various operations. These operations are normally carried out by rigging up wireline
through the rig derrick with the wireline unit being positioned at the end of the cat walk.
Normally a complete Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) rig-up is required but on some
locations the client will stipulate to rig-up open hole, this means that no PCE is required in
the rig-up which consists of only a hay pulley being suspended from the hook of the travelling
block, or alternatively from the single elevators attached to the travelling block which are
used when running tubing. The toolstring is run into the open tubing, this open hole operation
can only be conducted in a well that has not been perforated.
On most occasions, a ‘Completion Specialist’, will be on site to supervise the installation and
running of the completion assisted by the rig crew and wireline crew, in some areas the
wireline supervisor will become the completion specialist and the wireline crew will perform
operations such as:
• Drifting tubing on surface.
• Completion assemblies inventory.
• Drifting completion assemblies on surface.
• Pressure testing completion assemblies.
• Function testing completion assemblies.
• Gas lift valve change-out.
• Tubing integrity.
• Tubing drift.
• Setting packer.
• Circulation.
• DHSV installation.
• Setting plugs.
• Pulling plugs.
• Zone isolation.
• Activating tubing conveyed perforating guns.

16-4 M HRD GEO 0009
The time that wireline personnel are mainly involved with completion equipment is at the pre-
installation stage, during completion operations when completion assemblies may be
function and pressure tested.
Assemblies may not necessarily be pressure tested offshore and is dependent upon
company’s operating procedures. However, if assemblies containing wireline nipples do
require pressure testing, this requires testing from above and below against wireline plugs
installed in the nipples. The dangers to personnel associated in such operations are:
• Injuries to hands and fingers whilst manipulating the plugs into position horizontally.
• Injury when jarring by hand at surface.
• Injury from parts failing during pressure testing such as the plug itself or rupture of
tubulars.
When pressure testing against wireline plugs in completion assemblies, although a test cap
is required for testing on the upstream end, a test cap should also be installed on the
downstream end of the assembly in case the plug should come free.
Care should be taken to redress the tools used in testing completion assemblies to ensure
they have not been damaged during these tests.
Personnel should also be aware of any lifting and handling of the completion assemblies
around their area of work and should never stand underneath any crane lifts.
Some additional pressure tests may be carried out on the completion when it is suspended in
the rotary table requiring further wireline work. This is normally carried out with the wireline
unit using a side entry sub and a stuffing box. The safety precautions for handling the
toolstring and pressure control equipment already outlined in previous section 2.2. should be
followed.
16.1.1. Wireline Winch Operation
Due to the high occurrence of lifting operations and movement of completion equipment
around the deck and rig floor areas during the completion phase of a well, the wireline winch
and power pack are usually rigged up at the end of the catwalk, while conducting a particular
wireline operation and then rigged down again until the next operation requires to be
conducted. This requires the following safety procedures and unit checks to be carried out
each time any operation is to be conducted.
16.1.1.1. Safety Procedures
In most circumstances NO WORK can commence until relevant permits have been signed by
client’s representative but this may vary according to particular site requirements.
Hazards of completion/drilling fluids being used should be identified by consulting Material

Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or Control Of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
manual as most of them are corrosive and could cause skin disease.
work commences to ensure that all members of the wireline crew, rig crew and deck crew
are aware of the hazards, safety precautions and scope of work of the operation. The
completed pre-job safety meeting or rig-up JSA should be attached to the Permit To Work
(PTW).
Catwalk should be cleared, if possible, to allow safe access to rig floor.
Area from bottom of vee door to wireline winch should be taped off and safety signs erected.
Rig crew should be consulted to confirm hand signals required for operating hoisting devices
on rig floor including hand signals required while using man rider.
All non-essential personnel should be cleared from rig floor during wireline operations.
No lifting of equipment over the wire while conducting operations in the well.
Escape routes should be checked for clear passage.
Ensure appropriate Personnal Protection Equipment (PPE) is worn.
Ensure means of neutralising and removal of completion/drilling fluids is available on site.
No gas cutting or welding operations near spools of wireline or winch units with wire spooled
on drum.
16.1.1.2. Wireline Winch Checks
When rigging up to conduct wireline operations,the following checks should be conducted on

winch unit once it has been suitably positioned and before starting wireline power pack.
• Ensure gearbox is in NEUTRAL position, if fitted.
• Directional valve in mid position.
• Pressure relief valve screwed fully out, if fitted.
• Handbrake is ON.
• Drive chain tension and condition.
• Ensure winch is securely tied back before conducting any operation.
16.1.1.3. Power Pack Checks
The following checks should be conducted before starting the engine of the power pack :
• Radiator coolant water level. (Units such as Deutz and Lister are air cooled).
16-6 M HRD GEO 0009
• Fan belt condition and tension.
• Diesel fuel tank level, and supply line valve is open.
• Check that the emergency shut-down system is not in tripped position, if fitted.
• Battery fluid level, if fitted.
• Hydraulic starter accumulator pressure, if fitted.
• Hydraulic oil tank level, and supply line valve is open.
• Hoses securely and correctly connected to winch unit.
• Position power pack downwind of winch operator, if possible.

