Bridge Engineering

BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Prof. Piyali Sengupta

Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad
Module 01: Introduction to Bridges

Lecture 01: Components, Materials, Forms, Evolutions and Classifications of Bridges
 Introduction to Bridges
 Components of Bridges
 Load Transfer Mechanisms
 Basic Forms of Bridges
 Structural Materials
 Historical Evolution of Bridges
 Classifications of Bridges
Topic of Discussion
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Introduction
• A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle
without closing the way beneath.
• The required passage may be for a road, railway, pedestrians,
a canal or a pipeline.
• The obstacle to be crossed may be a river, road, railway or
valley.
Howrah Bridge/ Rabindra Setu, West Bengal, India
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Topic of Discussion
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Components of Bridges
• Decking consisting of deck slab, girders, trusses, etc.
• Bearings for Decking
• Abutments and Piers
• Foundations for the Abutments and Piers
• River training works like revetment for slopes for

embankment at abutments and aprons at river bed levels
• Approaches to the bridges for connecting the bridge to the

roads on either side
• Handrails, parapets and guard stones
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• Superstructure: The components above the level of bearings
are grouped as Superstructure.
• Sub-Structure: The components below the bearing level and

above the foundation are classified as Substructure.
• Foundation: The components below the bed level are termed

as Foundation.
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Components of a Typical Bridge
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Topic of Discussion
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Loads on Bridges
• Dead load • Live Load
• Wind Load • Seismic Load
• Snow Load • Impact Load due to vehicles/
• Buoyancy Force floating vessels
• Longitudinal Forces caused by tractive effort/ braking of vehicles
• Longitudinal Forces due to frictional resistance of expansion bearings
• Centrifugal Forces due to curvature
• Horizontal Forces due to water currents
• Earth pressure due to live load surcharge
• Wave Pressure
• Temperature Effects
• Erection Stresses
• Deformation Effects
• Miscellaneous Secondary Stresses
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Load Transfer Mechanisms
• Loads acting on Bridges are required to be safely transferred

to ground/ soil through a system of interconnected structural
members.
• These interconnected structural members define the

mechanism of load transfer. The path followed by a load to
transmit itself from the point of application to the foundation
and the soil beneath is termed as Load Path.
• In general, load paths can be identified by understanding the

structural elements contributing to
a) resist the load
b) successive load transfer to next structural element.
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Topic of Discussion
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Basic Forms of Bridges
There are six basic forms of bridges based on their load transfer
mechanism.
• Beam Bridges
• Truss Bridges
• Arch Bridges
• Cantilever Bridges
• Suspension Bridges
• Cable stayed Bridges
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Beam Bridge
Beam Bridges carry vertical loads by flexure.
Schematic Diagram of Beam Bridge
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Truss Bridge
Truss Bridges of simple span behaves like a beam as it carries

vertical loads by bending. Top chords carry compressive loads,
bottom chords carry tensile loads. Vertical and diagonal
members carry either tensile or compressive loading depending
on their orientation.
Schematic Diagram of Truss Bridge
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Arch Bridge
Arch Bridges carry loads in compression with the reactions at

the supports being both vertical and horizontal forces.
Schematic Diagram of Arch Bridge
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Cantilever Bridge
Cantilever Bridges consist of three or more spans of which the

outer or anchor spans are anchored down to the shore.
Cantilevers carry their loads by tension in upper chords and by
compression in lower chords. Suspended span is rested at the
cantilever ends and it acts as a simply supported beam or truss.
Schematic Diagram of Cantilever Bridge
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Suspension Bridge
Suspension Bridges carry vertical loads from the deck through

curved cables in tension. These loads are transferred to the
ground through towers and through anchorages.
Schematic Diagram of Suspension Bridge
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Basic Forms of Bridges: Cable Stayed Bridge
In Cable stayed Bridges, vertical loads on deck are carried by

nearly straight inclined cables in tension. The towers transfer the
cable forces to foundation through vertical compression. Tensile
forces in stay cables induce horizontal compression in deck.
Schematic Diagram of Cable stayed Bridge
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Topic of Discussion
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Structural Materials for Bridges
Timber, stone masonry, brick masonry, steel, aluminium, reinforced
concrete, prestressed concrete, composite, etc.
• Timber bridges: short span, light load and temporary usage
• Masonry bridges: short span, economy depends on availability of

good building materials and skilled worker. Generally masonry
bridges are in the form of arch bridges
• Iron and Steel bridges: Applicable to long span bridges
• Reinforced Concrete bridges: suitable for different spans and

different site conditions, added advantage of durability against
aggressive environment
• Prestressed Concrete bridges: suitable for fast construction of

long span slender bridges at comparable cost
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Topic of Discussion
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Historical Evolution of Bridges
• Primitive man was a wanderer in search of food and shelter from
different places resulting in bridges being the earliest civil
infrastructure built by him.
• A tree accidentally fallen across a stream became the earliest form
of beam bridges.
• A natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil below
became the earliest form of arch bridges.
• Creepers hanging from tree to tree used by animals to cross from
one bank to another were the earliest forebearers of suspension
bridges.
• Around 4000 BC men were settling down to community life
realizing the importance of permanent bridges. Thus, evolution of
bridges started which progressed further after industrial revolution.
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Historical Evolution of Bridges
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Topic of Discussion
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Classification of Bridges
• According to function, Aqueduct (canal over a river), Viaduct

(road or railway over valley), Pedestrian, Highway, Railway,
Road-cum-Rail or Pipeline Bridge
• According to material of construction of superstructure,

Timber, Masonry, Iron, Steel, Reinforced Concrete,
Prestressed Concrete, Composite or Aluminium Bridge
• According to form or type of superstructure, Beam, Truss,

Arch, Cantilever, Cable-stayed or Suspension Bridge
• According to inter-span relation, Simply Supported,

Continuous or Cantilever Bridge
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• According to position of bridge floor relative to superstructure

as Deck-through, Half-through or Suspended Bridge
• According to method of connections of different parts of

superstructure, particularly for steel bridges, Pin-connected,
Riveted or Welded Bridge
• According to road level related to highest flood level of the

river below, particularly for highway bridges, High-level or
Submersible Bridge
• According to method of clearance for navigation, High-level,

Movable-Bascule, Movable-Swing, Movable-Lift or Transporter
Bridge
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• According to length of bridge (total length between inner faces

of dirt walls) as Culverts (span less than 6 m), Minor Bridges
(span between 6-60 m), Major Bridges (span between 60-120
m) or Long Span bridges (Main span of Major Bridge is above
120 m)
• According to degree of redundancy, Determinate or

Indeterminate Bridges
• According to anticipated type of service, Permanent,

Temporary, Military (Pontoon, Bailey) Bridges
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Bridge Engineering
 N. Krishna Raju, Design of Bridges, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
 D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
 S. Ponnuswamy, Bridge Engineering, McGraw Hill Education.
 T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
 W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group.
 G. Parke and N. Hewson, ICE manual of Bridge Engineering, Thomas
Telford Publishing.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Lecture 02: Site Selection, Subsoil Exploration and Traffic Projections for Bridges
 Ideal Sites for Bridges
 Site Selection for Bridges
 Preliminary Data for Bridges
 Preliminary Drawings
 Subsoil Exploration
 Traffic Projection
Topic of Discussion
Bridge Engineering
Ideal Sites for Bridges
Choice of a suitable site is a crucial decision for planning,
designing and construction of bridges. Characteristics of an
ideal site for a bridge across a river are:
• A straight reach of the river

