CHAPTER 2: THEORY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This O.J.T report is based on the practical knowledge applied on different ward office and
consultancy based upon our education and theoretical knowledge from secondary school. My
school Shree Jansewa Secondary Technical school is one of the best civil engineering secondary
school. In the year of 2076 shree jansewa technical school has brought civil engineering subject
on which education and qualification required for sub engineering was taught. During the time
of completing sub engineering every civil engineering stud ents are appointed in different ward
or consultancy for O.J.T and the report is made on the basis of O.J.T. During the internship
period, the term was assigned to the technical departments at the office. The technical
department is responsible for the designing, supervision of future constructing structures,
Preparation of estimating of the project etc. of that area. This includes estimating the rates &
quantity of constructing structures are completed timely and accuretly in compliance with
project file, and that the ward accounting records contain the information necessary to meet
reporting requirement to internal management. The main duty was to assist the Junior
Engineer with the implementation of the goals of the department, which included various tasks
depending on the daily activities like site supervising, etc. However, the foremost area the thin
intern speacialized was quantity measurement. Estimate prepared were external estimates and
risk assessment had never been done.

2.2 Duties and Schedules

The intern was assigned to the following duties and responsibilities.
1. Estimation
2. Construction of Bridge
3. Construction of drainage
4. Construction of earthen road
5. Autocad designing
6. Maintenance of structure
7. Study the cracks and other defect in structure with remedy

2.2.1 Estimation
An estimate is a calculation of the quantities of various items of work, and the expenses likely
to be incurred there on. The total of this probable expenses to be incurred on the work is
known as estimated cost of the work. The estimated cost of a work is a close approximation of
its actual cost. It is the process of finding an estimate, or approximation, which is value that is
 usable for some purpose even if input data may be incomplete, uncertain, or unstable. The
value is nonetheless usable because it is derived from the best information available. Based on
these criteria’s, there are mainly 8 cost estimates followed in construction:
1. Preliminary Cost Estimate
2. Plinth Area Cost Estimate
3. Cube Rate Cost Estimate
4. Approximate Cost Estimate
5. Detailed Cost Estimate
6. Revised Cost Estimate
7. Supplementary Cost Estimate
8. Annual Repair Cost Estimate

2.2.2 Bridge
A bridge is a remarkable engineering construction that serves as a critical link, connecting two
points separated by natural obstacles like rivers, valleys, or chasms. These structures are
meticulously designed to withstand the forces of gravity, environmental factors, and varying
loads, enabling safe passage for vehicles, trains, pedestrians, and more. The world of bridges
encompasses a wide array of designs, each tailored to its specific environment and function,
embodying the ingenuity and innovation of human engineering. Whether ancient stone arches
or cutting-edge cable-stayed spans, bridges remain essential in facilitating transportation and
fostering connections between communities.
The various types of bridges are:
1. Suspension bridge.
2. Arch bridge.
3. Truss bridge.
4. Beam bridge.
5. Cable-stayed bridge.
6. Cantilever bridge.
7. Moveable bridge.
8. Girder bridge

 Suspension bridge : A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung
below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type
of bridge were built in the early 1800s. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical
suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.
 Fig : Suspension Bridge

 Arch Bridge : Arch types of bridges use one or more arches as the main
structural component, with the arches positioned beneath the deck.
Thismethod dates back many thousands of years, with stone and brick being
the most commonly used materials. However, in modern times you will see
arch bridges constructed from concrete.

Above left: Arch type of bridge constructed using brick and stone. Above right: a more modern
arch bridge made using concrete.

 Truss Bridge : There are many different configurations of a truss bridge, but you will
notice they all use triangular sections typically bound together by welded or riveted
joints. The trusses are constructed vertically and horizontally which absorb tension and
 compression. The end result is a structure and decking area capable of withstanding
relatively strong winds.

The truss design is reasonably inexpensive and has been around for a long time. In the early
days during the 19th century, most were built of wood, before later shifting to iron and steel.

A
bove: Truss bridge constructed from iron.

 Beam Bridge : Beam bridges are the simplest type of bridge. In its most basic form, all
that is needed is a crossbeam long enough to cover the span, and support from
abutments under each end. To achieve a longer continuous span, (e.g., over 250 ft (80
m), piers need to be added to provide extra support. When doing this it means you
create a series of bridges joined together.

Above :Beam bridge constructed using steel and concrete.

 Cable-stayed beidge : The cable-stayed bridge dates back to the 16th century and
remains a popular design for spans greater than those of cantilever bridges – but
shorter than the longest suspension bridges.This design uses deck cables connected to
one or more vertical columns, towers, or pylons which can be connected in either a fan
or harp configuration. Although the deck relies on the cables for support, this method
should not be confused with the suspension bridge that uses vertical cables between
the deck and the main support cable.The most common build materials used in cable-
stayed bridges are steel or concrete pylons, post-tensioned concrete box girders, and
steel rope.