SECTION 17
WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS
ELEMENT 3.2
17-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
17.1. WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS
Well intervention is the term used for any entry to the well under pressure, after the well is
completed, to conduct remedial work to keep the well in production or improve the production
rate in later stages of a wells life.
Well intervention work can be conducted by various means using wireline, slickline, coiled
tubing etc.
Slickline conduct many different and varied operations which all can be classed under the
well intervention bracket.
• Drifting the well for operations.
• Checking sand build up in well.
• Clearing deposits in tubing.
• Running investigative tools.
• Setting and pulling various plugs.
• Changing out of WRSSSV.
• Locking open TRSSSV.
• Setting insert valves in TRSSSV.
• Opening and closing sliding side doors.
• Changing out of gas lift valves.
• Running gauge surveys.
• Running memory production logging tools.
17.2. RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk Assessment is a process tool used firstly to identify hazards and secondly to provide
actions that are required to eliminate or reduce the hazard to a manageable level. Using a
risk assessment worksheet and a risk factor matrix, we can classify these hazards into low,
medium or high risk.
To carry out a risk assessment we apply a process of looking at the steps involved in a task
where it is obvious that hazards exist that need to be assessed and managed to enable the
work to proceed safely.
A risk assessment basically asks “What if? Or what could go wrong?” when a work task is
broken down into the various steps.
17-4 M HRD GEO 0009
A risk assessment is similar to a Job Safety Analysis (JSA), in that the work task is broken
down into steps. Hazards may be identified in those steps and these must have actions to
reduce the hazards to a safe acceptable level.
A risk assessment may identify a hazard and actions to minimize that hazard, but the
resulting residual risk may still be considered to be medium or high risk. In this case the job
should not proceed without higher management consultation or approval.
As an example, before the start of wireline operations some of the items you would review as
part of a risk assessment are
• Position of unit – to ensure that powerpack is downwind of winch to reduce hazard