• Steady river flow without serious whirls and cross currents
• A narrow channel with firm banks
• Suitable high banks above highest flood level on each side
• Rock or other hard inerodible strata close to river bed level
• Economical approaches, not very high or long or liable to
flank attacks of the river during floods
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Ideal Sites for Bridges
• The approaches should be free from obstacles such as hills,
frequent drainage crossings, sacred places, graveyards, built-
up areas or troublesome land acquisition
• Absence of sharp curves in the approaches
• Proximity to direct alignment of the road to be connected
• Absence of expensive river training work
• Avoidance of excessive under water construction
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Topic of Discussion
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Site Selection for Bridges
• A reconnaissance survey of about 1 km on both up stream

and down stream sides and 1 km along the road on both sides
of the proposed bridge site must be conducted. This survey
would provide an overview of the landscape and help in
deciding the type of bridge best suited to the site.
• A site must be selected such that it would serve the

requirements of the bridge at the least cost.
• A bridge crossing a meandering river should be located at a

nodal point i.e. the location where the river regime is constant
serving as a fulcrum about which the river channels swing
laterally.
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• It is highly desirable to align the bridge at right angles to the

river to provide a square crossing as it will facilitate minimum
span length, deck area and pier lengths maintaining
economical aspects. Additionally, square crossing involves
simpler design and detailing.
• A skew crossing which is inclined to the centre line of the

river at an angle different from right angle is provided to avoid
costly land acquisition or sharp curves on the approaches. A
skew bridge generally poses design, construction and
maintenance difficulties.
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The location of the bridge with respect to the alignment of the

approaches may be decided as follows.
• For minor bridges of total length less than 60 m, the alignment

of the approaches will govern.
• For bridges of total length between 60 m and 300 m, both the

proper alignment of the approaches and the requirements of a
good bridge site should be considered together in
ascertaining the appropriate site.
• For long span bridges over 300 m length, requirements of a

good bridge site will govern the alignment.
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Topic of Discussion
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Preliminary Data for Bridges
The investigation for a major bridge project should comprise
following data.
• Name of the stream, road and identification mark allotted to

the crossing and location in km to centre of crossing
• Location of the nearest Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS)

bench mark with its reduced level
• Present and anticipated future volume and nature of traffic on

the road at the bridge site
• Soil profile along the probable bridge sites over the length of
the bridges and the approaches
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• Susceptibility of the site to earthquakes
• Hydraulic data related to river like highest flood level (HFL),

ordinary flood level (OFL) and low water level (LWL), size,
shape, slope and nature of the catchment, possibility of
subsequent changes in the catchment like afforestation,
deforestation, urban development intensity, frequency of
rainfall in the catchment, probability of large trees or rolling
debris floating down the stream
• Navigational requirements, if any, for the stream
• Need for large scale river training works
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• Availability of good quality stones, aggregates, cement, steel,
and timber in places nearest to the bridge site
• Means of transport for materials
• Availability of electricity
• Availability of utilities and services (e.g. telephone cables,

power cables, water supply pipes)
• Availability of skilled and unskilled workers for construction
• Availability of housing facilities for construction workers
• Important details of existing bridges, if any, crossing the same

river within a reasonable distance from the proposed bridge
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Topic of Discussion
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Preliminary Drawings
The following drawings are required to be prepared at the time of

investigation.
• Index Map
• Contour Survey Plan
• Site Plan
• Cross-Section
• Longitudinal Section
• Catchment Area Map
• Soil Profile
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Preliminary Drawings: Index Map
• Index Map:
An index map drawn to a suitable scale (usually 1: 50000) shows
the proposed location of the bridge, alternative sites investigated
and rejected, existing communication network, general
topography of the area and important towns, landmarks in the
vicinity.
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Preliminary Drawings: Index Map
Index Map of Godavari Second Bridge
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Preliminary Drawings: Contour Survey Plan
• Contour Survey Plan:

A contour survey plan of the stream shows all topographical
features for a sufficient distance on either side of the site to
permit clear indication of all the features that would influence the
location selection and design of the bridge and its approaches.
Contour survey plans of all sites under consideration must be
drawn. The plan may be drawn to a suitable scale, e.g. 1: 1000 to
1: 5000. The plan should cover 100 m, 300 m and 1500 m
distances on either side of the proposed bridge site for
catchment areas of 3 km2, 15 km2 and above 15 km2, respectively.
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Preliminary Drawings: Site Plan
• Site Plan:
A site plan shows the details of the selected site and details of
the river upto a distance of 100-200 metres upstream and down
stream of the selected site. The plan, preferably drawn at a scale
of 1: 1000, must include:
a) Name of the stream, road and nearest distance marker
b) Approximate outlines of the banks and channels at high
water level and low water level
c) Direction of flow
d) Alignment of existing approaches and proposed crossing
with its approaches
e) Angle and direction of skewness, in case of skew alignment
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f) Name of the nearest inhabited identifiable locality at either

end of the crossing
g) Location and reduced level of the benchmark used as datum,
connected to GTS bench mark wherever available
h) Location of the longitudinal and cross-section of road and
stream within the area of the plan
i) Locations of the trial pits and boring with their identification
marks
j) Locations of buildings, wells, rocks, drainage and other
possible obstructions to the bridge alignment
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Site Plan of Godavari Second Bridge
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Preliminary Drawings: Cross-Section
• Cross-Section:
A cross-section of the river at the proposed bridge site may be
drawn at a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100 vertically. The
cross-section should include:
a) Name of the stream, road and chainage

b) River bed line with banks upto a level above the highest flood
level
c) Nature of surface soil in bed, bank and approaches
d) Low water level, ordinary flood level and highest flood level
e) Mean sea level and lowest and highest tide levels for tidal
stream
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Preliminary Drawings: Cross-Section
Additional cross-sections of the stream may be drawn at suitable

distances both upstream and downstream of the proposed
bridge site. The cross-sections should cover 150 m, 300 m and
400 m distances on either side of the proposed bridge site for
catchment areas of 2.5 km2, 2.5-10 km2 and above 10 km2,
respectively.
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Preliminary Drawings: Longitudinal Section
• Longitudinal Section:
A longitudinal section of the stream shows the site of the bridge
with highest flood level, ordinary flood level, low water level and
bed levels at suitably spaced intervals along the approximate
centre line of the deep water channel. A suitable scale may be
used for horizontal distance, but the vertical scale should not be
less than 1:1000.
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Preliminary Drawings: Catchment Area Map
• Catchment Area Map:

Catchment area map for the river at the proposed bridge site may
be prepared by tracking the line of the ridge of the watershed
from the topographical maps of the Survey of India drawn to a
scale of 1:50000 or 1:25000 if available. The included area may be
computed by placing a transparent squared paper on the map
and counting the number of squares.
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Preliminary Drawings: Soil Profile
• Soil Profile:
Soil Profile should be determined by subsoil exploration along
each of the probable bridge alignments. Wherever possible,
borings should be done at the possible locations of the
abutments and piers. The drawings should show the bed and
banks as well as the classifications and levels of the subsoil
layers. The levels of rock or other hard soil suitable for resting
the foundations should be clearly marked.
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Topic of Discussion
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Subsoil Exploration
• Determination of a reasonably accurate soil profile at each of

the proposed bridge sites is essential for correctly deciding
the location and type of foundation. Defects in bridges due to
serious mistakes in subsoil explorations can not be easily
rectified later.
• Sub-surface investigations can be carried out in two stages:

Preliminary Investigation and Detailed Investigation.
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Subsoil Exploration: Preliminary Investigation
• Preliminary Investigations aim at obtaining a general idea about
the soil strata. The methods comprise study of existing
geological information, field investigations with sounding rods,
auger borings, wash borings, test pits and geophysical
methods.
• Sounding rods consist of solid steel bars of 15-20 mm diameter.

Top end of the rod is threaded while bottom end is pointed.
• Sounding rod is first churned into the soil upto 2 m by hand and
then driven with a 50 kN hammer. Resistance to driving is
carefully interpreted to understand the type of the soil met with.
This method is useful in determining the location of the rock at
shallow depths.
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Subsoil Exploration: Preliminary Investigation
• Each auger and post-hole auger are used singly for shallow
depths and in conjunction with a 60 mm pipe casing and
additional coupled rods for larger depths up to 15-20 m.
Samples are taken out in the augers for examination.
• When samples do not stick to the auger, wash borings are

used. A water jet is forced down a wash pipe. Water rises
through the annular space between the casing and wash pipe,
carrying soil fragments, which is collected and examined.
• Based on the data obtained from preliminary investigation, the

bridge site, type of bridge with span layout, location and the
type of foundations to be considered are tentatively
determined.
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Subsoil Exploration: Detailed Investigation
• Detailed exploration should cover the entire length of the

bridge and should extend at either end of the bridge for a
distance about twice depth of the foundation of the abutment.
• Depth of the investigation should generally extend to a depth

about twice the width of the foundation below the level of
foundation. It should preferably extended upto firm soil or
rock.
• Borings can be taken at suitable intervals, including the

probable locations of abutments and piers.
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• The data to be retrieved are:
a) Nature of soil deposit

b) Depths and thicknesses of soil strata
c) Location of ground water table
d) Depth of rock bed
e) Engineering properties of soil and rock
• Standard Penetration Test (SPT) values expressed as number

of blows per 300 mm penetration are also determined at
different depths below the surface.
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• Core Drills are used to take out samples of rock to examine

the thickness of rock layer. It also aids in ensuring that the
rock layer reached is not a boulder, but rock of adequate
thickness.
• Borings charts for the bore holes are first drawn individually
listing the various details. By plotting the data for a number of
bore holes along the cross-section of a stream and connecting
the corresponding points for each layer, the subsoil profile for
a proposed site can be obtained.
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Typical Subsoil Profile
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• If the locations of abutments and piers are known and if the

foundations are resting at different levels, such levels may be
indicated at the locations of abutments and piers.
• If the approaches involve high embankments of height over 6

m, borings should also be taken along the approaches. It is
necessary as the presence of clayey soil below the
embankment, if not detected and taken care of, may cause
failure of the embankment.
• For approaches involving high embankments, spacing of the

bore holes along the alignment may be 30-80 m, depending on
the variability of soil strata.
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• The depth of bore holes should normally be not less than

three times of the height of the embankment, unless a hard
impenetrable stratum is met with at a higher elevation.
• Also, the fill materials to be used for forming the embankment

should be identified, so that the characteristics of the chosen
fill materials may be taken into consideration while designing
the embankment.
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Topic of Discussion
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Traffic Projection
• The present traffic at the proposed bridge site can be
assessed by traffic survey.
• With construction of bridge, future traffic is likely to increase.

