Proceedings of Bridge Engineering 2 Conference 2009

April 2009, University of Bath, Bath, UK

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF BANDRA-WORLI CABLE STAYED

BRIDGE, MUMBAI
C.S.W. DAVIES1
1 Undergraduate Student - University Of Bath

Abstract: This paper provides an analysis of the aesthetic and structural properties of the cable stayed section
of the Bandra Worli Sea Link. Both theoretical and visual interpretations of the bridge have been included.
Supplementary information helps to interpret the critical analysis such as the construction process and the use
of the bridge. Giving context to the paper.

Keywords: Bandra-Worli Sea-Link, Cable-Stayed, Dar Al-Handasah, Mumbai.

1 Introduction 2 Form

The construction of the Bandra-Worli Bridge is part The main cable stayed section of the bridge spans
of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link project necessitated by the 600m in length, consisting of two 250m cable supported
exceptionally large amounts of traffic which currently spans and two 50m conventional approach spans. The
use the Mahim Causeway travel from the western smaller cable stayed section is 350m in length and
suburbs of Mumbai to the commercial hub of the island comprises of 2 smaller cable stayed sections with a 150m
City. This affects the efficiency and links to the central span and 2 50m approach spans on either side Fig
economic metropolis and the internationally used 2. The design is described as follows by the designer.
harbour. As an upshot of Mumbai’s rapid growth in “The overall tower configuration is an inverted "Y"
economy and population since its independence, traffic shape with the inclined legs oriented along the axis of the
has stalled in the city centre. It is thought that 120,000 bridge” [1] Fig. 3. In total there are 264 cables attached
PCU’s use the Mahim causeway every day [1]. to the towers, they form a semi-fan arrangement.
Therefore for the sea link to make a substantial difference The bridge deck is constructed of pre cast box girder
to the level of traffic on the mainland it is required to be sections which are identical those used for the
able to accommodate large amounts of traffic. 8 lanes approaches “the bridge is proposed to be built utilizing
will be provided. It is the first bridge of its kind to be the concept of precast, post - tensioned, twin segmented
built in open sea, which has brought up a number of concrete box girder sections”.[2]
engineering issues.
The infrastructure within the city is completely
saturated and there is little room for expansion on the
mainland, there was no other alternative than to construct
over the bay. With this solution come a number of other
benefits, such as reduced pollution within the city,
reduced vehicle operation costs and journey times as well
as the city obtaining a coastal landmark.
This paper will be mainly concerned with the larger
two twinned tower cable stayed sections of the bridge
which were designed by consultants Dar Al-Handasah.
The bridge is expected to be opened to traffic on the 1st Figure 2: Layout
of May 2009.

Figure 1: General View Figure 3: Inverted Y Piers

Craig S W Davies – cswd20@bath.ac.uk
 3 Aesthetics
It was the intention of the designers to create a
striking landmark in the design of this structure.
Although large span cable stayed bridge design is fairly
restrictive due to designs of this size being fairly standard
and there being a finite number of cable layout options.
There are a number of subtle design choices used for this
bridge that have helped to achieve an impressive design.
I will analyse the aesthetics of the bridge bearing in
mind the 10 areas of importance in bridge aesthetics
suggested by Fritz Leonhardt. These are:
 Fulfilment of function.
 Proportions
 Order within the structure
 Refinement of design
 Integration with the environment
 Surface Texture
 Colour of components
 Character
 Complexity in variety
 Incorporation of nature.
As with most cable stayed bridges its structural
function is clear and the structure seems to be fulfilling
its function well and efficiently. It is clear without
performing calculations, when looking at the spans
involved compared to those in the approach section the
purpose of the cables in taking the load of the bridge
deck. Due to the structural form of cable stayed bridges
the interaction between separate functional parts is very
pronounced which creates clarity and simplicity in
design. Although there are a lot of cables, the colour and
semi-fan layout blurs them when looking from a
distance, giving, in my opinion the look of a translucent
surface.