of exhaust fumes affecting winch operator.
• Control of non Authorised Personnel – ensure wireline work area is cordoned off to
reduce the hazard of personnel entering area where they could be injured during
wireline operations.
• PPE – to ensure that all wireline personnel are in possession of proper and adequate
PPE for the operation.
• Third Party Involvement – check that operations being carried out by other
personnel in the near vicinity is not going to affect the safety of the wireline operation.
17.3. JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS
A Job Safety Analysis (JSA) is basically a work plan that we carry out before we start the
work task, to look and identify steps and hazards that may require additional action plans so
that we can safely and efficiently carry out the work.
Normally, we may only think about the job or task we are going to carry out. By using a JSA
approach prior to starting our work we can take these thoughts and put them onto paper
where it is much easier to identify and organize the steps required to complete the job and
the hazards that are involved in the job.
Writing the information on paper is also a more efficient way to communicate these work
steps and hazards to all the crew members that will be involved in the job.
Many accidents or incidents happen because of poor or no job planning prior to starting
work. Instead of looking back on the cause of accidents and incidents, we improve our
method of looking forward for hazards “What can go wrong, or what are the hazards”
WE WILL WORK SAFER AND MORE EFFICIENTLY IF WE HAVE A PLAN
What is the difference between a JSA and a Risk Assessment?
A JSA should be able to identify and manage hazards within normal working procedures.
A risk assessment is to be conducted where there are evident hazards that will require
additional actions to maintain a safe workplace.
Both JSA and risk assessment break down the work tasks into steps for hazard assessment.
17.4. PRE-JOB SAFETY MEETINGS
Before starting any wireline operation it is essential to conduct a pre-job safety meeting with
all the crew members that will be involved in the work so that they are aware of all tasks to
be carried out during the operation, any hazards associated with the operation, safety
procedures to be adhered to during the operation PPE requirements and permit to work
conditions.
If a JSA has already been completed for this work task, hold the pre-job meeting to review
the existing JSA with all crew members that will be involved in the work.Update the existing
JSA if there are additional ideas or inputs from any member of the crew:
Examples:
• Slip hazards may be identified due to weather or rain while doing the job at this time.
• Lighting may not be adequate for the job to proceed this time, the existing JSA and
job may have been previously done during daylight so this JSA would need to be
updated and the issue of night and lighting considered with actions to minimize these
“newly” identified hazards.
All crew members must be aware and understand the above before starting work:
“If you do not understand the JSA and the work plan you must stop and ask”
This may require that the JSA be reviewed and discussed with the entire crew again until all
personnel involved in the job are confident that they understand the work steps, hazards and
the necessary action plans to minimize these hazards.
In conclusion please remember.
• Nobody plans to get hurt at work.
• Your family does not want you to get hurt at work.
• Your employer does not want you to take any risk that may result in you being
hurt at work.
• Take the time to do your JSA and You and your work collegues will enjoy a
safer workplace.
17-6 M HRD GEO 0009
17.5. DRIFTING THE WELL FOR OPERATIONS
A gauge cutter run should be the first step of any wireline operation being conducted in a
well. A gauge cutter run is conducted using a standard toolstring with appropriate size of
gauge cutter attached at the lower end.
The reason for conducting a gauge cutter run prior to any type of subsequent wireline
operation is :
• To determine that tubing is clear.
• To determine there are no restrictions.
• To confirm that required depth can be reached.
17.5.1. Dummy Run
Conducted with toolstring that will be used for the wireline operation, plus a dummy tool
which exactly matches the length, flexibility and O.D of the tool, which will be subsequently
used during the wireline operation. Usually run in deviated well to confirm that tools to be
used for the operation can reach required depths
17.6. CHECKING SAND BUILD UP IN WELL
A drift run is conducted with a standard toolstring with appropriate size of drift, usually gauge
cutter, to determine the I.D. of tubing components or determine the total depth (TD), plugged
back total depth (PBTD), of a well that is producing sand in an effort to detect how much
sand build up there is at bottom of well and confirm that perforation interval is clear.
17.7. CLEARING DEPOSITS IN TUBING
Deposits in the tubing such as wax, paraffin, sand and light scaling can normally be cleared
by running a standard toolstring with appropriate size of gauge cutter attached at the lower
end. The gauge cutter is then manipulated up and down at depth of deposits, once gauge
cutter is free to move in both directions at this depth, a larger gauge cutter can be used and
manipulation continued until sufficient deposits have been removed.
17.8. RUNNING INVESTIGATIVE TOOLS
Investigative tools are normally run to determine the reason for an obstruction in the tubing,
restriction in the tubing or leak in the tubing. The various investigative tools covered in
section 14.2 are attached to the lower end of a standard toolstring.
17.9. SETTING AND PULLING VARIOUS PLUGS
The running and setting of plugs can be required for many different purposes, either during
the completion stage or the production life of a well.
• To check integrity of tubing.
• To set hydraulically actuated packers

• To isolate different producing zones
• To form barrier to conduct various remedial operations
And many more, but before running any type of plug it is essential to perform the following in
preparation for conducting the operation.
• A drift run is made to setting depth to determine that plug can be run without
obstruction.
• Equalising assembly which must always be attached to plug is open to allow fluid
bypass.
• Plug is designed to hold pressure from direction that pressure will be applied.
Once plug has been set, the wireline operator in charge of the operation should make sure
that the plug setting depth, plug type and tool required for retrieving plug is noted in the
wireline report and also stored in the particular well file, to ensure that any wireline crew
undertaking the retrieval of plug is aware of all relevant information.
When pulling or retrieving plugs the wireline operator in charge of the operation should check
the following before and during the operation.
• Well files to check plug setting depth, plug type and tool required for retrieval.
• A drift run is made to plug setting depth to determine that plug can be pulled without
obstruction.
• Pressure is equalised above and below the plug.
It is essential that the pressure is equalised fully above and below the plug before
unlocking the lock mandrel.
Failure to equalise correctly could be caused by any of the following.
• No equalising prong attached to pulling tool.
• Wrong equalising prong attached to pulling tool.
• Equalising prong too short.
• Insufficient time allowed for equalisation.
• Blocked equalisation port.
Any of the above conditions could cause the following.
• Tools could be blown up the hole due to higher pressure below lock.
• Lock could be difficult to unlock due to higher pressure below lock.
• Lock could be difficult to unlock due to higher pressure above lock.