The estimated traffic volume over the next 20 years can be
assessed reasonably, taking into account the socio-economic
conditions in the region and upcoming developments.
• If it is a river bridge, there may be some existing mode of

transport across the stream, e.g. ferry service, when the water
level is low. An assessment is required to be made to
understand the diversion of the existing traffic after
construction of bridge.
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Traffic Projection
• The traffic forecast will be necessary in deciding the size of
the bridge, i.e., the number of lanes or tracks to be provided
and whether a footpath is necessary.
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Bridge Engineering
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
 W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Lecture 03: Hydraulic Characteristics, Economical Span and Choice of Bridge Type
 Determination of Design Discharge
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Vertical Clearance above HFL
 Economical Span
 Locations of Piers and Abutments
 Choice of Bridge Type

Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
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Determination of Design Discharge
The maximum discharge which a bridge across a natural stream
is to be designed to pass can be estimated by using:
• Empirical Formulae applicable to the region

• A rational method involving the rainfall and other
characteristics of the area
• Area-velocity method using the hydraulic characteristics of
the stream, such as cross-sectional area and slope of the
stream
• Unit hydrograph method
• Any available records of the flood discharge observed at the
bridge site or any other site in the vicinity
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Determination of Design Discharge: Empirical Formulae
• Dicken’s Formula: Peak Discharge Q = CA3/4
Here A is catchment area in sq. km. and C is an empirical
constant. Constant C varies from 2.80-5.6 for plain catchments
and from 14-28 for mountainous regions. This formula is
applicable to catchments in Central and Northern India.
• Ryve’s Formula: Ryve modified Dicken’s formula for

application to catchments in Southern India.
Peak Discharge Q = CA2/3
Here A is catchment area in sq. km. and C is an empirical
constant with values 6.74 for areas upto 24 km from the coast,
8.45 for areas 24-161 km from the coast and 10.1 for hilly areas.
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Determination of Design Discharge: Rational Method
A rational method for flood discharge should incorporate the
intensity, distribution and duration of rainfall as well as the area,
shape, slope, permeability and initial wetness of the catchment.
The area of catchment is a major contributing factor for the

runoff.
The shape of the catchment affects the peak discharge as long

and narrow basin yield less than the pear shaped basins.
Steep slopes result in shorter time of concentration than flatter

slopes.
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A typical rational formula: Q = A × I0 × λ
where
Q = Maximum flood discharge in m3/s.
A = Catchment area in km2.
I0 = Peak intensity of rainfall in mm/hour.
λ = A function depending on characteristics of the catchment in

𝟎.𝟓𝟔 𝑷𝒇
producing the peak runoff =
𝒕𝒄 +𝟏
𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓
𝑳𝟑
tc = Concentration time in hours = 0.87×
𝑯
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L = Distance from the critical point to the bridge site in
kilometres.
H = Difference in elevation between the critical point and the

bridge site in metres.
P = Coefficient of run-off for the catchment characteristics.
f = A factor to correct for the variation of intensity of rainfall I0

over the area of the catchment.
A, L and H can be obtained from Survey of India topographical

Maps.
I0 can be obtained from the Meteorology Department.
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Value of P in Rational Formula
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Value of f in Rational Formula
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Determination of Design Discharge: Area-Velocity Method
This method derived based on the hydraulic characteristics of the
stream is probably the most reliable among the methods for
determining the flood discharge.
The velocity of the stream under flood conditions is calculated by

Manning’s Formula.
Q=A×V
where
Q = Discharge in m3/s
A = Wetted area in m2
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𝟏
V = Velocity of flow in m/s = 𝐑𝟎.𝟔𝟕 𝐒 𝟎.𝟓
𝐧
n = Coefficient of roughness
S = Slope of the stream

𝐀
R = Hydraulic Mean Depth in metre =
𝐏
P = Wetted perimeter in metre
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Value of n in Manning’s Formula
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Determination of Design Discharge: Unit Hydrograph Method
• A hydrograph is the graphical representation of discharge in a
stream plotted against time due to a rain storm of specified
intensity, duration and areal pattern.
• For any given drainage basin, the hydrographs of run off due to
two rain storms will be similar and their ordinates will be
proportional to the intensity of rainfall.
• A unit hydrograph is defined as the run off hydrograph

representing a unit depth (1 mm) of direct run off as a result of
rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a
uniform rate for a specified duration (e.g., 6 hours or 12 hours).
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• The area under a unit hydrograph represents the volume of
rainfall excess due to a rain of 1 mm over the entire basin.
• In Unit Hydrograph Method, the storm hydrograph for the basin

for a particular rainfall excess is plotted from the documented
data of run off rates in m3/hour and time in hours.
• The base flow is then separated from the direct run off.
• The volume of direct run off basin gives the direct run off in
terms of depth of the flow d expressed in mm over the basin.
• The ordinates of unit hydrograph are obtained by dividing the

corresponding ordinates of the storm hydrograph by d.
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• The depth of runoff corresponding to the given storm can be
computed in proportion to the depth relating to the storm
hydrograph already plotted for deriving the unit hydrograph.
• Direct runoff for any given storm can then be calculated by

multiplying the maximum ordinate of the unit hydrograph by the
depth of runoff over the area.
• The maximum runoff rate is obtained by adding the base flow to

the maximum direct runoff rate.
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• This method assumes that the storm occurs uniformly over the
entire basin and the intensity of rainfall is constant for the
duration of the storm.
• These assumptions may be reasonable for small basins, but not

applicable for large catchments of area over 5000 km2.
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Determination of Design Discharge: Flood Marks
• If flood marks can be observed on any structure near the
proposed bridge site, flood levels and subsequently, flood
discharge can be easily estimated using fundamental principles
of hydraulics.
• Although flood marks may be traced years after a flood, but it is

advisable to locate these marks as soon as possible after the
flood occurs to obtain reliable results.
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Determination of Design Discharge
• Design discharge can be estimated as the maximum discharge
obtained from at least two of the methods described.
• Freak discharge of high intensity due to dam failure or tank

construction at the upstream side of the bridge site should not
be considered.
• For economical consideration, the structural design may be for a

flood occurring once in 50 years.
• For rare floods, it is expected that the structure should not have
excessive damage.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
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Scour Depth
• Scour is defined as the removal of materials from the bed and

banks of the stream during the passage of flood discharge.
• Scour occurs when the velocity of stream exceeds the limiting

velocity that can be withstood by the particles of bed material.
• If the bridge and its approaches do not constrict the natural flow,
scour will be small. On the other hand, on reduction of the
waterway, severe scour may occur, especially during high floods.
• Scour is aggravated at the nose of the piers and at bends.
• The maximum scour depth can be measured immediately after

flood with respect to the existing structures near the proposed
bridge site, if feasible.
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Scour Depth
• When field-based measurement is not possible, mean depth of

scour for natural streams in alluvial beds can be computed by:
𝟎.𝟑𝟑
𝑫𝒃 𝟐
𝒅𝒔𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 where
𝑲𝒔𝒇
𝒅𝒔𝒎 = Mean depth of scour below HFL in metres.