The bridge is well proportioned. Although the
towers are massive they do not appear to be
disproportional when looking at the span that they have
to cater for and again from a visual point of view there
appears to be little redundancy in design. The deck is
very slender; the aerodynamic shape of the box girder
sections allows the edges to be thin. The final design
shows that the edges will be finished in a light colour,
drawing attention to the deck. The width of the deck is
so great it would have been easy to end up with very
large towers. A graceful solution has been found
whereby the 4 columns supporting the deck meet to form
one column above the deck and 2 piers below.
Disguising the fact that there is such an expansive deck.
The deck appears sufficient in completing the triangle
created by the towers and the deck.
There is order in the repetitive nature of this bridge
and although the two cable stayed sections of the bridge
are different, efforts have been made to mirror structural
elements to create order. The cable stayed sections are of
the same proportions, the greater span of the Bandra end
bridge is created by merely increasing the number of
cables, the tower height and cable spacing is similar for
both cable stayed sections. The spacing of the piers for
the approach section is concurrent however it could be
argued that the spans could be made larger as from some
angles there appears to be a forest of piers Fig. 4 due to
the bridge curving on plan. As already mentioned the
order of the cables seems to work well, the semi-fan
layout compliments the structural form of the towers
because the density of cables connected in one plane
increases as the 4 columns become one. This is an
improvement of a precedent to this design in the Rion
Antirion Bridge in Greece, where in my opinion the four
columns which join appear too slender in comparison to
the larger pier beneath the deck.
There are a number of refinements that have been
used to assist and improve the elegance of this structure.
Most of these refinements tend to promote the simplicity
of the bridge rather than adding to its complexity. The
most worthwhile mentioning is the connection between
the stays and the deck.
Figure 4: Forest of Piers
The connection is hidden beneath the deck which offers a
very neat interaction between the stays and the top side
of the deck. This solution is both graceful and practical
as the connections are still accessible for inspection. The
piers supporting the approach deck are widened at their
juncture with the deck so that there is dimensional
coherence between the two elements. There is a gentle
taper to the columns in the towers which is continued
through the deck, this is pleasing to the eye without being
overly apparent.
As a rule of thumb cable stayed bridges look fitting
over a large expanse of water, in that sense I think that it
was a good design choice for its natural environment but
the more important factor with this bridge is its sympathy
to its urban environment. It is in a very prominent
position and needs to look appropriate for its stage. The
designers had the tricky task of designing something that
would befit a business district and a harbour town.
Whether this had been achieved is a matter of opinion. I
think that the designers have achieved in making
something that from a distance is stylish and intricately
simple in appearance but for the commuters who will use
the road it will feel as though it is part of the city and
merely an extension to the road network.
The primary observation about texture is that the
concrete in the towers is notched making it appear much
darker than the concrete used in the deck. Whether this
was a detail based more on practicality than aesthetics I
am not sure but it does serve to emphasise the much
lighter cables and deck which is a virtuous property in
bridge design. The piers also appear to be darker, this
may be due to them being shaded by the deck, this helps
in making the piers merge with the sea. It is difficult to
analyse how colours will look on completion.
It is also difficult to define the character of this
bridge because of the nature of the large span cable
structure and the similarities to many other bridges of
this type. My opinion is that the character of this bridge
is defined by its use and the fact that the function of this
bridge says a lot about the surrounding area and the
congestion in Mumbai, the fact that the solution to
connecting two areas which are not separated themselves
by water, using a bridge over the sea is testament to the
level of traffic in Mumbai and the desperate need to
relieve this with such an ambitious solution.
It is important to give a separate consideration to the
pylons and cables which appear to have been subject to
much thought in terms of design. The pylons tend to
have a governing influence over the overall architectural
layout. However the design appears to make structural
sense and you can see that it is proportioned well when
considering the loads that it is carried. Although it is an
architectural statement it does not clash with the
structural behaviour and therefore does not interrupt the
clarity of structural form which is so often one of the
most attractive features of cable stayed structures.
4 Structure
4.1 Pylons
Pylons are arguably the most important components
of a cable stayed bridge. The main span bridge has 2
pylons, each with 4 legs, each tower is inclined towards
the other by 10°, eventually merging at 98m above deck
to become a single tower. Transverse and longitudinal
post - tensioning is provided in the tower head to resist
local cable forces[4]. The single tower is tapered
towards the very top. Beneath the superstructure of the
bridge the 4 legs merge to 2 points which are carried into
the ground through the pile caps.