17-8 M HRD GEO 0009
Correct equalisation is essential and can be checked by monitoring surface pressures at the
gauge attached to lower lubricator section or at the tubing head.
17.10. CHANGING OUT OF WRSSSV
Wireline Retrievable Sub-Surface Safety Valves (WRSSSV), whether directly or remotely

controlled, are attached to a lock mandrel and set in a Safety Valve Landing Nipple. Normally
the WRSSSV will be changed out on a regular basis dependant on local maintenance
schedule, but because of the restricted internal diameter (I.D.) the WRSSSV is normally
removed before any well intervention operation can be conducted below setting depth of the
valve and either replaced, if faulty, or original valve re-set on completion of operation.
17.11. LOCKING OPEN TRSSSV
Tubing retrievable safety valves operate by the same principle as wireline SCSSSVs except
all the components are incorporated in one assembly which is installed in the completion
string. Some models have rod piston designs and others the conventional concentric piston
design.
Should the tubing retrievable valve suffer a failure, it can be locked open, this means that the
valve becomes inoperative and is locked in the open position permenantly. A wireline
retrievable valve can then be installed within the existing valve and operated through the
original control line, although with a reduced internal flow area. If the failure is due to a
control line leak, then this procedure is inapplicable and a workover would be required. Each
manufacturer has their own design of lock-open procedures, devices and specialised tooling
with appropriate advantages and disadvantages. Common valve selection throughout a field,
or fields, helps reduce cost of such equipment.
When conducting wireline operations in a well that has a tubing retrieval safety valve fitted,
the wireline crew normally takes control of the safety valve by disconnecting the control line
for the safety valve from the surface control panel and connecting to a wireline control panel,
usually a Haskell pump. This is done to reduce the risk of the safety valve closing in the
event of an emergency shut down and cutting the wireline.
17.12. SETTING INSERT VALVES IN TRSSSV
Tubing Retrievable Sub-Surface Safety Valves (TRSSSV) are all manufactured with a nipple
profile in the top section to allow the installation of a Wireline Retrievable Sub-Surface Safety
Valve (WRSSSV) to be installed in the event of the tubing retrievable valve failing. The
disadvantages of having to insert a WRSSSV into a TRSSSV is that the internal bore of the
completion is reduced and the valve has to be removed to allow operations to be carried out
below the vave setting depth.
17.13. OPENING AND CLOSING SLIDING SIDE DOORS
The main reasons for opening or closing a Sliding Side Door (SSD) are :
• Bring a well into production after drilling or workover by circulating the completion
fluid out of the tubing and replacing it with a lighter under balanced fluid.
• Kill a well prior to pulling the tubing in a workover operation.

• Provide selective zone production in a multiple zone well completion.
SSD can be opened or closed by using the appropriate shifting tool, attached to a standard
toolstring, to move an inner sleeve either upwards or downwards. It is essential to know in
which direction a particular SSD is opened and closed before commencing any operation. A
number of SSD’s can be installed in a completion string and selectively opened or closed by
the use of the appropriate wireline shifting tool, ‘B’ shifting tool, ‘BO’ selective shifting tool if
more than one SSD of the same size is fitted in the completion and a ‘D-2 shifting tool for use
with Baker SSD.
——————————————————————————————————————
CAUTION: Although SSDs have an equalising feature they may be accidentally moved
direct from the closed to open position, hence, tubing and annulus pressures should be
equalised before opening to prevent wireline tools being blown up or down the tubing. Before
opening an SSD the Tubing Head Pressure (THP) and wellhead/annulus pressures should
be noted for reference.
——————————————————————————————————————
17.14. CHANGING OUT OF GAS LIFT VALVES
Before setting or pulling gas lift valves in a Side Pocket Mandrel (SPM) it is essential to
check that pressure between annulus and tubing is balanced at the depth of the side pocket
mandrel.
It is advisable in most cases to set a valve catcher in the nipple immediately below the side
pocket mandrel to remove the risk of losing gas lift valve in hole which could end up in the
casing or liner and prove impossible to retrieve.
The gas lift valve is set or retrieved by attaching an appropriate kickover tool to a standard
toolstring equipped with the correct running or pulling tool for the appropriate latch used in
the particular SPM.
17.14.1. Side Pocket Mandrels
Side pocket mandrels (SPMs) were originally designed for gas lift completions to provide a
means of injecting gas via the annulus to the tubing through gas lift valves installed in the
pockets. However in recent times, they have also had an additional application as a
circulating device commonly used in place of an SSD. They are often favoured as seal
failures can be rectified by being able to pull the valve in the pocket by wireline and replacing
the seals whereas seal failure in an SSD invariably requires the well to be worked over.
SPMs are installed in the completion string to act as receptacles for the following range of
devices:
• Gas lift valves.
• Dummy valves.
• Chemical injection valves.
• Circulation valves.
17-10 M HRD GEO 0009
• Differential dump kill valves.
• Equalising valves.
It is essential to understand the operation of the device installed in an SPM before