𝑫𝒃 = Discharge in m3/s per metre width, obtained as the total
discharge divided by the effective linear waterway.
𝑲𝒔𝒇 = Silt factor for a representative sample of the bed material,
taken as 1.76 times square root of the particle size in mm.
When effective linear waterway L is less than regime width W, 𝒅𝒔𝒎
𝑾 𝟎.𝟔𝟕
must be multipled by
𝑳
Bridge Engineering
Scour Depth
Silt factor 𝑲𝒔𝒇
Bridge Engineering
Scour Depth
Maximum Scour Depth below HFL, 𝑫
Minimum depth of foundations below HFL is kept as 1.33 D for

erodible strata.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
Bridge Engineering
Linear Waterway
• When the water course to be crossed is an artificial channel for

irrigation or navigation or when the banks are well defined for
natural streams, the linear waterway should be full width of the
channel or stream.
• For large alluvial stream with undefined banks, the required

effective linear waterway may be determined by Lacey’s Formula.
𝐖=𝐂 𝐐 where
W = Effective linear waterway in metres
Q = Designed maximum discharge in m3/s
C = Constant, usually taken as 4.8 for regime channels, but may
vary from 4.5 to 6.3 according to local conditions.
Bridge Engineering
Linear Waterway
• The effective linear waterway is the total width of the waterway
of the bridge minus the mean submerged width of the piers and
their foundation down to the mean scour level.
• On reduction of linear waterway below that for regime condition,

which is not actually desirable, special attention must be given
towards afflux and velocity of water under bridge.
• With reduced waterway, velocity will increase and scour depth

will be higher, requiring deeper foundations.
• Any possible savings from the smaller linear waterway will be

offset by the excess expenses on deeper foundations and
protective works.
Bridge Engineering
Afflux
• Afflux is the heading up of water over the flood level caused by

constriction of waterway at a bridge site. It is measured by the
differences in levels of the water surfaces upstream and
downstream of the bridge. Afflux can be computed as:
𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝒙= −𝟏 where
𝟐𝒈 𝒄𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝟐
𝒙 = Afflux
𝑽 = Velocity of normal flow in the stream
𝒈 = Acceleration due to gravity
𝑳 = Width of stream at HFL
Bridge Engineering
Afflux
𝑳𝟏 = Linear waterway under the bridge
𝒄 = Coefficient of discharge through the bridge, taken as 0.7 for

sharp entry and 0.9 for bell-mouthed entry
• Afflux should be kept minimum and limited to 300 mm.
• Afflux causes increase in velocity on the downstream side

leading to greater scour which poses requirement of deeper
foundation.
• The road formation level and top level of guide bunds are
dependent on the maximum water level on the upstream side
including afflux.
Bridge Engineering
Afflux
The increased velocity under the bridge should be kept below the
allowable safe velocity for the bed material.
Typical values of Safe Velocities
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
Bridge Engineering
Vertical Clearance above HFL
• For high level bridges, a vertical clearance should be allowed

between the highest flood level (HFL) and the lowest point of
the superstructure.
• This is required to allow for any possible error in the

computation of HFL and design discharge.
• It also allows floating debris to pass under the bridge without

any damage to the structure.
• For arch bridges, clearance below the crown of the intrados of

the arch should not be less than 1/10th of the maximum water
depth plus 1/3rd of the rise of the arch intrados.
Bridge Engineering
Vertical Clearance above HFL
• For bridges with metallic bearings, clearance between the

base of the bearings and the highest flood level including
afflux, must be not less than 500 mm.
Minimum Vertical Clearance
Bridge Engineering
Vertical Clearance and Freeboard
• Vertical clearance is the difference between the HFL and the

lowest point of the superstructure.
• Freeboard at any point is the difference between HFL after

allowing for afflux, if any, and the formation level of the road
embankment on the approaches or top level of the guide
bunds at that point.
• For high level bridges, freeboard should not be less than 1750
mm.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
Bridge Engineering
Economical Span
• For a linear waterway, with increase in span length, total cost of
superstructure increases and total cost of substructure decreases.
• For the most economical span length, cost of superstructure

equals cost of substructure. Let’s see the derivation of the same.
Let, A = Cost of approaches

B = Cost of two abutments, including foundations
L = Total linear waterway
s = Length of one span
n = Number of spans
P = Cost of one pier including foundation
C = Total cost of bridge
Bridge Engineering
Economical Span
• Assuming cost of superstructure of one span is proportional to
square of the span length, total cost of superstructure = n k s2
where k is a constant.
• The cost of railings, flooring, etc., is proportional to the total

length of the bridge and can be taken as K′ L
• Total cost of bridge C = A + B + (n – 1) × P + n k s2 + K′ L
• Substituting n = L/s, C = A + B + (L/s – 1) × P + k L s + K′ L
• For Economical Span, i.e., for minimum cost, dC/ds = 0, which

results in P = k s2. It means that cost of superstructure of one
span = cost of substructure of same span.
• Economical Span se = √P/k
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
Bridge Engineering
Locations of Piers and Abutments
• Piers and abutments should be placed such that the best use of
the foundation conditions are available.
• The number of spans should be kept low as piers obstruct water
flow. An odd number of spans are generally preferred.
• Placing piers at the deepest portion of an active channel may be
avoided by suitably adjusting the number and length of span.
• The alignment of piers and abutments should be as far as
possible parallel to the mean direction of flow in the stream.
• If any temporary variation in the direction and velocity of the
stream current is anticipated, suitable protective works must be
provided to protect the substructure against harmful effects on
stability of the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Scour Depth
 Linear Waterway
 Economical Span
Bridge Engineering
Choice of Bridge Type
• The need to optimize the overall construction cost can be
achieved by combining the highway and railway requirements
together in the form of road-cum-rail bridge.
• Requirement of large navigational clearances may dictate the

use of arches, cable stayed bridges, suspension bridges or
cantilever bridges.
• Long and high approaches may be too expensive at a plain

coastal area for a railway line with low traffic volume. It may be
desirable to have a low-level structure with movable (bascule,
swing or lift) span to cater navigational requirements.
• At tourist spots, deck bridges may be preferred for highway

traffic because of the better view of the surrounding scenery.
Bridge Engineering
• A high-level structure with uninterrupted traffic as on a
National Highway and the need to reduce the number of piers
may necessitate a cantilever bridge, a cable stayed bridge or a
series of simply supported truss bridges.
• The climatic and environmental conditions may preclude use

of some materials. Like, corrosive atmosphere may dictate the
use of cantilever construction with precast segments.
• The topographic and soil conditions at a site may limit the

choices to a few general possibilities, e.g., a rocky ravine area
is ideal for an arch bridge.
• Weak subsoil conditions may lead to use of simply supported

spans in place of continuous spans.
Bridge Engineering
• Shortage of funds may necessitate the adoption of a
submersible bridge in place of a high-level bridge on a road
with low traffic.
• The type of traffic may restrict the choice of bridge type. For
railway traffic, steel truss bridges or steel cantilever bridges
are preferable to suspension bridges.
• The personal preferences of the designer or the

specializations of the company/ construction firm may
influence the type of bridge finally adopted for a site.
Bridge Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Lecture 04: Standard Specifications for Road Bridges
 General Features and Dead Load
 Live Load
 Wind Load and Earthquake Load
 Longitudinal and Centrifugal Forces
 Water Current, Buoyancy and Earth Pressure
 Impact and Collision Loads
 Temperature Effects
 Deformation, Erection and Secondary Stresses
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Carriageway Width
• The carriageway width required will depend on the intensity
and volume of traffic anticipated to use the bridge. The width
of carriageway is expressed in terms of traffic lanes.
• Except for minor village roads, all bridges must provide for at
least two-lane width.
• The minimum carriageway width is 4.25 m for a one-lane

bridge and 7.5 m for a two-lane bridge. For every additional
lane, a minimum of 3.5 m must be allowed.
• Bridges allowing traffic on both directions must have

carriageways of two or four lanes or multiple of two lanes.
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Carriageway Width
• Three-lane bridges should not be constructed, as these will
be conducive to the occurrence of accidents.
• For wide bridge, it is desirable to provide a central verge of at

least 1.2 m width to separate the two opposing lines of traffic.
• For wide bridges, the individual carriageway on either side of

the verge should provide for a minimum of two lanes of traffic.
• If the bridge is to carry a tramway or railway in addition, the

width of the bridge should be increased suitably.
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Clearances
Horizontal and vertical clearances for highway traffic
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Clearances
• The maximum width and depth of a moving vehicle are assumed
as 3300 mm and 4500 mm, respectively.
• The left half section of each diagram shows the main fixed
structure between end posts of/on arch ribs, whereas the right
half section shows the intermediate portions.
• For a bridge constructed on a horizontal curve with super-

elevated surface, the minimum vertical clearance is to be
measured from the super-elevated level of the roadway.
• The horizontal clearance should be increased on the inner side

of the curve by an amount equal to 5 m multiplied by the super-
elevation.
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Dead Load
• The dead load carried by a bridge member consists of its own
weight and the portions of the weight of the superstructure and
any fixed loads supported by the member.
• The dead load can be estimated fairly accurately during design

and can be controlled during construction and service.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
• Live loads are those caused by vehicles which pass over the
bridge and are transient in nature.
• These loads cannot be estimated precisely, and the designer has

