CHAPTER

1
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction-
Attractive and spectacular Bridge structures have been modelled and designed and built in the
last century more than any other time in our history of civilisation. A remarkable
development in construction of bridges is suspension Bridge, which has been widely adopted
in various countries since the 1900s because of economy, stability and smartness.
This type of bridge Is a very extraordinary structure which incorporates both old and new
concepts. The oldness is in the sense that it has been evolved over a large period of time,
approximately 400 years and its newness is because of its modern day’s implementation just
began in the late 19th century.
Primitive suspension bridges were the forbearers to what is known as today’s modern
suspension Bridge. 2000 years ago in China , the first kind of suspension bridge was
constructed using iron chain cables and also similar types of records have been found in
India. In the preliminary stage of construction of suspension bridges during the middle of
18th century wrought iron chains were used as the main cables, but in the latter half of the
19th century a rapid expansion of the centres span length took place Because of use of
wrought iron, which basically triggered the use and invention of steel.

1.2 Importance and advantages-

a) As the suspension bridge can be designed and constructed to spread over a large stream of
water flow without any additional use of pillars, it facilitates,
Easy and unobstructed transportation of ships
Does not cause appreciable corrosion to the river bed
b) While other types of bridges generally require intermediate supports in between, A
suspension bridge can cover a very large distance due to the high strength of its cables.
c) Even in the use of suspension bridges for a very long span, less material may be required
than other types of traditional bridges.
d)Little or almost no access from below is generally required during the construction stage
(except for installation of initial temporary cables), which basically helps in free movement
of ships etc in the waterway.
e) Many times, it is found to be better to withstand earthquake movements than the traditional
heavier and rigid bridges.
f) In proportion to the amounts of materials required, the centre span may be made very long,
which allows the bridge to be economical.

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1.3 Disadvantages-
a) High amount of stiffness both laterally and vertically I.e. good aerodynamic profiling is
required to prevent the bridge deck from vibrating under heavy winds.
b) These types of bridges are generally not suitable to carry heavy railway traffic where
highly concentrated live load occurs, because of the relatively low deck stiffness as compared
to other types of bridges.
c) During severe wind loading, the Pylons of the bridge structure may exert a large moment
in the base of the structure, thus it will require very expensive foundation work particularly
for soft soil conditions.
d) Sometimes the high-level of technical engineering, combined with problems faced in
building over a long span, makes the suspension bridge construction rather more expensive
than the other types of bridge Design.
f) Although all of the disadvantages that are faced in the construction of suspension bridges,
the actual benefits of it almost always outweigh the potential disadvantages because of which
it is a very popular type of bridge design.

1.4 Evolution of modern day’s suspension bridge-

The modern type of suspension bridges was first developed during the 18th century when the
production of iron started with full skill. James Finley, in the United States in 1801
constructed and patented the first suspension Bridge known as Jacob creek Bridge which had
a main span of 21.3 m. The oldest suspension Bridge which is still in service is the Clifton
bridge which was constructed in 1864 using wrought iron chains in the United Kingdom.
New trends in the development of the suspension bridge were found after the end of World
War II . In 1966 Severn Bridge with a main span of 988 meter was constructed using box
Girder and diagonal hanger ropes. In China Tsing Ma Bridge (1997) was constructed which
combines both railway and road way traffic with a central span of 1377 meter. In Turkey,
Bosporus Bridge having a central span of 1074 meter was built up in 1973.Tacoma narrow
Bridge with a central span of 853 meters experienced bending mode oscillation of up to
8.4meter along with torsional vibration mode and it totally collapsed due to a heavy wind of
19 m/s. After the collapse it was re-constructed using truss type stiffening girders. In Japan,
Innoshima Bridge with a main span of 770 meter was constructed in 1983.

1.5 Development of suspension bridges in India-

Although suspension bridges were not usually built in India in the past, nowadays it has
started gaining its popularity because of its advantages over the traditional bridges. Still there
are very few suspension bridges in our country and mostly it is found in hilly regions of
India. In India mainly in hilly regions which covers a significant portion of our country,

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suspension bridges are suitable to construct over a deep George over very first flowing rivers
and streams. In the near future more suspension bridges will be built in our country not only
for pedestrian movement but also for LMV loading to meet the requirement of increasing
demand of traffic. The longest suspension bridge of our country which is 725 m long named
Dobra-chanti connects Tehri and Pratapnagar in Uttarakhand.

FIGURE 1.1- Dobra-chanti bridge

1.6 Structural aspect-

Suspension bridge is based on the principle of the cables to carry heavy tensile load. As per
example a steel cable with a Diameter of 0.0025 m can support over 5 kg newton load
without breaking. Due to this advantage of high tensile strength of cables it is possible to
construct a suspension Bridge for a span upto 2000 meters. Here basically the decks are
suspended by the help of hanger cables, which in turn is suspended from main cable. The
main cables are supported on two or more pylons as per the number of spans. So the load
from the deck first transfers to the hanger cable and then it transfers to main cable and after
that it transfers to the pylon and then finally to the foundation. The main cables can be
supported externally or internally(self-anchored).

1.7 Structural form-

The basic structural form of most of the suspension bridges consist of the following features-
a) The ratio of side span to central span generally varies between 0.17 to 0.5L
b) Two main cables are used which are made of high tensile strength steel and supports the
whole structure.
c) Two pylons are used which situates between main span and side span.
d) Decks are used with stiffening girders which carries the heavy concentrated traffic load.
Decks should be designed such that it avoids local deformation and also provides bending
and torsional stiffness, so that it can resist dangerous oscillation because of wind load.
e) Anchorages are provided to transfer the horizontal component of force.

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f) The deck width should not be narrow as compared to the span of the bridge. For most of
the existing bridges, the ratio of span to deck width varies from 20 to 56.
g) The cable sag is generally maintained as 0.125 to 0.08 times of the central span.

While making configuration of a standard suspension bridge, one should take care of the
following points-
a) The central and side spans
b) Cable layout including the type of connection to be made at the towers.
c) Vertical suspenders
d) Deck stiffening system
e) Arrangement of the tower
f) cable sag to main span ratio
g) Amount of clearance to be maintained below deck structure.

FIGURE 1.2-Different components of suspension Bridge

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1.8 Theory related to analysis of suspension bridge-
There are many thoeries that are evolved on the analysis of suspension bridge. They can be
classified as classical and modern theory.

1.8.1 Classical theories-

Until now so many theories have been evolved for the analysis of suspension bridge. Rankine
was the first person to introduce us the concept of these system. He assumed that the cable
profile under the dead load is parabolic and also the stiffness of the stiffening girder is
enough to distribute any kind of imposed load,so the cable profile remains parabolic.
An improvement to this theory is the elastic theory developed by navier who also took the
same assumptions as that of Rankine but also used a strain energy principle to derive a
rational suspender loading.
The drawback of the above two theories was that, both of them did not take into
consideration the cable displacement due to imposed loading. They assumed that Cable
displacement is relatively small as compared to the initial cable profile and because of this
large amount of errors were found while designing a large span suspension Bridge during the
calculation of girder moment.
So later on a new theory known as deflection theory was developed bye Melan in 1888 where
he combined the differential equations for both stiffening Girder and cable, which results in
formulating a governing equation to find the behavior of the complete system. But this
method of calculation was found to be very difficult to solve because of which a new theory
known as Linearized deflection theory developed by Bleich, where he assumed that the
increase in cable tension due to imposed loading conditions is relatively small as compared to
that of dead loading. Crosswaite, in 1947 proposed a new and practical method which would
take into account horizontal cable movement, extension of the hangers, and non-uniform
properties of the stiffening girders.

1.8.2 Modern theories-

a) Finite displacement method-
With the advancement of computers in last two decades, a more accurate analytical method
came into existence for framed structure. This method may be used for both plane frame
analysis and space frame analysis of the suspension bridge. In this method the actual
behaviour of the structure for elongation of the suspender ropes can be measured. Also
suspension bridges with inclined hangers can be analysed by this method. This method is
applicable also for construction stage analysis where large displacement occurs.