conducting any well intervention as it may affect tool operation and well control.
These devices are set or retrieved by attaching an appropriate kickover tool to a standard
toolstring equipped with the correct running or pulling tool for the appropriate latch used in
the particular SPM.
17.15. RUNNING GAUGE SURVEYS
Gauge surveys are conducted to record formation pressure and temperature which is
essential for reservoir evaluation and monitoring.
Gauge surveys can be run by two different distinct methods.
• Suspended on wire.
• Set in landing nipple.
It is essential to conduct a drift run with gauge cutter to the maximum depth at which the
gauges will be recording data.
17.15.1. Suspended On Wire
When gauges are suspended on wire, the gauges, which are always run in tandem, are
attached to a standard toolstring with a shock absorber positioned at the bottom, to which the
gauges are attached.
It is recommended that no jars are included in the toolstring to eliminate any jar action being
transmitted to gauges.
The gauges are then run in hole to the depth at which survey is to be conducted and remain
attached to toolstring for duration of survey. This method is normally only used for short
duration surveys i.e. gradient surveys and static or shut-in surveys.
17.15.2. Set In Landing Nipple
When gauges are set in a landing nipple, usually the bottom nipple of the completion. The
gauges are attached to a shock absorber secured to the bottom of a bomb hanger
compatible with the landing nipple into which the gauges will be set.
The bomb hanger, shock absorber and gauges are attached to the appropriate running tool
compatible with the bomb hanger to be used which is attached to a standard toolstring.
The toolstring, running tool, bomb hanger, shock absorber and gauges is then run in hole to
the depth of particular landing nipple and the bomb hanger, shock absorber and gauges set
in landing nipple. The toolstring and running toolis then retrieved to surface while survey is
conducted.
Once the survey is completed a suitable pulling tool compatible with the bomb hanger used
is run in hole to retrieve the bomb hanger, shock absorber and gauges from the landing
nipple.
17.16. RUNNING MEMORY PRODUCTION LOGGING TOOLS
Memory Production Logging Tools (MPLT) are run to monitor a wells performance by use of
various different types of tools to produce data that determine the following from a producing
well :
• Production profiles.
• Injection profiles.
• Coning.
• Crossflow.
• Water breakthrough.
• Formation fluid and fluid contacts.
They can also be run to analyse well problems such as :
• Channelling.
• Mechanical leaks.
• Cement tops.
• Thief zones.
Before running any type of MPLT, it is essential to perform the following in preparation for
conducting the operation.
• A drift run is made to survey depth to determine that MPLT string can be run without
obstruction.
• A dummy run is conducted to survey depth, simulating the exact O.D. , length and
flexibility of the actual MPLT string and wireline toolstring that will be used for
operation.
Normally an MPLT specialist would be on site to supervise the operation, makeup and
running procedures of the MPLT. The wireline crew will assist as necessary in the
preparation of MPLT string.
The wireline crew will be required to rig-up PCE and run MPLT string attached to a standard
toolstring to survey depth and conduct a number of passes at different depths and speeds.
It is recommended that no jars are included in the toolstring to eliminate any jar action
being transmitted to MPLT string but some MPLT specialists prefer to have jars included.
17-12 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
SECTION 18
WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING
WORKOVERS
ELEMENT 3.3
18-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
18.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVER
In addition to periodic maintenance, producing oil and gas wells occasionally require major
repairs or modifications, called "workovers." The use of workovers can often substantially
increase economically recoverable oil and gas reserves.
Workovers have two distinct categories :
• Geological
• Mechanical
18.1.1. Geological Workover
For problem wells, the remedial action is usually to increase productivity, to open new
producing zones, to eliminate excessive water or gas production.
For non-problem wells, actions may be done to increase production through well stimulation.
The stimulation of an existing production well for the purpose of restoring, prolonging or
enhancing the production of hydrocarbons can be accomplished by acidising, fracturing or
perforating.
Through tubing workover operations, using coiled tubing, snubbing or slickline equipment,
are routinely conducted to complete treatments or well service activities that avoid a full
workover where the tubing is removed. This operation saves considerable time and expense.
Slickline operations during a geological workover could include :
• Drift runs.
• Pulling and re-setting WRSSSV
• Opening or closing SSD
• Changeout of SPM valves
• Setting and retrieving plugs
18.1.2. Mechanical Workover
In many cases, mechanical workover implies the removal and replacement of the production
tubing string after the well has been killed and a workover rig has been placed on location.
Typically, a workover may last from a few days to several weeks. These extensive workover
operations are normally performed by a workover rig with specialised accessory equipment,
which may include rotary drilling equipment, mud pumps, mud tanks and blowout preventers.
Before the production tubing string can be removed, the well requires to be killed, this means
that kill fluid is pumped into the well to form a column of fluid producing a hydrostatic
pressure slighty greater than the formation pressure which results in the well being unable to
flow.
18-4 M HRD GEO 0009
To allow killing of the well one of the following wireline operations would have to be
conducted depending on completion makeup :
• Open SSD to allow communication from annulus to tubing for injecting kill fluids.
• Changeout SPM valve to allow communication from annulus to tubing for injecting kill
fluids.
• Perforate tubing above packer to allow communication from annulus to tubing for
injecting kill fluids, if no SSD or SPM is available in the completion makeup.
Once the well has been killed and monitored for any flow, the slickline crew will conduct the
following operations :
• Pull WRSSSV, if fitted.
• Set a plug in the bottom landing nipple of the completion.
• Set plug in landing nipple between DHSSSV and bottom landing nipple, if available in