A
bove: Cable-Stayed type of bridge

 Cantilever Bridge : A cantilever bridge comprises structures that protrude horizontally

into space and are only supported on one end. A cantilever is something like a balcony
that protrudes from a building. The cantilevers on small footbridges may be simple
beams; however, major cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic require
structural steel trusses or prestressed concrete box girders. The steel truss cantilever
bridge was a great engineering accomplishment initially implemented. It can span over
460 meters (1,500 feet) and be built more simply at challenging crossings due to the lack
of falsework (temporary supports). The Hassfurt Bridge spans the Main River in
Germany and has a central span of 38 meters (124 feet), considered the first
 contemporary cantilever bridge.

 Girder Bridge : A girder bridge is a bridge that uses girders as the means of supporting its
deck. The two most common types of modern steel girder bridges are plate and box. The
term "girder" is often used interchangeably with "beam" in reference to bridge design.

Fig : Box girder bridge

2.2.3 Drainage
Drainage is the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a particular area. The water can
then be repurposed elsewhere to rivers, creeks and beach outlets to avoid saturation of land
and damage to homes, commercial property and farm land.

In particularly bad weather it is important that excess water is removed to avoid damage to
buildings, potential flooding and hazards such as accidents caused by hydroplaning in vehicles.

2.2.4 Road
Road is an open, generally public way for the passage of vehicles, people, and animals.
Pavement is Finished with a hard smooth surface. It helped make them durable and able to
withstand traffic and the environment. They have a life span of between 20 – 30 years. Road
pavements deteriorate over time due to.
Types of Road
1. Earthen roads: Earthen roads are laid with soil and are cheaper for all types of road. This
type of road is provided for less traffic areas and or for countryside areas. Good drainage
should be provided so that the lifespan of the road will be longer.
2. Gravel roads: They are also low-quality roads but better in comparison with earthen
roads. A compacted mixture of gravel and soil is used as pavement material in this case.

3. Murrum roads: Murrum is a substance obtained from the disintegration of Igneous rock
by weathering agencies. The roads made from murrum is known as murrum roads.
4. Kankar roads: Kankar is the impure form of limestone. Where limestone is available in
good quantity this type of roads is made. These type of road is also of low quality and has
similar usage as of murrum and gravel roads.
5. Water Bound Macadam (WBM): As the base course of WBM roads crushed stone
aggregate is used. The aggregates are spread on the surface and water is sprinkled before
rolling. WBM roads have better performance in comparison to other types of roads.WBM
roads are laid as layers. Each layer is about 10 cm in thickness. They may disintegrate
immediately under traffic as they are very rough.

6. Bituminous roads: Bituminous roads are very popular and most used roads around the
world. They are flexible and their thickness depends upon the subgrade soil conditions.
They are low-cost roads and are good for driving conditions.
7. Cement concrete roads: Cement concrete is used in the construction of pavements in case
of concrete roads. These are very popular and costlier in comparison with all other types
 of roads.They require less maintenance as they are not flexible. They are suitable for high
traffic areas. They are laid with joints and their time of construction is more.

2.2.4 AUTOCAD
Autocad is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting software application.
Developed and marketed by Autodesk, AutoCAD was first released in December 1982 as a
desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. AutoCAD is a
computer design software developed by the company Autodesk( hence the name of AutoCAD )
It allows you to draw and edit digital 2D and 3D designs more quickly and easily than you could
by hand. The files can be easily saved and stored in cloud, so they be accessed anywhere at
time.
AutoCAD is used in industry, by architects, project managers, engineers, graphic designers, city
planners and other professionals. It was supported by 750 training centres worldwide in 1994
many people think AutoCAD is hard. It’s not, but using AutoCAD is not difficult.

2.2.5 Maintenance of Structure

Maintenance of structures means the rebuilding, reconstructing, repairing or re-establishing to
previously approved conditions and dimensions a damaged or deterioted structure or facility.
Maintaining the building prevents the deterioration and makes it more duravle over the time of
the building. Proper maintenance of buildings includes regular inspection of your property
which helps to identify deterioted elements so they can be addressed in a timely manner.
Importance of maintenance of structures:
1. Prevention of damages
2. To keep them in good appearance and working condition
3. To reduce the causes against building
4. To repair the defects occurred in the structure
5. To reduce the risk of occupants
6. To maintain the value of building
7. To save the building at all weathering actions
8. To increase the life of building.