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b) Elastic buckling and vibration analysis-
This method is used to determine effective buckling length required for a compression
member such as the pylon. Vibration analysis is done to find the natural frequencies and
mode of oscillation of the suspension bridge under wind and seismic load.

1.9 Types of suspension bridge-

1.9.1 Based on type of girder used-

Three types of suspension bridges can be possible to construct based on the girder type-
a)2hinged stiffening girder b)3 hinged stiffening girder c) continuous girder

The classification is based on the degree of freedom of the bridge girder. 3 hinged girder can
be analysed as a statically determinate structure. Whereas, 2 hinged girder and continuous
girder is to be analysed as a statically indeterminate structure. Generally, continuous girder is
useful to use in case of heavy traffic load such as in case of rail bridges because here the
deformation will be less.

FIGURE 1.3- 2 hinged stiffening girder FIGURE 1.4- Continious stiffening girder

1.9.2 Based on type of cable anchoring method-

Two types of suspension bridges can be possible to construct based on the anchoring method.
a)Externally-anchored b)Self-anchored
In the case of an externally anchored suspension bridge, the main cables are anchored by the
help of large concrete blocks or by the ground itself.
In case of a self-anchored suspension bridge, the main cables are anchored to the girder of the
bridge itself. So, the external loads are finally transferred to the girder. Here, the girder acts
as a bending and compression member.

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FIGURE 1.5- Externally anchored FIGURE 1.6- Self-anchored suspension bridge

1.9.3 Based on number of spans-

Based on the number of spans,suspesion bridge can be classified as single span, two span and
multi-span bridge as shown in the figure below.

FIGURE 1.7 -2 SPAN BRIDGE FIGURE 1.8- Multi-span bridge

FIGURE 1.8- Single span bridge

1.9.4 Based on arrangement of suspender and cable-

Three types of suspension bridges can be possible to construct based on the cable and
suspender- a) Vertical suspender type b) Inclined suspender type c) Hybrid cable-stayed and
suspension bridge. This classification is mainly based on aesthetical appearance of
suspension bridge.

FIGURE 1.9-Vertical suspender type FIGURE 1.10-Inclined suspender type

FIGURE 1.11-Hybrid cable-stayed and suspension

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1.10 Main components of suspension bridge-

1.10.1 Stiffening girder-

Stiffening girders of the suspension Bridge are basically longitudinal elements that supports
and also distribute the incoming traffic loads. As the stiffening girders are supported by
suspenders and cables so aero-dynamic profiling is very much important with respect to
stability of the element under wind and earthquake load.
a) I-girder - In the past stiffening girders were used mainly as I-girders. But later on
problems of stability was faced in this type of girders due to which truss structure and box
shape structures are developed.

b) Truss girder - It provides aerodynamic stability by increasing the torsional stiffness of the
girder by providing large girder depth and installing horizontal lower bracing.Again, the top
and bottom portion of the girder can be utilised due to its large depth.But,truss girder causes
large drag due to its heavy weight.

c) Box girder -Its name is derived due to its box shape which is achieved by using
orthogonal anisotropic reinforced sheet material.If we compare it with truss girder,then it is
relatively lighter and also have closed shape,due to which it has high torsional stiffness.Also
as the shape of the girder is streamlined,so it experiences low drag force.

1.10.2 Pylon-
Pylons are an important part of the suspension Bridge which transmits the load coming from
the cables to the foundation. The Pylon may be classified based on type of material used and
type of cross-section used and type of rigidity provided.

a) Based on rigidity, pylons can be divided into Rigid, Flexible, Rocker type. For small span
bridges, Rocker type pylon can be used. For long span bridges, Flexible type pylon can be
used. Rigid pylons are suitable for multi-span bridges.

b) Based on the skeleton, pylons can be divided into Truss,Portal and combined truss and
portal type. The type of skeleton to be used is to be decided very carefully,as it reflects the
bridge aesthetic.

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c) Based on the material used,pylons can be divided into steel and concrete pylon. Concrete
pylons are advantageous over steel pylon due to its high rigidity and good aerodynamic
stability. Although in some cases, steel pylons are found to be better than concrete pylon,
such as in the case of earthquake resistance, quality control during construction etc.

FIGURE1.12-Rocker pylon FIGURE 1.13-Flexible pylon FIGURE 1.14-Rigid pylon

FIGURE 1.15- Portal pylon FIGURE 1.16- Truss pylon FIGURE 1.17-Combined portal

and truss pylon

1.10.3 Cable band-

It is a component of the suspension Bridge which connects the suspenders with the main
cable. The main cables are wrapped by the help of the cable Band using fasteners and bolts.
The bolts can be used to fasten both vertically and horizontally. Maintenance cost is low for
horizontally fastened cable band as it prevents water infiltration. Although in terms of overall
economy, vertically fastened cable bands are better, as it requires less no of bolts.

FIGURE 1.18-Vertical cable band FIGURE 1.19 Horizontal cable band

1.10.4 Cable support-

The main cables can be supported over the towers by the help of a pulley or a saddle having
rollers. In case of pulley supported cables The tension in the cable will be exactly same on the
both side of the pulley. If the cables are arranged in different inclinations on both the site of
the pulley then in that case, there will be an unbalanced horizontal force In the supports. The

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roller supports of the saddle do not carry any horizontal load. Here, cable tension on both side
of the saddle will be different and the horizontal components of the force of the cables will be
such that it will neutralise each other.

1.10.5 Cable support-

The main cables can be supported over the towers by the help of a pulley or a saddle having
rollers. In case of pulley supported cables The tension in the cable will be exactly same on the
both side of the pulley. If the cables are arranged in different inclinations on both the site of
the pulley then in that case, there will be a unbalanced horizontal force In the supports. The
roller supports of the saddle do not carry any horizontal load. Here, the cable tension on both
side of the saddle will be different and the horizontal components of the force of the cables
will be such that it will neutralise each other.

1.10.6 Anchorage-
The horizontal and vertical forces of the main cables are finally transferred to the Anchorage
system. Anchorage can be classified as gravity-type, tunnel-type, rock anchorage. In gravity
type anchorage the loads from the cables are resisted by the self-weight of the foundation or
anchorage itself. This type of anchorage is most common in use. In tunnel-type anchorage the
tension of the cables are transmitted directly to the ground. For this extensive geotechnical
study is required. In rock anchorage system, the loads from the cables are resisted by using
weight, friction and adhesion force of rock wedges. For this purpose, good rocky formation is
required.

FIGURE 1.20-Gravity type anchorage FIGURE 1.21-Rock type anchorage

1.10.7 Main cable-

The main cables that are used in suspension bridge are predominately tension member. They
can not resist bending or compression. In early stages, chains, eye-bar chains or other
materials was utilised as main cable. In 19th century, wire cables was used for the very first
time in a suspension bridge. In 1854,Niagra falls bridge used parallel wire cables. In
1883,galvanised and cold-drawn steel wires were used in Brooklyn bridge. The cables have
tensile strength of around 1600-1900 Mpa. Some modern type of cables have tensile strength
of around 2200Mpa.As compared to structural steel, parallel cables have greater strength.

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Cable construction method is divided into two types.
1)Prefabricated wire strand method 2) Air spinning method
Cables can be of different types. such as-
a) Parallel wire cable-Here large no of wires are arranged parallelly to form a large cable.
Both cable and wires are not twisted. This type of cables are generally found in monumental
structures like Golden Gate Bridge.