the completion makeup.
• Set plug in SVLN, if available in the completion makeup.
• Set plug in nipple profile of TRSSSV if available in the completion makeup.
• Set plug or back pressure valve in the tubing hanger.
If TRSSSV is being used, this would also be closed.
All of the above operations are conducted to provide a barrier between the formation
pressure and surface in the event that the well should start to flow, allowing the xmas tree to
be removed and the workover rigs BOP’s to be nippled up in preparation for pulling
production tubing.
The number of barriers required will depend on local health and safety executive, (HSE),
procedures and onsite client procedures.
Once BOP’s are nippled up the slickline crew will remove all the barriers previously set and
the well can then be controlled by workover rig using the same well control system as
previously used when well initially drilled.
The required workover operations can then be conducted and production tubing string re-ran
as per normal completion operations.
SECTION 19
RIGGING DOWN
ELEMENT 4.1
19-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
19.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT (PCE) RIG DOWN
rigging down pressure control equipment from a well.
These procedures are guidelines only and may differ from procedures for a particular
location.
A client work permit for the rig-up on the well to conduct operations should include the rig-
down on completion of operations, check current work permit is valid and includes rigging
down before commencing rig-down procedures.
work commences to ensure that all members of the crew are aware of the hazards, safety
precautions and scope of work of the operation. The completed pre-job safety meeting or rig-
down JSA should be attached to the Permit To Work (PTW).
19.1.1. Working at Heights
Any work carried out above 6 feet (2 metres), requires personnel to use approved fall
restraint safety devices, including a safety harness fitted with a shock absorbing lanyard and,
where appropriate, a self retracting lifeline to protect personnel from falling injury.
All safety harnesses should be checked prior to work use to ensure that it is in a safe
condition. Webbing, buckles and safety latches (locking type snap hooks) should all be
checked to be in good condition for use. A fall arrester (shock absorbing lanyard) should be
fitted to all safety harnesses.
A self retracting life line should be used where it is appropriate when working at heights.
The use of ladders, work stands, and scaffolding where appropriate, should be used to work
at heights on tall wellhead xmas trees so that climbing hazards for personnel are eliminated.
Inspection of ladders, stands and scaffolding should be carried out prior to work use.
Ladders are required to be securely tied-off at the top when in use. As a guideline follow the
rule of 1 in 4. Example, bottom of ladder 1 meter out from the wall, for every 4 meters in
height of the ladder. Ladders should be laid down, suitably stowed, when not in use. (not left
standing to create a trip hazard).
19.1.2. Xmas Tree Isolation and Pressure Bleed Down for Rig-Down
The xmas tree should be shut-in and isolated as well as depressurised to enable rig-down to
be carried out. This should be carried out by qualified production personnel.
The xmas tree valve isolations should provide a minimum of two (2) valves closed against
the source of well pressure and the opened tie-in point, (namely the xmas tree swab cap
connection). Each of the two (2) valves shall have been previously, independently tested to
assess their pressure holding condition prior to the well being handed over to the wireline
personnel to rig-up. Two (2) valves shall also isolate the surface facilities pressure sources,
providing the same barrier protection to the crew as required for the well isolations.
19-4 M HRD GEO 0009
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Where possible double block and bleed shall be the required goal for isolations. This
may be explained as being:two (2) valves closed with a bleed point between the two (2)
closed valves, that should be monitored for pressure build-up for a suitable test period AND
also monitored while the work is being conducted.
——————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————————————
Note: Ensure that adequate isolation exists so that pressure cannot leak back from any
annulus.
——————————————————————————————————————
Where double block valve isolation is not achievable. Shut down of the process may be
required to install a line rated skillet or blind to provide adequate isolation and protection.
Confined space entry permit is required to enter the well cellar on a land well. Due to the risk
to personnel of hazardous gas in the well cellar, do not enter until a complete gas check is
done as per confined space entry procedures.
19.1.3. Lubricator Rig-Down
Once xmas tree valves have been closed and depressurised, the wireline PCE can be
depressurised. This is normally done by opening bleed off valve situated on lower section of
lubricator to atmosphere but on some locations the bleed off valve would be connected to
facilities venting system. Another method to safely depressurise lubricator is to open swab
valve and production wing valve and bleed off lubricator pressure to the production flowline.
Ensure all lubricator hang-off slings, shackles and lifting clamps are correctly rated and
certified, attached and secured for use prior to lifting. Tag lines are fitted to lubricator to
assist controlling lubricator during pick-up.
Once the lubricator is completely depressurised the quick union connection between wireline
valve/BOP and lower section of lubricator can be loosened and lubricator sections lifted clear
of wireline valve/BOP and toolstring lowered to remove any tools present below mechanical
jars.
During initial pick-up of the lubricator, observe and take care to ensure lubricator hang-off
slings do not hang-up and foul top sheave, causing damage.
Ensure all personnel stand clear when lowering the tool string. While picking up and laying
down lubricator personnel should not stand under the suspended load and only one person
(Banksman) is designated to give signals to hoisting device operator.
Once tools have been removed, the toolstring is then pulled back into lubricator and suitable
wireline clamp attached to wire and secured to bottom section of lubricator. If available, a
thread protector should be attached to bottom section of lubricator.
Lubricator sections can then be laid down on suitable support stands.