very little control over them once the bridge is opened to traffic.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load: Evolution of Standards across World
• The earliest bridge loading standards were formulated to
transport heavy military vehicles in UK and Europe and these
guidelines were generally specified by local authorities. Loading
consisted of steam rollers and traction engines.
• This resulted in introduction of the Ministry of transport’s first
‘Standard Loading Train’ in the United Kingdom in 1932 and
loading standards of many European Countries.
• In UK, these standards formed the basis for the present type HA
loading of BS: 153.
• In USA, a loading standard consisting of truck trains and

equivalent loads was introduced by the American Association of
State Highway Transport Officials (AASHTO) in 1935.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load: Evolution of Standards in India
• In India, the first loading standards were introduced nationally in
1937.
• The first loading standard of India IRC: 6 was first published by

the Indian Roads Congress in 1958 and subsequently reprinted
in 1962 and 1963.
• Section-II of the code dealing with loads and stresses was

improvised in the 2nd revision in 1964.
• The metric version was introduced in the 3rd revision of 1966.
• The combination of loads, forces and permissible stresses were

incorporated in the 4th revision published in 2000.
• The 5th revision was introduced in 2014.
Bridge Engineering
Categories of Live Loads: IRC 6 (2014)
• Highway bridge decks are designed in India to withstand live
loads specified by IRC.
• Different categories of loading were formulated in IRC: 6, 2nd

revision, 1958. However, no changes were made in the loading in
subsequent revisions in 1964, 1966 and 2000.
• The standard IRC loads specified in IRC: 6 – 2014 are grouped

under four categories.
I. IRC Class AA Loading

II. IRC Class 70 R Loading
III. IRC Class A Loading
IV. IRC Class B Loading
Bridge Engineering
IRC Class AA Loading: IRC 6 (2014)
• Two different types of vehicles are specified under this category
grouped as Tracked Vehicle and Wheeled Vehicle.
• Tracked Vehicle represents an army tank of 700 kN.
• Wheeled Vehicle represents a heavy duty army truck of 400 kN.
• All the bridges located on National and State Highways must be

designed for the abovementioned heavy loading.
• Similar loadings are also adopted for bridges located in certain

municipal localities and certain highways.
Bridge Engineering
Tracked Vehicle
Bridge Engineering
Wheeled Vehicle
Bridge Engineering
IRC Class 70R Loading: IRC 6 (2014)
• Three different types of vehicles are specified under this
category.
• Tracked Vehicle of total load of 700 kN with two tracks each

weighing 350 kN.
• Bogie Axle Type Vehicle of 400 kN comprising 4 wheels, each

with a load of 100 kN.
• Wheeled Vehicle of with a train of vehicles on 7 axles with a total

load of 1000 kN.
Bridge Engineering
• The tracked vehicle is almost similar to that of Class AA, except
the loaded length being slightly more for Class 70R. The contact
length of the track is 4.57 m, the nose to tail length of the vehicle
is 7.92 m and the specified minimum spacing between
successive vehicles is 30 m.
• Wheeled vehicle is 15.22 m long and has seven axles with loads
of 1000 kN in total.
Bridge Engineering
Tracked Vehicle
Bridge Engineering
Bogie Axle Type Vehicle
Bridge Engineering
Wheeled Vehicle
Bridge Engineering
IRC Class A Loading: IRC 6 (2014)
• This type of loading consists of a wheel load train comprising a
truck with trailers of specified axle spacing and loads.
• The heavy duty truck with two trailers transmits loads from 8
axles varying from a minimum of 27 kN to a maximum of 114 kN.
• Class A loading is a 554 kN train of wheeled vehicles on eight

axles.
• This type of loading is recommended for all roads on which

permanent bridges and culverts are constructed.
Bridge Engineering
IRC Class B Loading: IRC 6 (2014)
• Class B type of loading is similar to Class A type of loading
except that the axle loads are comparatively of lesser magnitude.
• Class B loading is a 332 kN train of wheeled vehicles on eight

axles.
• This type of loading is adopted for temporary structures and

timber bridges.
Bridge Engineering
IRC Class A and B Loading: IRC 6 (2014)
Class A and Class B Vehicles
Bridge Engineering
Live Load Combinations: IRC 6 (2014)
Bridge Engineering
Impact Factor: IRC 6 (2014)
• Impact Factors are generally applied to the moving wheel load

or distributed loads to enhance their magnitude to include the
dynamic effects on the bridge deck.
• The impact allowance is generally expressed as a fraction of the

applied live loads and is expressed as an empirical expression
involving constants and the span length of the bridge deck.
• The impact factor is always inversely proportional to the length

of the span and is different for reinforced concrete and steel
bridges.
Bridge Engineering
• The impact factor allowance is expressed as a fraction of the

applied live loads and is computed:
I = A/ (B + L)
Where
I = Impact Factor Fraction

A = Constant having the value of 4.5 for Reinforced Concrete
Bridges and 9.0 for Steel Bridges.
B = Constant having a value of 6.0 for Reinforced Concrete
L = Span in metres
Bridge Engineering
• For deck span less than 3 m, impact factor is 0.5 for RC Bridges
and 0.545 for Steel Bridges.
• When deck span exceeds 45 m, impact factor is 0.088 for RC

• For deck span less than 9 m,
A) For tracked vehicles, 25% of the span up to 5 m linearly

reduced to 10% for span of 9 m.
B) For wheeled vehicles, 25%.
Bridge Engineering
• For tracked vehicle for RC bridges, 10% up to the span of 40 m

and in accordance with the following figure for spans exceeding
40 m.
• For steel bridges, 25% for span up to 23 m and as per he

following figure for spans exceeding 23 m.
Bridge Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Categories of Live Loads: British Standard
• British Standard prescribes two main types of loading.
I. HA Loading
II. HB Loading
• HA Type Loading is designated as the Normal Design Loading.
• HB Type Loading is designated as the Abnormal Unit Loading.
Bridge Engineering
HA Loading: British Standard
HA Type Loading, designated as the normal design loading,

consists of:
• A uniformly distributed load varying from 31.86 kN/m for 1 m
loaded length (span) to 5.8 kN/m for 900 m loaded length (span)
(as shown in the curve) and an edge loading of 120 kN per lane
inclusive of impact. There is no reduction in the intensity of HA
loading up to two lanes of traffic.
• An alternate axle load is specified where the loading system

consists of two loads each of 112 kN in line transversely to the
direction of traffic flow speed at 0.9 m. The uniformly distributed
load has a constant value of 31.5 kN/m of lane for loaded length
for 6.5 m – 23 m.
Bridge Engineering
• Two lanes are considered always occupied by full HA loading

while other lanes except the two are considered as occupied by
one third of the full lane loading. The standard design lane
width is 3 m.
• While considering effects of 112 kN wheel loads, an overstress

of 25% is permitted.
• An impact allowance of 25% is specified for HA type of

loading.
Bridge Engineering
Loading Curve for HA Type Loading
Bridge Engineering
HB Loading: British Standard
HB Type Loading is designated as the abnormal unit loading.
• The number of units per axle (4 axles in all) specified in UK for

bridges carrying heaviest class of load is 45. With each unit
representing 10 kN, total load is 1800 kN. The loading is
idealized on four axles allowing the weight of tractors
accompanying trailers.
• An overstress of 25% is allowed with this loading.
• No allowance is made for impact.
• Only one lane is to be loaded with this type of loading, all other
lanes are required to be loaded with one-third of full lane HA
loading only if its presence causes worst effect.
Bridge Engineering
HB Loading: British Standard
Plan View for HB Type Loading
Bridge Engineering
Impact Factor: British Standard
• For HA type loading, an impact allowance of 25% on the

heaviest axle in the train of vehicles is provided.
• For HB type loading, no impact allowance is provided as this

loading is considered as an abnormal loading.
Bridge Engineering
AASHTO Loading on Road Bridges
The American Association of State Highway Transport Officials