FIGURE 1.22- Parallel wire cable

b) Strand rope- Here six strands (made of several small Dia wires) are closely packed
around a core strand. Ex. Saint John bridge

FIGURE 1.23-Strand Rope

c) Spiral rope- Here the wires are laid in several layers by stranding each other in opposite
direction. Ex. Little belt,Wakato

FIGURE 1.24-Spiral rope

d) Locked coil- Here the central portion is made up of spiral rope and the outer portion is
made up of deformed wire.Ex. Emmerich, Kvalsund

FIGURE 1.25-Locked coil

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1.10.8 Hanger-
Two types of suspenders are generally used. One is Center Fit Rope Cores(CFRC) and
another one is Parallel Wire Strand(PWS).
Special types of hangers are used at the central portion of the bridge. They can be either
Center Span Stay or Center Lock types. Center stays have high stiffness and they are
generally used up to 1000m span. Although they are not very effective in case of earthquake.
Center lock structure is basically a steel frame, which connects the deck with the main cables.
They can resist axial, shear, bending stress. Also, they are effective in case of earthquake
loading, that’s why they are preferred for very long span bridge.

FIGURE1.26-Center lock stay FIGURE 1.27-Center span stay

1.11 LITERATURE REVIEW-

Here is some brief discussion on the past work on suspension bridge design and analysis-

1. Tanvir Manzur and Alamgir Habib(2005)- In this paper, the author have studied a 1200
m span bridge under dynamic loading conditions and taking vehicle load as per ASTHOO
using Sap-2000 software. Finally after studying for different configurations of a bridge , the
author proposed some equations and dimensionless ratio for optimum dimension of the long
span bridge.

2. Ahmed Adham Abdullah(2012)- In this paper, author have studied one suspension bridge
named 14th July suspension bridge which is a 336 m span bridge, using CSI-bridge software.
In his paper he concluded that tensile force is dominated on the section of the cable at the
support on the tower. The two towers of the bridge were subjected to a pure compression
force. The analysis also showed that the maximum normal stresses in the box girder of the
bridge is within the permissible limits.

3. N D Shah, D A Shah, Dr J A Desai (2007)- Here the authors have developed one
computer program using HTML language, which determines the effect of various geometric
parameter change on suspension bridge using Series method. Also, the programs helped to
find out the critical wind velocity for the stability of the structure. Finally, the authors
concluded that, the change in geometric have great effect in suspension bridge, so it can not
be neglected.

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4. Silas S. Christensen, Michael S. Andersen-Here a field study on Little belt suspension
bridge is done which was designed by manual calculations and based on scaled model. A
total of nine mode shapes were successfully identified for natural frequencies between fn =
0.156Hz and fn = 0.808Hz. The modes found were identified as seven vertical bending and
two torsional mode shapes. The frequencies for the first two vertical bending and torsional
mode shapes agree well with what designers measured and calculated from a scaled model
prior to building the Little Belt Suspension Bridge. Damping ratios were also estimated in the
present study. The damping ratios of the first two vertical bending modes were found to be
approximately 3% and 10%, respectively.

5. Kyaw Lin hat-In this study, the author used a damper as energy dissipation device for a
three span continuous suspension bridge having main span of 270 ft and side spans of 120 ft.
The pylons are portal type and main cables are parallel-strand type. The bridge was loaded
with HS 20-44 trucks. Analysis is done using staad-pro software. The paper discusses about
the effect of base-isolator on the design of suspension bridge.

6. Harazaki I., Suzuki, S. Okukawa(2000)-In this paper,the authors described the different
types of materials which are required for construction of suspension bridge. The authors also
stated some classical and modern theories related to design of suspension bridge. Here a brief
discussion is made on how the different types of cables and suspenders effects the overall
stability of the structure.

7. Alaa Hussein Al-Zuhairi, Ahmed Al-Fakhar(2012)-Here the authors analysed one

suspension bridge named 14th july suspension bridge having 336 meter span using CSI-
Bridge software. The reports showed bending moment, shear force, deflection, axial stress in
different component of the bridge. The authors also suggested some modification that may
can be done in future design. Although here seismic load and wind load was not taken into
account. Only ASSTHO loading is taken as moving load.

8.NITIN JOSHI(2005)-Here the author investigated the effect of different parameters of

suspension bridge such as height of tower, sag of main cable, sag of reverse cable etc. The
author took a 402 m long suspension bridge situated in hilly region for LMV loading (IRC
Class 5R). Staad-pro software has been used here to do the parametric study. Here the author
also compared his results with other actually existing suspension bridge structure.

9. C Arun(2016)-Here the author have done parametric study of a self-anchored suspension

bridge having a span of 275m.Here the bridge parameters are varied one by one, while
keeping other parameters as constant. Finally, the author proposed a optimum model of the
suspension bridge considering bending moment of deck, deflection of pylon and cable stress.

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10.Gohel pinakal , Patel Sweta, Pandey Vipul (2017)-In this paper, the authors described
about the different assumptions to be taken while designing a suspension bridge, type of load
acting on a suspension bridge, construction pattern etc. Also, a formula co-relating Live load
with cross-section area of deck is given.

11. Josef Malík (2005)-Here Nonlinear variational equations which describes one type of
suspension bridges are proposed and studied. A certain type of stability criterion for
suspension bridges is proposed and this criterion shows how to influence the stability of self-
anchored suspension bridges.

12. Kotiya Tejal, Farhan Vahora(2017)-Here the authors have done a dynamic analysis of a
small span suspension bridge using saap-2000 software. Along with, earthquake load the
authors have taken Rail road and vehicle class AA and 70R loading. The main span of the
bridge is 97.536m and the middle span length 243.84m.The most critical load condition is
decided based on the axial force.

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1.12 SCOPE OF THE WORK-
From a brief overview of various thesis based on analysis and design of suspension bridge, it
is clear that optimal design of suspension bridge is very crucial factor for the overall
performance of the bridge under different kind of loading conditions. Also, from the above
literatures it is well understood that, analysis based on the construction stage is needed to be
carried out as the construction process of suspension bridge is very time taking and
challenging.
There are several factors on which the design of suspension bridge depends, such as cable sag
ratio, Girder depth, Cable diameter, hanger diameter, type of cable, cross-section of pylons,
arrangements of hanger cables etc.
While designing a suspension bridge, one must take into consideration the effects of the
different parameters on the performance of suspension bridge. So, as a designer one must
choose that configuration and parameters of the suspension bridge which causes least
Bending moment, deflection, shear force, axial force and tension in the structural
components.
Again, how the different kinds of forces are generated in the suspension bridge components
with the progress of construction is needed to be known. Also, the amount of setback
required for the pylons is needed for constructing the pylons.
As I have reviewed some literatures, I found that none of the works have mentioned about a
approximate dimensionless ratios such as cable sag to main span, Cable dia to main span,
Hanger dia to main span etc. It is not clear that with which optimal dimensionless ratio one
must start the basic design of suspension bridge. Also there are very few literatures, which
discuss about the construction stage analysis of suspension bridge.
Again, there is very few research papers, which discuss about the optimum design of
suspension bridge. So, a comprehensive literature is required for future structural engineers,
which will guide them how to do modelling and analysis of a optimum suspension bridge.

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1.13 OBJECTIVE OF THE WORK-
The main objective of this thesis are mentioned below-
Modelling of the suspension bridge using MIDAS CIVIL software
Analysis of the model for different traffic loading condition as per IRC:6 using Finite
Displacement method.
To optimise the cable size, hanger size, girder depth and cable sag by comparing the results
obtained from Bending Moment, Shear force, Cable and hanger stress, Deflection.
To propose some dimensionless ratio for optimum shape of suspension bridge
To carry out the construction stage analysis based on nonlinear finite displacement method
and to observe how the forces, deflection, stresses are generated in the different components
of suspension bridge as the construction work progress.
To find out the amount of setback required for the optimized model

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 CHAPTER
2
MODELLING OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE

2.1 Introduction-
A suspension bridge is modelled with different configurations and material properties such a
cable sag, cable diameter, hanger diameter, girder depth, type of cables etc. Suspension
bridge is a highly statically indeterminate structure and analysis by manual process is very
difficult and time wasting.
Here the suspension bridge is modelled and analysed by the help of MIDAS CIVIL software.
This software uses Finite element method to solve the problem. Both completed state and
construction stage analysis is done by the software. Here I have modelled a same span
suspension bridge with different configurations of cable sag, cable diameter, hanger diameter
etc. Finally, the optimum parameters have been selected based on bending moment, shear
force, deflection, stress etc. Some references were followed for modelling the structure and
choosing the combination of loading.