As with most cable stayed bridges the pylons are
very stiff. An A-frame adds torsional stiffness to the
bridge, this is due to the natural resistance to twisting
created by the closed triangle. The stiff pylon in
conjunction with the slender deck and numerous cables
means that the pylon will be subjected to high
longitudinal moments due to the live loads on the deck
and pylon itself.
4.2 Cables
The arrangement of the cables is 4 planes of a semi-
fan arrangement. “The Cable Stay system comprises
2,250 km of high strength galvanized steel wires which
support the Cable Stay Bridge weighing 20,000 tons”[3].
Each deck section has 2 planes of inclined cables which
are attached to the top of the tower in one plane. This
layout of cables is suitable for the large spans as the
inclined arrangement provides the lateral stiffness
required. The advantage of this layout is that the deck
can be slender as it does not have to account for the
torsional inadequacies of a single plane of cables whilst
taking advantage of the preferred aesthetics of a single
plane attachment to the pylon. The cables are inclined
due to A-frame pylons. “The deck and the two planes of
inclined stays behave like a rigid closed section in
bending”[4] Having this apparent closed section made
by the deck, the inclined stays and pylon causes the
rigidities of the deck and pylons to work together to
make a rigid structure which acts against rotation in the
deck. The inclination of the cables is such that clearance
is not an issue for the passage of vehicles across the deck
due to the spans involved and the height of the pylon, it
means that the level of inclination is slight. The method
of lateral suspension used in this case causes transverse
bending moments with a maximum in the centre of the
deck. There are points of maximum shear at the edges of
the deck. It was therefore important that the design took
into consideration the possibility that the transverse pre-
stress in the deck and the anchorage for the cables may
clash.
Cable spacing is 6.0 meters along the bridge deck.
Fig 5
Figure 5: Cable Spacing
4.3 Deck

The deck of the Bandra Worli Sea Link consists of a

hollow concrete box section with 3 cores, the dimensions
of the deck varies throughout the length of the bridge.
The pre-cast segments vary in length from 1.5m to 3.1m.
Each section of bridge deck will be post tensioned
following installation. The idea behind having a very
slender and lightweight deck is to reduce the longitudinal
stiffness, it is therefore advantageous to provide a very
flexible deck. Because this bridge utilises a lateral Figure 7. Pile Caps
suspension, bending within the deck is reduced and
torsion in the deck is not normally a critical case. For 5 Construction Methods
flexible decks the dimensions of the deck are determined
by the transverse moments and the size of the point loads The precast concrete sections of the deck were
at the anchorages, this is therefore governed by the launched incrementally between the pillars using a truss
separation of those cables. [4] For the type of box section system, known as the balanced cantilever method [6].
used at Bandra Worli Sea link the top slab is continuous The bespoke girder Fig. 8 spans between two piers with
over the webs and props. The use of webs and props the girder being supported on the outside pier by a
creates a multi-box section allows the large width which temporary support. This allows the central carriage to
is required for each direction of traffic. move between the two piers to install the precast deck
sections by picking them up and winching them into the
appropriate position. The precast sections were then
epoxied together and given a certain degree of pre-stress
to hold them in place[6]. Once each span had completed
and geometrical adjustments made the primary
continuous tendons were stressed to the required level.
Once the deck section was in its requisite position cable
connection can begin, using the following method. The
cables are delivered to site and uncoiled using a winch,
fixed to their anchor at the upper tower, winched towards
the deck connection and guided into the anchorage then
stressed to the required level using hydraulic jacks.
One major obstacle which had to be overcome
during the construction process was how to move the
large truss from the Bandra end of the bridge to the Worli
Figure 6: Deck Construction end without having to dismantle the truss which would
be too time consuming on such a high profile structure
4.4 Foundations with a strict timescale. A decision was made to use a
large sea crane to lift the truss into its new position,
The foundations were designed by Lachel Felice. however the depth of the water at low tide meant that the
The drilled shaft method of construction was used to for
the shafts. The shafts vary considerably in size,
depending on the bedrock “Rock encountered at the site
included highly weathered, fractured and oxidized
volcanic material with RQD’s of less than 25 percent and
unconfined compressive strengths of 1 MPa”[5].