(AASHTO) has prescribed the heaviest loading designated as HS
20-44.
• The truck loading comprises a heavy tractor truck with a semi-

trailer having total load of 72 kips.
• The lane loading consists of a uniformly distributed load of

intensity 640 lb/feet together with an edge load of 18 kips for
bending moment and 26 kips for shear force computations.
• Both truck and train loading are required to be considered in

design of bridges so as to understand which one gives the
worst effect and adopt the same.
Bridge Engineering
• When truck loading is used, only one truck is considered for

each lane for the whole length.
• There is no reduction in load intensity for up to two lanes of

traffic loaded.
HS 20-44 Lane Loading
Bridge Engineering
HS 20-44 Truck Loading
Bridge Engineering
Impact Factor: AASHTO Standard
The impact allowance is expressed as a function of loaded span

length (L).
Impact Allowance = 50/ (L + 25)
Here L = Loaded portion of span length in feet that produces

maximum stress in member.
Maximum impact allowance is 30%.
For shear due to truck loads, the span (L) is taken as loaded part
of the span from the point being considered to the reaction, except
for cantilever arms where impact allowance is 30%.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load
Wind is air in motion with respect to earth surface. All bridges

should be designed for the wind forces as below.
Wind Velocities and Wind Pressures
2 2
H (m) V (Km/h) P (kN/m ) H(m) V (km/h) P (kN/m )
0 80 0.40 30 147 1.41
2 91 0.52 40 155 1.57
4 100 0.63 50 162 1.71
6 107 0.73 60 168 1.83
8 113 0.82 70 173 1.93
10 118 0.91 80 177 2.02
15 128 1.07 90 180 2.10
20 136 1.19 100 183 2.17
25 142 1.30 110 186 2.24
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load
H = Average height in metres of the exposed surface above mean

retarding surface (ground or bed level or water level).
V = Horizontal velocity of wind in kilometres per hour at height H.
P = Horizontal wind pressure kN/m2 at height H.
• Wind forces, although dynamic in nature, can be approximated

as equivalent static loads. Wind forces act horizontally and in a
direction to cause the maximum stresses in the member.
• Wind forces are to be doubled for the Kathiawar Peninsula and

the coastal regions of West Bengal and Orissa. It may be noted
that the velocity and wind pressure increase non-linearly with
the height above the ground or water level.
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load
The area on which the wind force is assumed to act is determined

as below:
(i) For a deck structure: The area of the structure as seen in

elevation including the floor system and railing, less area of
perforations in the railings or parapets.
(ii) For a thorough or half-thorough structure: The area of the

elevation of the windward truss, plus half the area of elevation
above the deck level of all other trusses or girders.
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load
• When the wind velocity at deck level exceeds 130 km/h, no live
load need be considered to be acting on the bridge.
• The total assumed wind force shall not be less than 4.5 kN/m in
the plane of the loaded chord and 2.25 kN/m in the plane of the
unloaded chord on the through or half-through truss and not
less 4.5 kN/m on deck spans.
• A wind pressure of 2.4 kN/m2 on the unloaded structure shall be

used if it produces greater stresses than those produced by the
combined wind forces as stated above.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
• If a bridge is located in an earthquake-prone region, earthquake

resistant design should be incorporated in structural detailing.
The seismic force will have both horizontal and vertical
components acting simultaneously.
• For determination of earthquake force, entire country is divided

into four zones designated as Zones II to V.
• All bridges in Zone V and IV, and bridges of total length over
60m in Zones III and II should be designed for seismic forces.
• Smaller bridges of length less than 60 m in Zones III and II need

not be designed for seismic forces.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
The horizontal seismic force Feq may be computed as follows.
𝑭𝒆𝒒 = 𝑨𝒉 𝑮 + 𝑳𝒂 Where
𝑮 = Dead load above the section considered.

𝑳𝒂 = Appropriate live load under seismic condition.
𝒁/𝟐 𝑺𝒂 /𝒈
𝑨𝒉 = Horizontal seismic coefficient =
𝑹Τ𝑰
𝒁 = Zone factor taken as 0.36, 0.24, 0.16 and 0.10 for Zones V, IV, III,
and II, respectively.
𝑰 = Importance factor, taken as 1.5 for important bridges and as 1.0
for other bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
𝑻 = Fundamental period of the bridge member, in seconds, for

horizontal vibrations
𝑹 = Response reduction factor, taken as 2.5
𝑺𝒂 /𝒈 = Average response acceleration coefficient for 5% damping

depending on T
The earthquake response is aggravated in case of soft soils such

as marine clay and silt. Sandy soils are susceptible to liquefaction.
Hard and sound rock is the most desirable founding strata.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
• The horizontal seismic force is taken to act through the centre

of gravity of all loads under consideration. The direction of the
force should be such that the resultant stresses in the member
under consideration are maximum.
• The superstructure should be designed to resist horizontal and

vertical seismic forces and should have a factor of safety of
against overturning in the transverse direction.
• In zones IV and V, special precaution should be taken to secure

the superstructure to the piers to prevent it from being
dislodged off its bearings during an earthquake.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
• For this purposes, seismic arresters may be provided and

designed for 𝟐𝑭𝒆𝒒 . Pier and abutment caps may be adequately
dimensioned to withstand severe ground shaking.
• Horizontal linkage elements between adjacent spans and

restraining devices are to be provided to prevent undesirable
movements of adjacent superstructure units at supports.
• Transverse girder stops may be provided at the piers to prevent

a transverse movement of the superstructure.
• The seating width should be adequate to prevent any possibility

of dislodging of the span from the support.
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Zone Map of India
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces
Longitudinal forces are caused in road bridges due to any one or

more of the following:
• Tractive effort caused through acceleration to the driving

wheels.
• Braking effect due to application of brakes to the wheels.
• Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearings

due to change of temperature or any other cause.
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces: Braking effort
Braking effect is invariably greater than the tractive effort. It is

computed as follows:
• Single lane or two-lane bridge:

20% of the first train load plus 10% of the loads in succeeding
trains. If the entire first train is not on the full span, the braking
force is taking as 20% of the loads actually on the span. No impact
allowance is included for this computation.
• Multi-lane bridge:
As in above for the first two lanes plus 5% of the loads on the
lanes in excess of two.
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces: Frictional Resistance
The longitudinal force due to friction at a free bearing is limited to

the sum of the dead and live load reactions at the bearing
multiplied by the appropriate coefficient of friction as follows.
Steel roller bearings 0.03

Concrete roller bearings 0.05
Sliding bearings of hard copper alloy 0.15
Sliding bearings of steel on cast iron or 0.50
steel
Sliding bearings of concrete over concrete 0.60
with bitumen layer in between
Sliding bearings of teflon on stainless steel 0.05
Other types Values to be decided by the engineer-
in-charge based on available data.
Bridge Engineering
Centrifugal Forces
Where a road bridge is located on a curve, the effects of

centrifugal forces due to movement of vehicles should be taken
into account. The Centrifugal force is given by
𝑾𝑽𝟐
𝑪=
𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 𝑹
Where C = Centrifugal force in kN acting normally to the traffic; (a)
at the point of action of the wheel loads or (b) uniformly distributed
over every metre length on which the uniformly distributed load
act.
W = Live load (a) in kN for wheel loads and (b) in kN/m for
uniformly distributed live load.
Bridge Engineering
Centrifugal Forces
V = Design speed in km per hour
R = Radius of curvature in metres.
The centrifugal force is assumed to act at a height of 1200 mm

above the level of the carriageway. The force is not increased for
impact effect.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Forces Due to Water Currents
Any part of a bridge structure which may be submerged in running

water should be designed to sustain safely the horizontal pressure
due to the water current.
On piers parallel to the direction of the water current, the intensity

𝑲𝑾𝑽 𝟐
of pressure is given by: 𝑷 = Where
𝟐𝒈
P = intensity of pressure in kN/m2 due to the water current
W = unit weight of water in kN/m3
V = velocity of current in m/s at the point where the pressure

intensity is being calculated
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Forces Due to Water Currents
K = a constant depending on the shape of pier, taken as 1.50 for

square-ended piers, 0.66 for circular piers or for piers semi-
circular cutwaters, 0.5 to 0.9 for triangular cut waters, and 1.25 for
trestle type piers.
With the usual values of W and g, the earlier equation reduces to:
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑲𝑽𝟐
The values of 𝑽𝟐 is assumed to vary linearly from zero at the point
of deepest scour to the square of the maximum velocity at free
surface of water. If maximum mean velocity of current is taken as
𝒗, the maximum velocity at free surface of water is taken as 𝟐𝒗
Bridge Engineering
Buoyancy Effect
• Wherever a part or whole of a structure is submersed in water,

the forces due to buoyancy should be considered.
• For submersible bridges, full buoyancy forces due to buoyancy

should be considered for the superstructure, piers, abutments
and foundations.
• For high level bridges, buoyancy forces due to submerged part

of the substructure and foundations should be considered.
• For piers submerged in water and for foundations in sand, full

buoyancy is allowed.
• For other soils, a suitable portion may be taken into account.
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
• Earth pressures computed using Coulomb’s Theory is

acceptable, subjected to the modification that the centre of
pressure exerted by a backfill when considered dry is located at
an elevation of 0.42 times height of the wall above the base,
instead of 0.33 times of the same.
• The thrust from Coulomb’s Theory is as follows.
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽×𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽−𝝋 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒘𝒉𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝋+𝒛 ×𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝋−𝜹
Where
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽+𝒛 +
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽+𝜹
P = total active pressure, acting at a height of 0.42h inclined at z to