2.2 Material properties-

Material Modulus of Poisson’ ratio Weight density

elasticity (KN/m3)
(Kn/m2)
Hanger 1.3729e+008 0.3 76.98
Cables-
Parallel wires 2.05e+008 0.3 81.07
Parallel strands 1.9e+008 0.3 81.07
Full locked coil 1.5e+008 0.3 81.07
Cable spiral strand 1.4e+008 0.3 81.07
Pylon 2.958e+007 0.2 23.6
Pylon transverse 2.958e+007 0.2 23.6
Box girder 1.9613e+008 0.3 77.09

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2.3 Geometry of Bridge Model-

Main span 360m

Side span 150m
Total span 660m
Height of sag point above ground 46.5m
Height of deck above ground 35.72m
Deck type Box girder
Hanger spacing 15m
Number of lanes 4
Width of deck 16m
Left and right slope of deck 2.77%

2.4 Sectional properties-

Cable diameter 300-915m
Hanger diameter 150-380
Pylon Square with 3m sides
Pylon transverse 3.5m × 3m
Depth=1800 mm to 4450mm
Box girder Thickness of flange= 400mm
Thickness of web=400mm
Width=16m

FIGURE 2.1-Material properties input

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 FIGURE 2.2-Material section input

2.5 Steps for modelling suspension bridge in MIDAS CIVIL-

The analysis of suspension bridge is classified under two categories.one is completed state
analysis and another one is construction stage analysis.

The completed state analysis is required to see the performance of the completed structure.
Under this stage, the bridge is in equilibrium under self-weight and the deflection due to dead
load has developed. This stage is also known as Initial equilibrium state. This state will also
provide us the co-ordinates and tension forces of the cable under self-weight. Additional
loads such as Live, seismic, wind loading are applied to see the overall performance of the
structure.
Although, suspension bridge shows significant non-linear behaviour during its construction
process but it can be considered to behave linearly during the completed state analysis. This
is due to large tension force are already induced in the suspension bridge cables and hangers
after the application of self-weight. So, if we convert the tension forces of the cables and
hangers into increased geometric stiffness, then it is possible to treat the structure linearly for
the additional loads such as live load, seismic load, wind load etc. So here we can use the
Linearized Finite Displacement Method. The errors caused due to this assumption is
relatively small and is within permissible limits.

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2.6 Analysis flowchart-

20
2.6 Bridge dimensions-

FIGURE 2.3-Bridge dimension

2.7 Definition of section properties and material properties

First, we need to define the section properties and material properties of the suspension
bridge by the use of tool bar available in Midas Civil software.
I have used different material properties and section properties each and every time and then
analysed the model for each changes to find out the optimum model. One such example is
given below-

FIGURE 2.4- Cable material input FIGURE 2.5-Hanger material input

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FIGURE 2.6-Pylon input FIGURE 2.7- Girder input FIGURE 2.8 Hanger input

FIGURE 2.9-Cable section input FIGURE 2.10-Pylon section input

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2.8 Suspension bridge wizard
Suspension bridge wizard helps in calculating co-ordinates of the cables and the initial
tension forces in the cables and suspenders automatically. The cable and suspender tensions
that are calculated by the wizard is transformed into increased geometric stiffness by the help
of Initial Force for Geometric Stiffness function, which is available in the wizard itself.

FIGURE 2.10-Suspension bridge wizard control

The dead load is applied to each individual hangers separately by calculating the amount of
dead load to applied to each hangers. In my calculation, I have started with a DL of
132.33KN/m. Then I have adjusted the DL based on the girder depth.
Following is the schematic diagram which shows how to apply DL to each of the hangers-

FIGURE 2.11-Self-weight application

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So, once after using the suspension bridge wizard the basic 3D model is generated which is
needed to be modify as per our requirement to show the actual behaviour of the structure.

FIGURE 2.12- 3D model generation by wizard

Now in this basic model i had to divide the pylon elements to create pylon transverse beams
which would connect the two pylon vertical members.

FIGURE 2.13-Pylon without transverse beam FIGURE 2.14- Pylon with transverse beam

24
2.9 Boundary conditions-
Following boundary conditions are used while doing the analysis of suspension bridge-
The main girders and the suspenders are connected by rigid links. Rigid link is basically a
rigid bar connection which gives stiff connection between the nodes of the structure. This
rigid link are rigidly connected to the geometric entities during the whole process of analysis.

Cable anchors-Fixed condition (Dx, Dy, Dx, Rx, Ry, Rz all are restrained)
Pylon base- Fixed condition (Dx, Dy, Dx, Rx, Ry, Rz all are restrained)
Ends of side spans-hinge with rotational restraints
boundary condition for the deck at the pylons - roller

FIGURE 2.15 Rigid links

25
 FIGURE 2.16-Support conditions

Figure 2.16-Girder connection with pylon

2.10 Definition of structure group-

In suspension bridge analysis control, to carry out the analysis to determine initial cable
shape of the whole structure containing decks and pylons, structure group named Sag points
is needed to be defined.
Again, to run the Suspension bridge analysis control, I have defined one structure group
containing nodes which connects the hangers with the main cables (including the node
corresponding to the sag points). Because, once the analysis is done using suspension bridge
analysis control, these nodes will be updated.

2.11 Loading Input-

In the suspension bridge wizard I have used the deck girder system as zero self-weight. So I
added the self-weight as equivalent point load at each junction of suspenders and the deck to
reflect the true behaviour of the static load.
As I have varied the girder depth, so for each girder depth I have calculated the self-weight
separately and applied to the structure.
As per example, for the first girder depth I have used,
Fz = -992.475 KN
Fx = 0 KN
Fy = 0 KN

26
 FIGURE 2.17- Application of point load to each hanger

2.12 Suspension Bridge Analysis Control Function-

It is a program which is included inside the MIDAS CIVIL software, which basically
executes the accurate initial equilibrium state analysis of the bridge system which modifies
the cable profile and generates initial forces for geometric stiffness.
Here, during the analysis I have used 10 numbers of iterations and convergence limit is
taken as 1e-005.
For solving the problem, I have taken Newton-Raphson iteration method.

27
 FIGURE 2.18- Suspension bridge analysis control

2.13 Input Center span stay-

At the middle portion of the center span, special type of hangers are used which will basically
resist excessive deflection and movement of the girder.
Center span stay can be of two types. One is Center diagonal stay type and another one is
Linking type. Here, I have used the linking type stay. For that purpose, I have used Elastic
link function, which is available in the software.
The properties of the elastic link is as follows-
SDx-0tonf/m
SDy-0 tonf/m
SDz-1e11 tonf/m

FIGURE 2.19-Cable stay

FIGURE 2.20-Cable stay properties

2.14 Final model-

After all the steps as stated earlier, the final model is prepared. Although there are some
assumptions that are taken during the modelling process, One can alter the model for
different loading conditions as per requirements.