19.1.4. Wireline Valve/BOP Rig-Down
Before removing the wireline valve/BOP from the well, the rams should be closed, operating
handles removed from operating shafts and, if using hydraulically operated wireline
valve/BOP, the bridle hoses disconnected.
The wireline valve/BOP can now be removed by using a suitable certified lifting cap and
stored in suitable wireline valve/BOP frame if available. If no suitable frame is available
wireline valve/BOP can be laid down on side making sure that equalising valve is facing
upwards and that suitable support is given beneath ram cylinders to avoid damage to
operating shafts.
19.1.5. Removal of Wellhead Temporary Safety Barriers/Covers
An inspection of wellhead protective barriers/covers used during wire line operations should
be carried out to confirm the lifting points have integrity and will not fail during lifting.
The crane should always be used to lift and replace wellhead covers to reduce risks of
dropping wellhead covers into the well bay area. Replacing well bay covers by hand has
higher risk of being dropped into well bay and should not be carried out.
No lifting of covers or any other lifts over the well should be conducted while personnel are
working below. Personnel must stand clear when removing equipment through the wellhead
opening. Tag lines should be attached to all lifts to assist controlling lifts out of the well bay
area.
Adjacent wells in close proximity to equipment lifts may need to be isolated and
depressurised if there is a risk of damage from equipment being moved in/around the well
bay to eliminate the risk of hydrocarbon release.
Once well bay safety barriers/covers are removed, a standby man should be positioned at all
times when there is a risk of personnel falling through the well bay opening during equipment
rig down up.
19.1.6. Riser and Xmas Tree Crossover Rig-Down
Remove wire line risers and crossovers from the well using the crane and suitable certified
lifting caps, ensuring that tag lines are fitted to control lifts and personnel are standing well
back clear of overhead lifts.
Re-Install the swab/crown cap on the xmas tree and ensure it is tightly made-up. If the
swab/crown cap flange was removed, re-fit using a new correct size/type ring joint seal.
Ensure where hammer wrenches are required for make-up, only a (non sparking) brass
hammer is used.
Once all lifting operations are complete, replace all permanent covers that were removed
before rigging up
Re-instate all removed wellhead instrumentation such as tubing head lines, pressure sensing
lines and pressure gauges.
19-6 M HRD GEO 0009
Remove the SCSSSV or UMV/SSV hoses attached to wire line control panels (if fitted) and
re-instate and function test the production operating systems.
The client production operator needs to be on-site to tie-back into the production system and
perform the necessary function testing.
19.1.7. Pressure Test
A pressure test of the replaced swab/crown cap may be required after replacement.
Well site personnel should be informed that pressure testing is about to commence and to
Pressure testing should be carried out low pressure 250/psi/ 5 minutes and the high pressure
test should always be the xmas tree working pressure for 15 minutes.
A visual check should be conducted of the pressured equipment to identify leaks that may
not be evident on the test chart/gauge.
On completion of the satisfactory pressure test, rig down the pump lines from the well.
Hand well back to production department.
A well handover form may be required to document the custody and status of the well
between ‘Wireline Operations’ group and the ‘Production Operations’ group, complete as per
client site requirements.
SECTION 20
HOUSEKEEPING
ELEMENT 4.2
20-2 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes
20.1. HOUSEKEEPING
Housekeeping is a very important part of any wireline operation, not only does it show that
we take pride in our work but the client must always have confidence in the professionalism
of our services and housekeeping is a major part of maintaining that confidence.
After rigging down from a well the following checks should be made before leaving the site :
• Any gratings or covers that were removed during operations have been replaced.
• Any discarded wire has been disposed of in appropriate disposal container.
• Any rags, used gloves etc. have been disposed of in appropriate disposal container.
• Any grease/oil spills have been mopped up and disposed of in appropriate disposal
container.
• Any trip hazards have been removed.
• Xmas tree left in a clean condition.
• All hand tools have been removed and stowed.
20.2. HAND TOOLS.
Hand tools are important in assisting you in the execution of your work responsibilities during
wireline operations, it is therefore essential that all hand tools are fit for use and the following
should be carried out at the end of every operation :
• All hand tools should be thoroughly cleaned before returning to toolbox.
• All hand tools should be checked for damage.
• All hand tools should be checked for wear.
If hand tools are found to be damaged, broken or worn.
• Return to base if broken or damaged tools can be repaired.
• Request replacement if broken or damaged tools cannot be repaired.
• Request replacement parts if worn parts can be replaced on site.
• Return to base if worn parts cannot be replaced on site.
Any tools returned to base for repair or replacement should be marked accordingly on
toolbox inventory.
Any tools remaining on site but requiring repair should be kept aside and marked not to be
used, to avoid them being used accidentally, which could result in causing hand injuries.
20-4 M HRD GEO 0009
Notes