Foundations for the towers comprised of 52 2m diameter
Fig. 7 piles arranged in a H shape to capably support the
legs of the pylon, they are up to 34m in length. The
loads on different parts of the structure vary considerably
and this was reflected in the variability of the shaft sizes
to accommodate loads from 2-25MN.

Figure 8: Truss Girder

 crane could only be used at instances of high tide, this
meant that the operation took a number of days.
The span by span method was used for the
construction of the approach sections of the bridge.
Where each span was constructed up to its nearest point
of contraflexure to the pier, the formwork is then shifted
to the next span and the cycle is repeated.
All of the rebar and formwork for the pylon, the
diaphragm and the pier table were constructed off site
and the pouring was carried out in stages. Due to the
inclination and height of the main tower temporary
longitudinal and transverse compression struts were
required during construction. Geometric control is
required to ensure as-built accuracy, for this reason
reference points are taken at the base of towers, anchor
point and completed structure, these point are used to set
formwork.
A programme of works for the cable stayed section
of the bridge as suggested by the contractor can be seen
below [1]:
 Construction of Foundation
 Construction of Tower /Pylon below the deck
 Construction of Tower / Pylon above the deck
 Construction of Pier Table
 Construction of Diaphragm
 Construction of Tower/ Pylon above the deck Erection of
Deck and Stay Cables
 Stressing of Stay Cables
 Wet Joint Construction
 Continuity PT and Grouting of Cables
 Force adjustment and fine tuning.
Figure 9. Dimensions For Cable Stayed Deck Section
6 Loading
The following analysis of some of the primary
structural considerations for this bridge will be carried
out for Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability
Limit State (SLS). Dead loads for serviceability should
be taken as the actual loads whereas the loads for
ultimate limit state will be subject to factors for particular
materials and varying load cases such as favourable and
unfavourable effects, these are to be found in BS5400 –
Table 1. Live loads must also be taken into account. .
The nominal vales for traffic loads will be given using
the HA and HB loading convention where. HA is the
combination of the effects of a UDL over a notional lane
and a knife-edge load place at the most critical point
within this lane. HB loading takes account of a
particularly large truck placed at the most critical point
along the bridge.
6.1 Dead Loads
Dead loads are taken to be just the weight of the
precast deck sections, any reinforcing steel is assumed to
be accounted for by the increased density of the concrete.
Where dimensional information is not available
conservative values have been assumed.
The 2 separate decks for traffic in opposite directions
can be considered in isolation as the structural systems
for each deck are independent. The deck sections
considered are 3m in length along most of the bridge,
there are some variations in the dimensions of the
approach sections but these account for small differences
and will be neglected for the purpose of analysis.
Density of reinforced concrete = 2400kg/m3=23.5kN/m3
The web thickness and the top and soffit thickness
vary slightly over the sectional profile of the deck. The
thickness of top and soffit can be approximated as
150mm and 200mm for the web.
Cross-sectional deck area = 7.2𝑚2
23.5 × 7.2 = 169.5𝑘𝑁/𝑚
(1)
6.2 Super-imposed Dead Load
The super-imposed dead load will be taken as merely
the components of the road surface. In reality there will
be loads incident from the services for the bridge, such as
lighting and prestressing. It is likely that these loads will
be neglible in comparison to those from the road surface.
It is likely that the deck covering will consist of a
waterproof layer, a sand asphalt mix and an asphalt
surface. I have assumed that this layer can be modelled
as 200mm of asphalt with a density of 2300kg/m 3, for
analysis.
22.6𝑘𝑁
2300 × 9.81 ÷ 1000 =
𝑚
22.6 × 22.7 × 0.2 = 102𝑘𝑁/𝑚
6.3 Live Traffic Loading
HA is the combination of the effects of a UDL over
a notional lane and a knife-edge load place at the most
critical point within this lane. The primary issue which
needs to be considered at this point is the number of
 notional lanes for the deck, BS5400 3.2.9.3; this defines
how much loading there will be on the deck.
Carriageway width:
>19.0m and 22.8<
Therefore there will be 6 notional lanes.