28
 FIGURE 2.21- Final model

2.15 Construction Stage Modelling-

In the completed stage analysis, it is assumed that the bridge is constructed and loaded within
a few seconds. But in actual reality, construction of suspension bridge takes much time. So
during this time period the loads are applied to the structure gradually and also time
dependent properties of the materials such as shrinkage, creep, compressive strength effects
the performance of the structure.
During the construction stages, suspension bridge is relatively unstable when we compare it
to completed stage model. So, it is very much essential to check the overall structural stability
and forces that are generated in different components of suspension bridge during the
erection period. Here during the analysis part, Large displacement theory is adopted, so here
instead of taking Linearized finite displacement method, we need to take Geometric Non-
linear analysis. Also, the construction stage analysis reflects how the different forces and
displacements are developed with each stage.
Here, in my project I have performed a backward construction stage analysis, where the
completed structure is divided into certain stages in the backward direction of construction
process.
I have taken seven construction stages for the analysis purpose. Each and every stages are
shown here-

29
 FIGURE 2.22- Construction stage 7

FIGURE 2.23- Construction stage 6

FIGURE 2.24- Construction stage 5

FIGURE 2.25- Construction stage 4

FIGURE 2.24- Construction stage 3

30
 FIGURE 2.24- Construction stage 2

FIGURE 2.24- Construction stage 1

FIGURE 2.24- Construction stage 0

2.16 Define structure group-

As I have taken eight construction stages for my analysis.So I need to define all the stages
one by one.For that purpose I have used Construction stage wizard which is available in
MIDAS CIVIL software.
The list below shows the names that are given to different construction stages and time taken
for each construction stages-

CONSTRUCTION STAGES TIME

TAKEN(DAYS)
CSO 130
CS1 448
CS2 32
CS3 38
CS4 30
CS5 25
CS6 29
CS7 56

31
 FIGURE 2.25a -Construction times

FIGURE 2.25b -Construction stages FIGURE 2.25c-Construction stage definition

Here I have assigned elements which are added or deleted in each of the stages to the
different structure groups.
For the stage CS0 and CS1, both of the stage is having identical elements.The only difference
in between them is in CS1 the bridge decks are not connected to each other.So in CS1 we
have taken Pin connection for the analysis. But in CS0 stage all the decks are rigidly
connected to each other,except at the junction of pylon and deck,where roller connection is
given.So in CS0 stage all the pin connections are deleted.

2.17 Assigning of work environment-

To perform construction stage analysis,first we need to add some structure,Boundary, load
groups to the completed model file.
Here I have taken three boundary groups named- B_G,Stay, Pin connection to reflect the
behavior of the structure at different stages.
In the B_G boundary group all the boundary conditions of every elements of the suspension
bridge is included.The boundary conditions includes-Supports,Elastic links,General link,

32
Beam End release, Plate end release,Rigid Link,Linear constraints,Effective width scale
factor etc.
FIGURE 2.26- Boundary group definition

In stay group, only the elastic links are included, which are basically the center span stay.
In the group named Pin connection, All the decks are assigned with pin connection. This pin
connection group is activated in CS1 stage and carried foreward upto CS8 stage.

FIGURE 2.27- Stay group definition

2.18 Define Construction stage load-

Here for the construction stage analysis, I have removed all the live loads that have been
applied during the completed stage analysis.Here new load group named L_G is created to
assign the construction stage dead load to each of the indivisual stages.

33
Here in constrcution stage analysis,all the equillibrium nodal forces which are calculated in
the completed state analysis are assigned to the member internal forces.Hence, the bridge is
modelled such a way that only the bridge elements(decks,hangers) are removed in each
construction stage but 100% redistribution of internal force is done to the contiguous
elements.

FIGURE 2.28-Construction stage self-weight definition

2.19 Define Construction Stages-

After making all the necessary groups, the groups are assigned to individual construction
stages as per requirement to reflect the true behaviour of the structure. Some groups are
activated and de-activated in each stages as per need. The following table shows how
different groups are activated and de-activated in each stage-
STAGE Structure Structure Boundary group Boundary Load Load
group group group group group
Activated Deactivated Activated Deactivated Activate De-
activate
CS0 S_G0 B_G, Stay L_G
CS1 Pin connection Stay
CS2 S_G2
CS3 S_G3
CS4 S_G4
CS5 S_G5
CS6 S_G6
CS7 S_G7
FIGURE 2.29- Group activation and de-activation

34
 FIGURE 2.30-CS0 Stage definition

FIGURE 2.31-CS1 Stage definition

FIGURE 2.32 CS7 stage definition

35
2.20 Input Construction stage analysis data-
Finally, to perform the analysis construction stage analysis control program is operated which
is available in MIDAS CIVIL software. Here Non-linear analysis is needed to be included
because of large displacements. Also in the analysis control, Time dependent material effect
is also chosen to produce the effect of shrinkage, creep, compressive strength gain with time
etc.
For the convergence criteria, displacement norm is taken with a value of 0.01.In time
dependent material effect, no of iterations is taken 10 for to perform the analysis with a
tolerance limit of 0.01

FIGURE 2.33-Construction stage analysis control

FIGURE 2.34- Time dependent effect control

36
 CHAPTER
3
ANALYSIS OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE
3.1 Introduction-
In the previous chapter, I have shown how to do modelling of a suspension bridge. Now after
the completion of modelling I shall assign some standard load such as Self-weight of each
elements, additional dead load such as weight of parapet, barrier, pavements, nodal loads like
wind load etc. Also, live load such as moving vehicle loads namely Class A, Class 70R
according to IRC-6 2014.As I have studied only the superstructure portion of the bridge, so I
have not taken any seismic load.
After addition of loads, the bridge model is analysed for different load combinations. From
the results of bending moment, shear force, axial force, displacements etc the optimum values
and configurations of cable diameter, hanger diameter, cable sag, girder depth, type of cable
is chosen. Hence some optimum dimensionless ratios are also proposed.
Again, during the analysis of construction stage, I have taken the construction stage dead load
for the analysis purpose. Also, the effects of time dependent material properties are also taken
into account.

3.2 Analysis steps-

37
3.3 Loading Input and analysis of suspension bridge-
3.3.1 Static load case-
Here the structure is subjected to self-weight of the different components and also additional
load of parapet,pavements,barrier,walk-way etc.As the weight of the girder varies alongwith
the change in depth.So for starting model we have taken a total static load of 132.33KN/m
which will include both the dead load of the girder and additional loads.For the analysis
purpose it is assumed that each of the suspenders are subjected to point load as shown in the
figure below.According to that,each of the hanges will be subjected to a nodal load of
992.475KN.

FIGURE 3.1- Self-weight application to each hanger

FIGURE 3.2-Self-weight application

The self-weight is applied in Global Z-direction as shown in figure below

FIGURE 3.3- Self-weight menu in Midas

38
3.3.2 Moving Load-
For vehicular loading IRC-06 2014 reference is taken. As I have taken 4 lane roads, so the
following load combinations should be taken for the analysis process. Here I have taken all
the three possible vehicle combinations as recommended by IRC guidelines. So, the vehicle
classes that are selected for analysis is CLASS A and CLASS 70R.

Vehicle characteristics are shown below-

a) CLASS A TRAIN-

FIGURE 3.4-Class A train vehicle (REFERENCE-IRC 06-2014)

39
b) CLASS 70R Wheeled vehicle

FIGURE 3.5-Class 70R wheeled vehicle (REFERENCE-IRC 06-2014)

3.4 Vehicle Combinations for 4 Lane

FIGURE 3.6- Load combination for 4 lane

40
As recommended in IRC-06, I have taken 3 different load combinations.
In 1st combination, all the four lanes are loaded with Class A vehicles with a minimum
spacing of 1.2m is taken.
In 2nd combination, two Class A vehicles are loaded in one lane each and one Class 70R(W)
vehicle is loaded in any of the remaining two lanes with a minimum spacing of 1.2m.
In 3rd combination, two Class 70R(W) vehicles are loaded in one lane each with a minimum
spacing of 1.2 m is taken.