M HRD GEO 0009 P20 335 A Wireline - Manual - Level - 1 - 5677966 - 01

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M HRD GEO 0009 P20 335 A Wireline - Manual - Level - 1 - 5677966 - 01

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WELL INTERVENTION SERVICES

WIRELINE TRAINING MANUAL

SECTION 1 -- ORIGINS OF OIL AND GAS

SECTION 2 -- DRILLING OPERATIONS

SECTION 4 -- PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

SECTION 5 -- WIRELINE WINCH

SECTION 6 -- WINCH CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATION

SECTION 7 -- HOISTING DEVICES

SECTION 8 -- SURFACE EQUIPMENT

SECTION 9 -- TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS

SECTION 10 -- OPERATIONAL SAFETY

SECTION 11 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS OVERVIEW

SECTION 13 -- SITE AND EQUIPMENT

SECTION 15 -- RIG UP PROCEDURES

SECTION 16 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS

SECTION 17 -- WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS

SECTION 18 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVERS

SECTION 19 -- RIGGING DOWN

1.1 ORIGINS OF OIL AND GAS 1-3

SECTION 2 -- DRILLING OPERATIONS

2.1. DRILLING OPERATIONS 2-3

2.11.9.3. Running and Cementing Intermediate Casing 2-67

3.1. COMPLETIONS 3-3

3.3. WELL COMPLETION EQUIPMENT 3-14

3.4.2.2. Upper Master Valve 3-54

SECTION 4 - PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

4.1. PRODUCTION FACILITIES 4-3

SECTION 5 - WIRELINE UNIT

5.1. WIRELINE UNIT 5-3

SECTION 6 - WIRELINE WINCH CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATION

6.1. WIRELINES 6-3

SECTION 7 - HOISTING DEVICES

7.1. HOISTING DEVICES 7-3

SECTION 8 - SURFACE EQUIPMENT

8.1. SURFACE EQUIPMENT 8-3

8.5.1. Manual Wireline Valve Operation 8-18

SECTION 9 -- TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS

9.1. TOOLSTRING COMPONENTS 9-3

9.1.8.2. Bow Spring Centraliser 9-30

SECTION 10 -- OPERATIONAL SAFETY

10.1. OPERATIONAL SAFETY 10-3

SECTION 11 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS OVERVIEW

11.1. OPERATIONS OVERVIEW 11-3

12.1. BASE/WORKSHOP 12-3

SECTION 13 -- SITE AND EQUIPMENT

13.1. SITE AND EQUIPMENT 13-3

SECTION 14 -- DOWNHOLE TOOLS

14.1. DOWNHOLE TOOLS 14-3

14.2.8.1. Uses 14-9

14.9.2. Camco ‘R’ series Kickover Tool 14-76

SECTION 15 -- RIG UP PROCEDURES

15.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT (PCE) RIG-UP 15-3

SECTION 16 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS

16.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING COMPLETIONS 16-3

SECTION 17 -- WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS

17.1. WELL INTERVENTION OPERATIONS 17-3

17.3. JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS 17-4

SECTION 18 -- WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVERS

18.1. WIRELINE OPERATIONS DURING WORKOVER 18-3

SECTION 19 -- RIGGING DOWN

19.1. PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT RIG-DOWN 19-3

20.1. HOUSEKEEPING 20-3

ORIGINS OF OIL & GAS