The two types of live loads which need to be applied
to the bridge separately in their most adverse form are
HA and HB loading.
HA is a UDL action over 2 notional lanes where all
other notional lanes are loaded with 1/3 HA. In addition
a KEL of 120kN per notional lane. These loads must be
factored for limit state analysis. Because the loaded
length is over 380m a load of 9kN/m will be used. This
needs converted into a UDL: 9 3.3 = 2.7kN/m2. 3.3m is
the notional width of the loaded lanes.
HB loading represents an abnormally large truck.
Due to the size and funtion of this bridge I believe that it
is reaosnable to suggest full HB loading for the bridge.
This is 45 units, where each wheel carries 112.5kN. The
critical load cases for maximum hogging and sagging are
shown in Figs 10-13.
6.4 Combination Loading
There are a number of load combinations to consider in
finding the worst case.
For this example I will look at load case 1 which
includes all permanent loads and primary live loads (all
traffic loads). These loads have been calculated
previously and are shown below.
Table 1: Loading For Load Case 1
Loads Factors (γf) Value
Dead 1.05 177.9kN/m
Super-imposed Dead 1.75 178.5kN/m
HA 1.5 13.5kN/m
HB 1.3 45 units, nominally
146.3kN per wheel
The loads needs to be applied to spans in a critical
manner for both hogging and sagging in order to find the
bending moments in the deck. In order to display this
clearly I have shown the calculations for the 50m
approach span sections of the bridge.
For maximum sag the smallest, distance between the
wheel axels will cause the critical situation for HB
loading, therefore 6m separation, 9.6m in total.
Figure 10: Maximum Sag Loading Elevation
Figure 11: Maximum Sag Loading Plan
A possible case of maximum hogging is shown
below. The largest vehicle has been chosen for HB
loading to concentrate as much load as possible towards
the centre of the spans adjacent to the hogging pier. An
iterative process may be required in order to place the
KEL in the most critical position but for simplicity I have
assumed that it is in the centre of the span to the right of
the pier.
Figure 12: Maximum Hog Loading Elevation
Figure 13: Maximum Hog Loading Plan
An assumption has been made for the bending and
compression calculations based on this load case that
there is no lengthening of the cables during normal
loading conditions.
6.5 Wind Loading
From BS5400 5.3.2.1, the maximum gust that could
strike the bridge is:
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑣𝐾1𝑆1𝑆2
(3)
The height of the deck is 74m from sea level
The loaded length is 500m
S1=1
S2=1.66
K2=1.42
The average wind speed was found to be 4.5m/s
Therefore, 𝑉𝑐 = 4.5 × 1.42 × 1 × 1.66 = 10.6𝑚/𝑠
The horizontal wind load acting on the deck =
qA1Cd. Where q is the dynamic pressure head, 0.613Vc
And A1 is the solid horizontal projected area
Cd is a function of b/d. In the case of the Bandra worli
sea link, the depth of the deck with a 1m parapet is
greater than the height of the largest vehicle. For a
conservsative assumtion I have said that the bridge has a
solid parapet.
Therefore b/d=22700/4000=5.675 and Cd= 1.3
2
𝑃𝑡 = 0.613 × 10.6 × 4 × 1.3 = 358𝑁/𝑚
(4)
This is not a large force; this is largely due to the
relatively low maximum gust. These calculations do not
take into account the aerodynamic shape of the deck.
This force is taken to act at the centroid. This force will
have been taken into account for stability of the parapet.
Vertical wind can also be considered for live loading
and may be part of the critical load situation, both
upwards and downwards wind need to be considered.
A similar equation for horizontal loading is used:
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑞𝐴3𝐶𝑙
68.9 × 22.7 × 0.4 = 625.6𝑁/𝑚
(5)
As the depth of the deck and parapet is greater than
the largest expected vehicle the depth of 4m will be used
again. For uplift the depth without vehicles is always
considered as the critical case would always occur when
the bridge had no vehicle loading.