FIGURE 3.7a -Class 70R load input

FIGURE 3.7b-Class A wheel load input

41
3.5 Lane definition-
Midas civil have a in-built feature of defining vehicle lanes very easily. For this we need to
go moving load cases option in the software, where there is a option of Lane definition.
Lane definition can be of two types, namely Traffic line lane and Traffic surface lane.
Here,Traffic Line lane option is chosen for defining the lanes. Again, in traffic line lane
option we have two types of vehicular load distribution option, one is Lane element load
distribution and another is Cross beam load distribution. As in the case of suspension bridge,
the loads are directly applied to bridge deck girder, so here Lane element load distribution
option is chosen.
All the lanes are defined from the centre line of the bridge deck with a eccentricity of -6m,
-2m, +2m, +6m.Here eccentricity means the distance between the centre line of bridge deck
and the centre line of the individual lanes.

FIGURE 3.8a- Lane definition FIGURE 3.8b- Lane definition

42
FIGURE 3.8c- Lane definition FIGURE 3.8d- Lane definition

FIGURE 3.9a- Lane 1

FIGURE 3.9b- Lane 3

43
3.6 Nodal Wind load-
For the purpose of wind load effect calculation, Wind load of 1KN magnitude is applied as a
nodal force to each of the nodes of the main girder in the Global Y direction. For
simplification, this type of nodal load is taken into account.

FIGURE 3.10-Wind load application

3.3.6 Perform Structural analysis-

Once all the load cases are included in the model, structural analysis can be done after that.
For that we need to go to suspension bridge analysis control tab of the Midas Civil software,
where after specifying the number of iteration step required and convergence limit, the
analysis can be done.

3.3.7 Final load combination generation-

Now after the completion of analysis, load combinations are created for dead load,live load,
nodal loads to show the results of bending moment, shear force, axial force, displacements
etc.
Two load combinations are selected-
LCB1- 1.5(DL+LL)
LCB2-1.2(DL+LL+WL)

44
3.7 Conclusion-
Here in this chapter, I have discussed how to apply the different kind of moving load, nodal
load, self-weight, additional loads to the bridge. Also, I have shown the codal references of
the different vehicle classes that can be applied to a four lanes bridge. Again, I have shown
how to define lanes of a bridge deck. Once the loads are applied, the structure is ready to be
analysed. The analysis is carried out for different configurations of the bridge, such as cable
sag, girder depth, cable diameter, hanger diameter etc. After this parametric study, the
optimum bridge configuration is determined. In the next chapter the results which are
obtained are discussed.

45
 CHAPTER
4
Results of Analysis of Bridge Model
4.1 Introduction-
In this chapter we shall see the results which are obtained from the analysis of suspension
bridge using Midas Civil 2017 software. Here results are shown for Bending moment, shear
force, Deflection, Axial force etc. The results are compared for different configurations of the
suspension bridge and finally the optimum dimension is decided based on the results of
bending moment, shear force ,deflection, axial stress etc in the different elements of the
bridge.
Also in the construction stage model, the amount of setback required for the optimised model
is found out. In this chapter, how the cable forces, deflections are developed in each of the
construction stages are also shown.
For the results first we need to perform the analysis, which will take around thirty minutes to
One and half hour time depending upon the CPU performance. Then we need to go to result
tab, where we can study the different kind of results.
A typical example of how to see the results is shown below-

FIGURE 4.1- Cable tension

FIGURE 4.2- Typical bending moment variation

46
 FIGURE 4.3-Typical deflection in Z direction

FIGURE 4.4- Typical Shear force in Z direction

FIGURE 4.5-Typical pylon force

47
4.2 Effect of Cable stiffness-

Maximum Bending moment in girder

90
80
70
Moment(1000KN-m)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
110000 130000 150000 170000 190000 210000 230000 250000
E( N/mm2)

FIGURE 4.6 -Moment vs Modulus of elasticity of cable

It can be observed form the graph of Moment vs modulus of elasticity of cables that, there is
a rapid decrease in maximum bending moment with increase in value of modulus of
elasticity. So there for it is preferable to use higher cable stiffness.

Girder displacement
1500

1300
Deflection(mm)

1100

900

700

500

300
110000 130000 150000 170000 190000 210000 230000 250000
E( N/mm2)

FIGURE 4.7 - Deflection vs modulus of elasticity of cables

From the graph of cable stiffness vs girder deflection, it can be observed that with increase in
cable stiffness the girder displacements are reduced quite significantly.
From the above two graphs it is certain that using high cable stiffness is quite beneficial in
design of suspension bridge. So, from now on further the optimisation is done based of cable
stiffness of 2.05e+008 KN/m2(Parallel wires).

48
 4.3Effects of variation of Cable diameter-

1000

900

800

700 Side span maximum cable

stress
Stress(MPa)

600
Central span maximum cable
500 stress
Side span hanger stress
400

300 Central span maximum

hanger stress
200

100

0
200 400 600 800 1000
Cable diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.8-Stress vs Cable diameter

The above graph shows the effect of variation of cable diameter on the stresses of cable and
hanger. As can be clearly seen from the graph patterns, there is a rapid change in cable stress
with the increase in cable diameter. But the variation in hanger stress is not much and it can
be concluded from here that hanger stress is more or less un-effected by the variation of cable
diameter.

Girder deflection
1400

1300

1200

1100
Deflection(mm)

1000

900

800

700

600

500
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Cable diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.9- Girder deflection vs Cable diameter

49
From the graph of Girder deflection vs cable diameter, it can be concluded that increase in
Cable diameter causes slight variation in girder deflection. So, we can say that constraining
girder deflection by increasing cable diameter is not a good choice.

Pylon deflection
600

500

400
Deflection(mm)

300

200

100

0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Cable diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.10-Pylon deflection vs cable diameter

It can be seen from the above figure that, Pylon deflection in global X-direction decreases
with the increase in cable diameter. Although, the decrease in deflection is not much
appreciable. In the figure below, I have shown a typical deflection diagram in Global X-
direction for cable diameter of 325 mm.

FIGURE 4.11-Displacement in X direction

50
 60

50
Moment(1000 Kn-m)

40

Side span maximum -ve moment

30
Central span maximum +ve moment
Central span max -ve moment
20
side span max +ve moment

10

0
200 400 600 800 1000
Cable diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.12- Moment vs cable diameter

In can be seen from the above figure, that with the increase in cable diameter the side span -
ve moment and side span +ve moment increases, which basically restraints us from
increasing cable diameter to a very large value. Again, the mid-span +ve and -ve moments
are observed to get reduced with the increase in cable diameter (The decrease in moments in
the mid-span is not sharp as one would expect)

4.4 Effects of variation in Hanger diameter-

700

600

500 side span maximum

hanger stress
Stress(Mpa)

400 Central span maximum

hanger stress2
300 Side span maximum
cable stress2
200 Central span maximum
cable stress2
100

0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Hanger diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.13- Stress vs hanger diameter

51
From the graph of Stress vs hanger diameter, it is clearly visible that effect of hanger
diameter is not significant in cable stresses. So while optimising cable for lowering it’s stress,
hanger diameter will not be a factor. But we can observe significant decrease in hangers
stress with increase in hanger diameter. Also it is observed that, the side span hanger stresses
decreases more rapidly as compared to the central span hanger stress. So we can conclude
here, effect of varying hanger diameter is predominant in optimising hanger stress.

Girder Deflection

1400

1200
Deflection(mm)

1000

800

600

400

200
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Hanger diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.14- Girder deflection vs hanger diameter

From the above figure, it can be concluded very easily that change of hanger diameter is
having very less effect in decreasing the girder deflection. So, when we optimise the girder
deflection, effect of hanger diameter can be neglected.

52
 Pylon deflection
600

500

400
Deflection(mm)

300

200

100

0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Hanger diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.15- Pylon deflection vs hanger diameter

From the above figure, it can be observed that deflection of pylon decreases with the increase
in hanger diameter. Although the rate with which it decreases is not so sharp.

60

50
Moment(1000 KN-m)

40

side span maximum -ve

30 moment
Central span maximum +ve
moment
20 side span maximum +ve
moment
Central span max -ve moment
10

0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Hanger diameter(mm)

FIGURE 4.16- Moment vs hanger diameter

In the above figure, it is quite visible that the effect of hanger diameter on the moments of
both central and side span is very small. Also we can see that there is a slight increase in
moment in case of side span. But the effect of hanger diameter on the central span moment is
very less.

53
 4.5 Effects of variation in Cable Sag-

300

250

200
STRESS(MPA)

Side span maximum hanger

stress
150
side span maximum cable
stress
central span maximum
100 cable stress
central span maximum
hanger stress
50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
CABLE SAG(m)

FIGURE 4.17-Stress vs cable sag

From the above graph, it can be seen that with the increase in cable sag, the stresses in the
cable and hanger decreases. So for finding optimum value of stress in cable and hanger,
choosing appropriate cable sag to span ratio is very much important. The decrease in stresses
are more prominent in the cable sag zone of 60m to 80m.
The above result is being verified by other literatures. In the literature of Clementne, P.G.
Nicolosi they have stated that, increase in cable sag to span ratio will cause lower tensile
forces in the hangers and cables and also decrease compression in the girder.

54
 Girder Deflection
1600
1400
1200
Deflection(mm)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Cable sag (m)

FIGURE 4.18-Girder deflection vs cable sag

The effect of cable sag in girder deflection is not prominent. So deflection remains more or
less same with change in cable sag. Although some slight increase can be observed with
relatively high cable sag value.

70

60

50
Moment(1000KN-m)

40 Side span max -ve

moment
30 side span max +ve
moment
20 central span max +ve
moment

10 central span max -ve

moment

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
CABLE SAG(m)
FIGURE 4.19- Moment vs cable sag

From the curve of it is very much clear that, with the increase in cable sag the maximum
negative moment decreases for both side and central span. But the effect is much pronounced
in case of side span negative moment. Again, we can see a little increase in maximum
positive moment in both side span and central span with the increase in cable sag.

55
 4.6 Effect of girder depth-

70

60

50
Moment(1000 KN-m)

40 Side span max -ve

moment
30 Central span max +ve
moment
20
Side span max +ve
moment
10
central span max -ve
moment
0
900 1900 2900 3900 4900
Girder depth(mm)
FIGURE 4.20-Moment vs girder depth

From the above curve, it can be seen that girder depth is having a pronounced effect on the
span moment. It can be observed that with increase in girder depth, the side span maximum -
ve moment increases. Also, there is a increase in central span +ve moment with increase in
girder depth. Central span maximum negative moment is not changing that much with girder
depth. The side span maximum +ve moment decreases rapidly with increase in girder depth.

350

300

250
Stress(Mpa))

200 Side span max hanger

stress
Side span maximum cable
150 stress
Central span max cable
100 stress
central span max hanger
stress
50

0
900 1400 1900 2400 2900 3400 3900 4400 4900
Girder depth(mm)
FIGURE 4.21- Stress vs girder depth

56
From the graph of stress vs girder depth, it is clearly seen that with the increase in girder
depth, the cable and hanger stresses increase. It can be justified from the point of view that,
with the increase in girder depth, the weight of the deck girder system increases which causes
increase in cable and hanger stress.

1800

1600

1400
Girder Deflection(mm)

1200

1000

800
Deflection
600

400

200

0
900 1900 2900 3900 4900
Girder depth(mm)
FIGURE 4.22- Girder deflection vs girder depth

From the graph of girder deflection vs girder depth, it can be understood that with the
increase in girder depth, there is a rapid decrease in girder deflection. It is mainly due to the
increase in bending stiffness of girder with increase in depth. So, to optimise the deflection
girder depth should be taken carefully. But there must be a certain limit of increasing girder
depth, as it will be uneconomical.

57
4.7 Time dependent material property for construction stage analysis
Using IRC 112-2011 code for the time dependent material properties of concrete, the
following graphs are obtained for creep strain and shrinkage strain and compressive strength-

FIGURE 4.23-Creep coefficient vs time

FIGURE 4.24-Shrinkage strain vs time

FIGURE 4.25-Compressive strength vs time

58
4.8 Results of Backward Construction Stage analysis
I have divided the construction steps in to eight construction stages.During the construction
stages, suspension bridge is relatively unstable when we compare it to completed stage
model. So, it is very much essential to check the overall structural stability and forces that are
generated in different components of suspension bridge during the erection period. Here
during the analysis part, Large displacement theory is adopted, so here instead of taking
Linearized finite displacement method, we need to take Geometric Non-linear analysis. Also,
the construction stage analysis reflects how the different forces and displacements are
developed with each stage. Following figures are prepared from construction stage analysis-

FIGURE 4.26- X direction displacement in Construction stage 7

FIGURE 4.27-Initial cable forces in construction stage 7

59
 FIGURE 4.28-Bending moment in pylon in construction stage 7

FIGURE 4.29- Deflection of pylon in global X direction vs stages

FIGURE 4.30- Sag point displacement vs stages

60
 40

30
Bending moment(1000 KN-m)

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-10

-20

-30

-40

-50
Span(m)

Initial model Optimised model Column1

FIGURE 4.31 Bending moment vs span

200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-100
Deflection (mm)

-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
Span (m)

Initial model Optimised model Column1

FIGURE 4.32- Displacement vs span

61
 CHAPTER
5
Conclusion and Scope of future work

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter we shall discuss about the conclusion portion of the project work. Here after
examining and comparing all the results obtained for bending moment, girder deflection,
pylon deflection, cable stresses, we shall determine a optimised bridge model. Also, some
optimum dimensionless ratio will be proposed here for designing the suspension bridge. By
the analysis of construction stage model, the amount of setback of the pylons required will
also be discussed.

5.2 Summary of work done

In this work, parametric study is done of a suspension bridge which is 660m long with 360 m
main span and 150 m side spans. The parameters that are chosen to do the comparison is
Cable diameter, Cable modulus of elasticity, Hanger diameter, Girder depth and cable sag.
For the analysis,16m deck is used which is 4 lane and the deck height above the ground level
is 35.72m. The hanger spacing is taken after 15m c/c. First the analysis is started with 45m
cable sag, 760mm cable diameter, 230 mm hanger diameter and 2450 mm girder depth. Then,
the parameters are optimised for to get the desired results.
The bridge structure is loaded with Dead load such as self-weight (which is applied to each
hanger separately), additional loads such as barrier weight, parapet weight, deck weigh etc.
Also, the bridge is analysed for traffic load as per the specification of IRC06-2014 and wind
loads.
The optimised bridge model is analysed for construction stage. From the analysis, the amount
of setback required is determined. Also, how the cable forces and cable sags are developed
with each construction stages are shown in the report. For the construction stage analysis time
dependent material properties are used.
After optimising the bridge model, some dimensionless ratios such as cable sag to main span,
Cable diameter to main span, hanger diameter to main span etc are calculated.

62
5.3 Discussions-

5.3.1 Cable stiffness-

To find the optimum cable stiffness, the diameter of the cable and the modulus of elasticity of
the cable is varied.
a) Modulus of elasticity-For studying the modulus of elasticity of cable, four different types
of cable arrangements are chosen. These are-
Parallel wires- E= 205000 N/mm2
Parallel strands- E=190000 N/mm2
Full locked coil- E=150000 N/mm2
Cable spiral strand- E=140000 N/mm2
It is observed from figure 4.6 and figure 4.7, there is a rapid decrease in girder bending
moment and girder displacement with the increase in modulus of elasticity. So from
designing point of view, one should choose that cable which is having highest value of
modulus of elasticity. So in my optimisation process, I have finally chosen Parallel wires with
modulus of elasticity 205000 N/mm2 as the cable type.

b) Cable diameter- In my analysis, I have varied the cable diameter from 300 mm to 915
mm.
From, the figure 4.8, it can be seen that, there is a rapid decrease in cable stress with increase
in cable diameter. Increase in diameter up to 605 mm causes rapid decrease in cable stress.
But there is negligible change in stress of the hangers with the increase in cable diameter.
Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 shows the effect of cable diameter in girder displacement and
pylon displacement. As per ASTHOO, the maximum girder displacement is L/300=2.2m.
From the curves, it is quite clear that girder and pylon displacements reduce with increase in
cable diameter. After increase in cable diameter up to 500mm, there is not appreciable
decrease in displacements.
Figure 4.12 shows that, with the increase in cable diameter, the side span max -ve and +ve
moment increases.This observation restraints us from increasing cable diameter to a very
large value.
Also. from economical point of view it is not preferrable to increase cable diameter to a very
large value. Hence a cable diameter of 600 mm is taken as optimum diameter.