6.6 Seismic Loading
Mumbai is in a geographically sensitive area for
earthquakes. In general cable stayed structures are
extremely effective at coping with ground displacements
due to them “resting on a limited number of point
supports” [walther]. However differential movement of
the supports can cause damage to the structure, this is
fairly common with a bridge of this size due to the
separation and therefore geological variation between the
ground beneath them. Particularly affecting the junctions
between piers and the deck. For this reason horizontal
affects are much more hazardous than vertical
movements.
The Bandra-Worli Sea link design fulfils the criteria
laid out in the Indian standard for earthquake design in
bridges IS 1893 (1984). In the introduction to the codes
it is stated that all earthquake resistant structures should
have good structural configuration, good lateral stability,
stiffness and ductility. The structural form of a cable
stayed structure delivers adequate ductility and the A-
frame shape of the piers along with the generous sizing
of the foundations provides a certain degree of stiffness
and lateral stability. There are a number of other minor
features which contribute to the bridges seismic design
such as using DISKTRON bearings which allow
complete rotation in both longitudinal and transverse
directions.
7 Natural Frequency
The effects of vibration on the structure of a bridge
can be great. Examples of where natural frequency
issues of a bridge have caused problems are the Tacoma
Narrows bridge and the Millennium Bridge crossing the
Thames. These two examples highlight how the
frequency of live loads, apart from wind have to be
considered. It demonstrates that the bridge should be
analysed bearing in mind not only collapse but the
comfort of the users. Therefore a range of frequencies
should be considered to confirm that the bridge will not
suffer excessive movement due to having a natural
frequency which matches the frequency of any
oscillatory loads applied to the bridge. “Without
damaging the structure, the vibrations due to wind and
traffic can inconvenience users. These physiological
effects are generally very subjective experiences”[4].
These physiological effects are acceptable when the
natural frequency of the bridge is:
𝟓𝑯𝒛 < 𝑓𝑜 < 75𝑯𝒛
Using:
𝐶 2 𝐸𝐼𝑔
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑙 𝑀
(6)
The value of C is π because the 2 spans on opposite sides
of the piers are equal.
L = 250m – the longest span occurs at Worli end
suspension section.
E = 30GPa
I = 17m4
So:
𝜋 30 × 106 × 9.81 × 17
𝑓𝑜 = × = 26.9
2 × 250 272.5
This is within acceptable bounds
8 Cable Sizing
The spacing of the cables at the deck is every 6
metres. There is a cable connection at every other
precast section of deck. The load carried by each cable
will include the live loads and the dead loads of the
bridge. The worst case will be when there is full HA
loading on two lanes and a third HA loading on the other
4 notional lanes. There will also be a KEL of 120kN per
notional lane. There are 2 inclined planes per deck; for
the purpose of this analysis the cables will feel the entire
load. These calculations therefore conservatively neglect
any support from the piers in the cable section.
I will just display calculations for the worst case
cable. This is assumed to be where the angle of the cable
to the plane of the bridge is least. It should be born in
mind when looking at these calculations using
operational loads that the worst loading case for the
cables may be during construction. The critical angle is
26°.
120
tan 𝜃 =
250
𝜃 = 26°
(7)
The total load over 6 metres of the bridge with the
aforementioned vertical loading loading is 3.03MN. This
is split evenly between 2 planes, therefore 1.515MN.
This will be the vertical load in the cable, the tension in
the cable is therefore:
1.514
𝑇 = sin 26 = 3.46𝑀𝑁 (8)
Using technical information from cable contractors,
Shanghai Pujyang Cable Company, I have found that the
strength of the steel used is 1860N/mm2. This is 64mm
diameter of solid steel or 19 cables with a diameter of
15.7mm diameter.
9 Compression and Bending
9.1 Deck Compression
Some of the horizontal force in the cable will be
carried as compression in the deck. I have calculated the
horizontal force for all of the cables to find the
compression in the deck.
The total compression in the deck due to cable forces is
200MN. To check this value against the strength of the
concrete deck, a stress value needs to be obtained.
𝐹 200 × 106
𝜎= = = 27.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 7.2 × 106
(9)
This compression is acceptable as the compressive
strength of concrete is between 50 and 60Mpa.