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5.3.2 Hanger diameter-
In my analysis, I have varied the hanger diameter from 150 mm to 380mm.
Figure 4.13 shows that, with the increase in hanger diameter there is rapid fall in hanger
stress. The side span hanger stress decreases more rapidly as compared to mid-span hanger
stress. Although, the effect in cable stress is not predominant. So, it can be concluded from
here, hanger diameter should be chosen properly based on hanger stresses.
Figure 4.14 shows that, increase in hanger diameter is having very negligible effects on
moments of both side span and mid-span. Although, there is a slight increase in side span -ve
moment with increase in hanger diameter. So, while choosing optimum hanger diameter,
moment should not be considered as an important factor.
Figure 4.15 and figure 4.16 shows that, effect of changing hanger diameter is having very less
effect in both girder and pylon displacements.
Also, from economical point of view, it is not recommended to increase the hanger diameter
to a very large extent.
Hence a hanger diameter of 300 mm is chosen as optimum diameter.

5.3.3 Hanger arrangements-

From the literatures I have reviewd, it is seen that arranging hanger in a inclined manner
causes increase in global stiffness. Vertical hangers generally shows a less stiffer
arrangement causing relatively large deflection and lower frequency of natural vibration.
But determining the profile of main cable with inclined hanger arrangement is very difficult.
Also, inclined hanger arrangement causes erection problems and fatigue problem because of
slackening effects.
So, in my analysis, I have chosen vertical suspenders instead of inclined suspenders.

5.3.4 Cable Sag-

In my analysis, I have varied the cable sag from 45m to 100m.
Figure 4.17 shows that,with the increase in cable sag, the stresses in the cable and hanger
decreases. So for finding optimum value of stress in cable and hanger, choosing appropriate
cable sag to span ratio is very much important. The decrease in stresses are more prominent
in the cable sag zone of 60m to 80m.
The above result is being verified by other literatures. In the literature of Clementne, P.G.
Nicolosi they have stated that, increase in cable sag to span ratio will cause lower tensile
forces in the hangers and cables and also decrease compression in the girder.
Figure 4.18 shows that, cable sag is having is less effect in girder deflection. Although it is
seen that, with high cable sag the deflection increases.

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Figure 4.19 shows, there is a significant decrease in negative moments of both side and mid-
span with the increase in cable sag. Although, the variation is not pronounced in case of
positive moments of both side and mid-span.
From parametric study of cable sag a optimum value of 60m is chosen as cable sag
considering the effects of cable stress, hanger stress, moments, deflection.

5.3.5 Girder depth-

Figure 4.20 shows that, girder depth is having a pronounced effect on the span moment. It
can be observed that with increase in girder depth, the side span maximum -ve moment
increases. Also, there is a increase in central span +ve moment with increase in girder depth.
Central span maximum negative moment is not changing that much with girder depth. The
side span maximum +ve moment decreases rapidly with increase in girder depth. From the
graph study a optimum value of 3000mm can be considered to be good.
Figure 4.21 shows that, Cable stress and hanger stress both increases with the increase in
depth of girder. This is due to fact that, the dead load of the structure increases with the
increase in girder depth.
Figure 4.22 shows that, there is a rapid decrease in girder deflection with the increase in
girder depth. As the depth of the girder increases the vertical stiffness of the girder system
increases, which results in less deflection.
So, while choosing optimum depth of girder, one should take girder deflection as prime
parameter. Also, large girder depth is not recommended as it would result the structure to be
uneconomical.
So, considering all the above points, girder depth is taken as 3000 mm.

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5.4 Conclusion
a) From the analysis of cable stiffness, it is clear, that higher the cable stiffness is generally
preferable. Again, from literature studies, it is understood that less stiffness in cable causes
lower natural frequencies. Increasing the cable stiffness causes increase in vertical and
transverse frequency of both the stiffening girder and cable.
For the optimum design and analysis of 660m suspension bridge, parallel wires with
modulus of elasticity 205000 N/mm2 is chosen and cable diameter of 600 mm is selected.
So in general an optimum range of ratio for cable diameter to mid-span can be taken as
1:600 to 1:700.

b) From the parametric study of hanger, it is clear that vertical hanger arrangement is
more preferrable than inclined hanger arrangement instead of the benefits of the inclined
hanger arrangement.
Again, from all considerations, a hanger diameter of 250mm can be taken as optimum
diameter for design. So, in general an optimum range of ratio of suspender diameter to
mid-span can be taken as 1:4000 to 1:5000.

c) From the study of cable sag it is observed that increase in cable sag decreases stress in the
cables and hanger but at the same time slight increase in deflection and bending moments can
be observed. So, from all those points a cable sag of 60m is chosen as optimum.
So, in general, an optimum range of cable sag to mid-span can be taken as 1:6 to 1:8.

d) From the parametric study of girder depth, it is seen that increase in girder depth is quite
beneficial regarding displacement control of girder as it increases overall stiffness. From
economical point of view, it is not advisable to increase the girder depth as much as possible.
In this project, an optimum value of girder depth is taken as 3000mm.
So, in general, an optimum range of girder depth to mid-span can be taken as 1:120 to 1:130

e) From the backward construction stage analysis, the amount of setback required in the
optimised model of suspension bridge for the pylons is 187 mm.

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5.5 Scope of future work

Rigid pylons will be used throughout the work in further studies flexible pylons can be used.
Here Concrete pylons are used for analysis. Further studies can be done using steel pylons.
Further studies of suspension bridges including the sub-structure can also be done.
Here seismic load is not taken under consideration. In future studies, seismic loads may can
be included.
Further studies can be done based on foreward construction stage analysis.
Here in this project symmetric suspension bridge is taken. In future studies, unsymmetric
bridges can be analysed.
Erection loads are not taken during construction stage analysis.Further studies can be done
including erection loads.

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 REFERENCES
1. Dynamic Characterization of the Little Belt Suspension Bridge by Operational Modal
Analysis by Silas S. Christensen, Michael S. Andersen, Anders Brandt, University of
Southern Denmark

2. Analysis and Design of Suspension Cable Bridge by C. Neeladharan, G. Gayathri,

J. Rasigha, V. Thulasi Priya

3. Analysis and Design of Suspension Bridge by Alaa Hussein Al-Zuhairi, Ahmed Al-Fakhar

4.Comparative Study on the Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete and Suspension

Bridges with and without Base Isolation Systems by Mythra Devi. V and Nalinaa. K

5.A study on Suspension bridge by Harazaki, I., Suzuki, S., Okukawa, A.

6.IRC 06-2014 , “STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND CODE OF PRACTICE FOR ROAD

BRIDGES”

7.IS 800-2007,” General provision in steel code of practice third edition”

8.MIDAS CIVIL 2013, “Analysis of civil structure”, MIDAS IT

9.Krishna Raju N, “Design of bridges”, “Oxford and IBH publishing co. pvt, New Delhi,2013

10.Parametrci study of self-anchored suspension bridge by C.Arun

11.A study on self-anchored suspension bridge by David van Goolen

12.Analysis of suspended bridge for isolated communities by Viktor Hermanson and H.Jonas

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APPENDIX

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