If I now consider the section between the cables as
𝑤 𝑙2 505000 ×6 2
simply supported, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12
= 12
=
1515kNm
To check in tension, minimum compression in the deck
of the suspended bridge section will occur for a in the
deck section furthest away from the pier, it has a stress
of:
6.2
𝜎𝑏 = = 0.86𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
7.2
(10)
The compression due to bending moments is shown
below:
1515 × 106 × 2000
𝜎𝑏 = = 0.176𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
17 × 1012
(11)
This level of stress seems fairly low for the size of
load we are looking at. This seems to be due to the
particularly high second moment of area value for the
deck. These calculations show that the whole section of
the deck will be in compression due to the force
transferred by the cables and tensile considerations can
be ignored.
9.2 Compression in the Tower
The vertical force in each cable will be equal to the
weight of the section of deck that the cable carries and
any live loads that this section of the deck may be
subjected to. This has been calculated to be 3.03MN.
For all of the cables, the total compressive force carried
into the tower is around 242.4MN. Due to the changing
cross section of the tower it is difficult to easily see
where the maximum stress will occur without more in
depth analysis. For this purpose, as I do not have
dimensional information for the tower, I will calculate
the area of C50 concrete required to safely carry this load
and make visual comparisons to the profile of the tower.
242.4
𝐴= = 4.85𝑚2
50
(12)
The actual area of concrete appears to be much greater
than this throughout the whole profile of the tower. The
most critical condition for the tower may be uneven
loading, for instance full HA and HB on only one side,
this will cause considerable moments at the base of the
tower.
9.3 Bending
To calculate the bending moments in the bridge I
have had to assume that the bridge is continuous over
piers and has non moment carrying connection at both
ends. Due to the scale of the bridge it would be difficult
to clarify the distribution of moments for the bridge as a
whole. For this reason I will display those for just the
cable stayed section.
Figure 14: Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram
for Cable Section
Fig. 14 shows the bridge under combination 1
loading. The deck is continuous and is supported by
cables which are assumed to take all of the loads, any
support from piers has been neglected. There are
movements at each end of the cable stayed section of the
bridge and there is no moment carried. The bending and
shear diagram above shows just a small section but due
to the symmetrical and orthotropic nature of the cable
stayed section of this bridge the values will be concurrent
for the whole length of the cable stayed section. The
maximum sagging moment is 2.27MNm and the
maximum hogging is 9.09NMm.
This produces a stress of:
𝑀𝑦 9.09 × 109 × 1500
𝜎= = = 0.8𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 1
𝐼 17 × 1012
(13)
10 Temperature Effects
Effective temperature fluctuations and a severe
temperature gradient over the profile of a bridge can
cause deformations in the members. These deformations
must be accommodated in design to avoid high levels of
stress being induced in the structure. For example, the
designer needs to provide bearings with adequate
displacement and rotation capacities. [7] For cable
stayed bridges it is extremely important that temperature
changes will not cause the cables to slacken thus
reducing their tension and load carrying capacity
resulting in the large span section acting more as a beam
bridge than a cable stayed bridge, giving unexpected load
conditions.
BS5400 5.4 dictates that the bridge must be
analysed for 2 conditions, overall temperature increases
and variations in temperature through the profile of the
bridge.
I will initially look at the stresses caused by
overall temperature increases. The design values for the
temperature variation are unknown but for the climate in
India I would suggest a conservative value of ±25°.
Concrete has a thermal expansion of 12×106/°C. The
greatest distance between expansion joints is 500m.
𝜀𝑐 = 𝛼∆𝑇
𝜀𝑐 = (12 × 10−6 ) × 25
𝜀𝑐 = 300𝜇𝜀
𝛿 = 𝜀𝑐 𝑙
𝛿 = 300 × 10−6 × 500000 = 150𝑚𝑚
(14)
The apparent stress in the deck can then be found:
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 𝐸𝜀𝑐
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 210000 × 300 × 106 = 63𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
(15)
Figure15: Temperature Gradient and Associated Strains
Using Fig. 9 in BS5400 to obtain the expected
temperature gradient over the depth of the bridge.
Clearly these values will have to be adapted somewhat to
allow for the different temperatures in India. The
corresponding values for strain are also shown. Stress in
the deck can also be found and used to confirm the
capacity of the deck.
The maximum stress due to temperature effects will
occur when the strain is 240µε. In this instance the
associated stress, assuming E of concrete is 30GPa is
7.2N/mm2.
11 Creep Effects
One of the most critical factors in the assessment of
a bridge is how the structure will perform and change
with time. There are a number of parameters which can
affect the loading on the bridge such as, stress relaxation,
settlement and earth pressure. Possible shrinkage and
creep effects are two of the most important and need to
be incorporated into the design.
The effects of creep are inevitable in concrete
structures, to a certain degree. “Due to the effect of
creep, a structure tend to amplify its deformation under a
given load condition over time” [8]. These changes can
substantially effect the stresses and strains calculated
throughout this paper, which have neglected the effects
of creep. The interaction between deformations of
different portions of the structural system can cause
difficulties in design, for example “increase in the
deformations of the deck and pylons over time leads to
an increase in the initial tension in the stays” [8].
It is therefore important to counter these effects by
putting some initial prestress into the cables to reduce the
effect that the creep in the concrete has on the cables.
The amount of creep must be known in order to be able
to adjust the level of prestress accordingly. At the
Bandra Worli Sea Link O-Cells are used which are able
to output data about creep behaviour at various points
along the bridge, these can remain in-situ post
construction. “The bridge will be tested for reference
geometry after 200 days in service stage which requires a
detailed analysis of the time dependant factors.”
Figure 16: Effect of Pre-stress on cable tension with
12 Durability and Maintenace
Due to this bridge being a new build it is unlikely
that there will be any durability or serious maintenance
issues for some time, however the these issues must be
accounted for and any possible inadequacies in durability
highlighted so that there is a prior awareness of any
shortfalls. It is useful to look to precedents prior to
design to see if there is a trend in the type of damage
caused to cable stayed structures over time which can be
alleviated through design.
It is important to undertake comprehensive
inspections both periodically and after extreme events
such as floods or storms. In cable structures critical
damage to the cables themselves must be prevented. The
cable anchorages at Bandra Worli have been designed to
allow full access and a thorough inspection. The design
must also allow inspection of the cables passage into the
socket using an endoscope. Other methods of inspection
are available such as electromagnetic and x-ray
inspection which allow for examination of internal steel.
The sockets for the cables are located on the soffit of the
deck to aid inspection [9].
Mitigation is a more effective solution but is not
wholly reliable in all cases and does not remove the need
for inspection. A number of measures have been taken in
this case to improve durability and reduce the amount of
required maintenance such as having glavanised strands
with a protective coating and covering the whole cable
with a polyethylene sheath. Microsillica and other
admixtures have been added to the concrete creating a
denser, stronger and less permeable material which is
less likely to require maintenance during construction.
The bridge has been designed with contingency for
increase in traffic anticipated in Mumbai and no changes
are anticipated in the near future.
13 Conclusion
Having studied the Bandra Worli Sea Link in depth I
can appreciate that it is a worthy representation of current
bridge engineering technology and a good example of
what is possible in the current climate. The optimised
execution of the inverted Y design of the pylon is a
solution that is both aesthetically and technically
successful. The use of tensioning mechanisms has
provided an efficient compromise between deck sizing
and costly strengthening methods.
References
[1] HCC. Bandra Worli Sea Link Project - Construction
Methods. HCC India Website. [Online] 2008.
[2] Dar Consultants. Bandra Worli Sea Link. [Online]
2008.
[3]Bandra-Worli Sea Link - Mumbai, India.
Waymarking. [Online] April 2009.
[4] Walther, Rene, et al. Cable Stayed Bridges. s.l. :
Thomas Telford, London, 1988.
[5] Drilled Shaft Construction For the Bandra Worli Sea
Link Project. Conrad, W. Felice and Brenniman,
Henry. 2004, pp. 84-95.
[6] Bridge Construction Paper - Cable Stay
Construction . VSL.
[7] Effects of Temperature Variations on Precast,
Prestressed. Barr, P. J., Stanton, J. F. and Eberhard,
M. O. 2005, Jounal of Bridge Engineering.
[8] Long Term Behaviour of Cable Stayed Bridges.
Scotti, Andrea. 2003.
[9] LaViolette, Mike et al. 2007, Bridge Construction
Practices.