the normal to the wall on the earth side.
W = unit weight of earth fill
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
h = height of wall
θ = angle subtended by the earthside wall with the horizontal on
the earthside
φ = angle of internal friction on the earth fill
z = angle of the friction of the earthside wall with the earth
δ = inclination of the earth fill surface with the horizontal.
If θ equals 90° and z equals δ, the conditions conform to Rankine’s
theory, and the above equation reduces to the following form.
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜹− 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜹−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝋
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒘𝒉𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜹 ×
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜹+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜹−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝋
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
When the backfill is level, i.e. when δ equals zero, the above
equation further reduces to the form below.
𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝋 ∅
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒘𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒘𝒉𝟐 tan𝟐 𝟒𝟓° −
𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝋 𝟐
For the design of abutments, the effect of concentrated live loads

on the surface may be reckoned as equivalent surcharge and may
be computed by any rational method of design.
All abutments and return walls should be designed for a live load
surcharge equivalent to 1.2 m height of earth fill.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Barge/Ship Impact
• Bridges located across navigable waters should incorporate the

effects of barge/ship impact on piers in the navigable portions.
• The impact force depends on the characteristics of the vessel,

the velocity of the vessel, the geometry of collision and the
characteristics of the bridge.
• The design impact force for collision may be at least 1000 kN

acting at a height of 1 m above the HFL.
• Energy absorbing devices adjacent to the piers may be

provided if large ships are expected.
• Fenders and sacrificial caissons may be used when smaller

barges negotiate the navigable waters.
Bridge Engineering
Vehicle Collision Loads
• Bridge piers built in the vicinity of carriageway supporting the

superstructure are likely to suffer damage due to collision of
vehicles. In such cases, the piers and their foundations should
be designed to withstand the collision loads.
• The collision load may be taken as 1000 kN when acting parallel

to the carriageway and 500 kN when acting normal to the
carriageway, the point of application being 0.75 m to 1.5 m
above the carriageway.
• When the substructure is protected by a suitable fencing

system, the collision load may be taken as half the above with
the point of application being 1.5 m above the carriageway level.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Temperature Effect
• Daily and seasonal variations in temperature occur causing

material to shorten with a fall in temperature and lengthen with
a rise in temperature. These variations have two components:
a) a uniform surcharge over the entire bridge deck and
b) a temperature gradient caused by the difference in the
temperatures at the top and the bottom of the deck.
• The probable rise and fall in temperature can be determined

from meteorological records for the bridge site.
• The coefficient of expansion shall be taken as 11.7×10-6/°C for

steel and RC structures and 10.8×10-6/°C for plain concrete
structures.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
Bridge Engineering
Deformation Stress
• Deformation stresses are generally considered for steel bridges

only.
• A deformation stress is defined as the bending stress in any
member of an open-web girder caused by the vertical deflection
of the girder combined with the rigidity of the joints.
• The design, manufacture and erection of steel bridges should

be so arranged as to keep the deformation stresses to a
minimum.
• If detailed computations are provided, the deformation stress

should be assumed to be not less than 16% of the dead and live
load stresses.
Bridge Engineering
Erection Stress
• The stresses that are likely to be induced in members during

erection should be considered in design.
• It is possible that the erection stresses may be different from
those which the member will be subjected to in actual service.
Bridge Engineering
Secondary Stress
• In steel structures, secondary stresses are caused due to

eccentricity of connections, floor beam loads applied at
intermediate points in a panel, cross girders being connected
away from panel points, lateral wind loads on the end posts of
thorough girders and movement of supports.
• Secondary stresses are brought into play in reinforced concrete

structures due to movement of supports or deformations in the
geometrical shape of the structure or its member, resulting from
causes such as rigidity of end connections or loads applied at
intermediate points of trusses or restrictive shrinkage of
concrete floor beams.
Bridge Engineering
Secondary Stress
• For reinforced concrete members, the shrinkage coefficient for

design purposes may be taken as 0.0002.
• All bridges should be designed and constructed in such a
manner that the secondary stresses are reduced to a minimum
and these stresses should be allowed for in the design.
Bridge Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Lecture 05: Standard Specifications for Rail Bridges
 Live Load
 Wind and Earthquake Loading
 Forces due to Curvature and Eccentricity of Track
 Temperature Effect
 Frictional Resistance, Longitudinal and Racking Forces
 Earth Pressure
 Erection Forces and Derailment Loads
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• There are about 116000 bridges of all types and spans
constructed by Indian Railways, making an average of two
bridges per km route. Of them, nearly 20% are girder bridges,
19% are arch bridges and 25% are slab culverts.
• Indian Railway Standards (IRS) issued by Ministry of Railways,

Government of India provide the guidelines on Railway bridge
loading, analysis and design to be adopted in India.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Railways tracks are classified based on importance of traffic
as main and branch lines. Three types of gauges are used in
Indian Railways.
a) Broad Gauge (BG): 1676 mm
b) Metre Gauge (MG): 1000 mm
c) Narrow Gauge (NG): 762 mm
• Indian Railways have adopted an uni-gauge policy with the

broad gauge as the standard gauge throughout the country.
Consequently, many important old lines are being converted
into broad gauges.
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Loads
IRS Bridge Rules suggests that the following loads are required to
be considered in design of bridges.
a) Dead and Live Loads

b) Dynamic Effects
c) Forces due to Curvature and Eccentricity of Track
d) Temperature
e) Frictional Resistance, Longitudinal and Racking Forces
f) Wind and Earthquake Loads
g) Earth Pressure
h) Erection Forces and Derailment Loads
Bridge Engineering
Dead Load
Dead load is the self-weight of the structure itself coupled with the
permanent loads carried on the structure.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
• Standard Axle and Train Loads:
For railway bridges in broad gauge, metre gauge or narrow gauge,

the standard loading consists of two locomotives of specified axle
loadings and spacings plus a train of specified loading per linear
metre on both sides of the locomotives.
Keeping in mind, the uni-gauge policy, it is advantageous to

design the railway bridges for Modified B.G. Loading.
IRS Bridge Rules recommends use of equivalent uniformly

distributed load (EUDL) on each track.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load: Modified B.G. and M.G. Loading
Bridge Engineering
Live Load: Modified B.G. Loading
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
• Foot-Bridges and Footpaths on Bridges:
The live load due to pedestrian traffic is treated as uniformly

distributed over the footway. For the design of foot bridges or
footpaths on railway bridges, the live load including impact is to
be taken as 4.8 kN/m2 of the footpath area.
For the purpose of designing the main girder of the railway bridge,
the loading on the footpath may be taken as below, depending on
effective span L:
a) For L equal to or less than 7.5 m, 4.1 kN/m2
b) For L over 7.5 m but less than 30 m, an intensity reducing

uniformly from 4.1 kN/m2 for 7.5 m to 2.9 kN/m2 for 30 m
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟕−𝑩
c) For L greater than 30 m, 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑 + ×
𝑳 𝟏𝟒𝟑
Where P = Live Load in kN/m2
B = Width of the footway in m.
Kerbs are to be designed to carry a lateral load of 7.4 kN/m applied

at the top of the kerb.
If the width of kerb is less than 600 mm, no other live loads on the
kerb need to be taken into account.
When the width of the kerb is 600 mm or above, pedestrian load of

4.8 kN/m2 should also be considered.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
• Combined Rail-cum-Road Bridges:
a) Footpath: For combined rail-cum-road bridges, the pedestrian

loading for designing the footpath may be taken as 4.1 kN/m2. If
crowd loading is to be anticipated, the pedestrian loading may be
raised to 4.8 kN/m2.
b) Main girders: Where the railway and road decks are at different
levels or side by side, the main girders are to be designed for the
worst combination of live loads, with full allowance for impact on
train-loads only and no impact on roadway loads.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load
Where railway and road decks are common, the effect of roadway
and footpath loads on main girders is to be provided by a
minimum distributed load of 1.9 kN/m2 over the entire roadways
and footpaths not occupied by the train load.
c) Floor members: For floor members, carrying roadway and

railway loads simultaneously, should be designed for maximum
effect, including impact, imposed by either load separately or
together.
If road and railway are both on the same alignment, the floor
members should be designed for the maximum effect of either
load.
Bridge Engineering
Live Load: Coefficient of Dynamic Augment
The augmentation in load due to dynamic effects are considered
by adding a load equivalent to a Coefficient of Dynamic Augment
(CDA) multiplied by the live load giving the maximum stress in the
member under consideration. CDA, applicable for speeds up to
160 km/hr in BG and 100 km/hr in MG, can be computed as follows.
a) Steel Bridges on BG and MG:
For single track spans: CDA = 0.15 + 8/ (6 + L) < 1.0 where L is
1) Loaded span length in metres for the position of the train

giving maximum stress in the member under consideration.
2) 1.5 times the cross-girder spacing for stringers (rail bearers)
3) 2.5 times the cross girder spacing in case of cross girders
Bridge Engineering
For main girders of double track spans with 2 girders, CDA as
calculated is multiplied by 0.72 with a maximum value of 0.72.
For intermediate girders of multiple track spans, CDA as

calculated is multiplied by 0.6 with a maximum value of 0.6.
For cross girders carrying two or more tracks, CDA as calculated

is multiplied by a factor of 0.72 with a maximum value of 0.72.
b) Steel Bridges on NG:

CDA = 91.5/ (91.5 + L)
Bridge Engineering
c) Railway pipe culverts, arch bridges, concrete slabs and girders
of all gauges:
1) When the depth of fill d is less than 900 mm,
CDA = 0.5 × (2 – d/0.9) × [0.15 + 8/ (6 + L)]
2) When the depth of fill is 900 mm, CDA = 0.5 × [0.15 + 8/ (6 + L)]
3) When the depth of fill exceeds 900 mm, CDA should be
uniformly decreased to zero within the next 3 m of the fill.
Here, fill is the distance from the underside of the sleeper to the
crown of an arch or the top pf a slab or pipe.
d) Foot bridges:
No impact allowance is to be made.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load
Wind is air in motion with respect to earth surface. The basic wind
pressure is to be obtained from the meteorological records.
No live load on the bridge need to be considered when basic wind

pressure at deck level exceeds the following limits:
Broad Gauge bridges 1.5 kN/m2
Metre Gauge and Narrow Gauge bridges 1.0 kN/m2
Foot-bridges 0.75 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load: Basic Wind Pressure
Basic wind pressure is applied to the exposed area as below.
a) For unloaded spans:

1.5 times the horizontal projected area of the spans for decks other
than plate girders. For plate girders, the area of the windward
girder plus a fraction of the area of the leeward girder.
Spacing of leeward girder Fraction of Area of leeward girder
Less than half its depth 0
Half depth to full depth 0.25

Full depth to 1.5 depth 0.50
1.5 depth to 2.0 depth 1.00
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load: Basic Wind Pressure
b) For loaded spans:
The area for the unloaded portion, plus the area of the
windward girder above and below the moving load plus the
horizontal projected area of the moving load.
For rail bridges, height of the moving load is the distance between
the top of the highest stack for which the bridge is designed and
the rail level, less than 600 mm. In case of foot-bridges, height of
the moving load is taken as 2 m throughout the span.
The wind pressure effect is considered as a horizontal force acting

in such a direction that the resultant stresses in the member under
consideration are the maximum.
Bridge Engineering
Wind Load: Wind Pressure
The following effects of wind pressure are to be considered:
(i) Lateral effect on the top chords and wind bracing considered
as a horizontal girder.
(ii) The same effect on the bottom chords.
(iii) The vertical loads on the main girders due to the overturning
effect of the wind on the span and on the live load.
(iv) Bending and direct stresses on the members transmitting the

wind load from the top to the bottom chords or vice versa.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load: Seismic Zone Map of India
For determining seismic forces, India is divided into four seismic

zones.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load
The horizontal seismic force Feq may be computed as follows.
𝑭𝒆𝒒 = 𝑨𝒉 𝑾 Where
𝑾 = Weight of mass under consideration ignoring buoyancy effect.

𝒁/𝟐 𝑺𝒂 /𝒈
𝑨𝒉 = Horizontal seismic coefficient =
𝑹Τ𝑰
𝒁 = Zone factor taken as 0.36, 0.24, 0.16 and 0.10 for Zones V, IV, III,
and II, respectively.
𝑰 = Importance factor
𝑹 = Response reduction factor
𝑺𝒂 /𝒈 = Average response acceleration coefficient for 5% damping
depending on T
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load: Importance Factor
Bridges are designed to resist design basis earthquake (DBE)

level, or other higher or lower magnitude of forces, depending on
the consequences of their partial or complete non-availability, due
to damage or failure from seismic event.
The level of design force is obtained by multiplying (Z/2) by factor

'I’; which represents seismic importance of the structure.
Combination of factors are considered in assessing the

consequences of failure.
Bridge Engineering
Importance factor depends upon the following:
a) Extent of disturbance to traffic and possibility of providing

temporary diversion;
b) Availability of alternative routes;
c) Cost of repairs and time involved, which depend on the extent of

damages, minor or major;
d) Cost of replacement, and time involved in reconstruction in

case of failure; and
e) Indirect economic loss due to its partial or full non-availability.
Bridge Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Load: Response Reduction Factor
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Forces due to Curvature and Eccentricity of Track
Where a bridge is located on a horizontal curve, the effects of

centrifugal forces of the moving loads, considering all tracks to be
occupied, given by
𝑾𝑽𝟐
𝑪=
𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 𝑹
Where C = Centrifugal force in kN per m span.
W = Equivalent distributed live load in kN/m.
V = Maximum speed in km per hour
R = Radius of curvature in metres.
The centrifugal force is assumed to act at a height of 1830 mm for

Broad Gauge and 1450 mm for Metre Gauge above rail.
Bridge Engineering
Forces due to Curvature and Eccentricity of Track
Design should consider both the horizontal force and the resulting
overturning moment.
Also, the extra loads on one girder due to the additional reaction
on one rail and to the lateral displacement of the track should be
considered under two different conditions.
a) Live load running at maximum speed
b) Live load standing with half normal dynamic augment
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Temperature Effect
• Daily and seasonal variations in temperature occur causing

material to shorten with a fall in temperature and lengthen with
a rise in temperature.
• The probable rise and fall in temperature can be determined
from meteorological records for the bridge site.
• When any portion of the structure is not free to expand or
contract under temperature variation, allowance should be
made for stresses arising from this condition.
• The coefficient of expansion shall be taken as 11.7×10-6/°C for
steel and RC structures and 10.8×10-6/°C for plain concrete
structures.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Frictional Resistance
Frictional resistance of expansion bearings has to be taken into

account.
The coefficients of friction are assumed as below:
• For roller bearings – 0.03
• For sliding bearings of steel on steel or cast iron – 0.25
• For sliding bearings of steel on ferro-asbestos – 0.20
• For sliding bearings of steel on copper alloy – 0.15
• For sliding bearings of Elastomeric type – 0.10
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces
Longitudinal forces are caused due to the following causes:
(a) The tractive effort of the driving wheels of the locomotives
(b) The braking force due to application of the brakes to all

braked vehicles
(c) Resistance to the movement of bearings due to change in

temperature.
These forces are considered as acting horizontally through the

knuckle pins, or through the girder seat where the girders have
sliding bearings.
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces
For spans supported on sliding bearings, the horizontal loads

shall be considered as being divided equally between the two
ends.
In case of spans with roller bearings at one end, the horizontal

force shall be considered to act through the fixed end.
For railway bridges, the longitudinal force due to tractive effort or

braking force an be obtained for the loaded length L.
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces
The loaded length L can be considered as:
(a) The length of one span, when considering the effect of the
longitudinal loads on the girders, stability of abutments and piers
under the condition of loaded span, or when piers carry one fixed
and one roller bearing.
(b) The length of two spans, when considering the stability of

piers carrying fixed or sliding bearings for the condition of both
spans loaded.
Bridge Engineering
Longitudinal Forces
(c) For determining the value of tractive effort, loaded length L

should not be taken to exceed 29 m for BG and 27 m for MG.
(d) Where the structure carries more than one track, the
longitudinal loads shall be considered to act simultaneously
on all tracks. For the maximum effect on any girder with more
than two tracks, a suitable reduction may be made on the
loads for the additional tracks beyond two.
Bridge Engineering
Racking Forces
Racking force is a lateral force produced due to the lateral

movement of rolling stocks in railway bridges.
Lateral bracings of the loaded deck of railway spans should be

designed to resist, in addition to the wind and centrifugal forces, a
lateral load due to racking forces of 5.9 kN/m treated as a moving
load. This lateral load need not be considered for computing the
stresses in chords or flanges of main members.
For spans up to 20 m, it is not necessary to calculate wind

stresses, provided bracings are designed for a lateral load of 8.8
kN/m treated as moving load in addition to the centrifugal load, if
any.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
The horizontal earth pressure P acting on the abutment and the

location of its application above any horizontal section
considered can be obtained from the following equations.
𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒘𝒉 𝒉 + 𝟐𝒉𝒔
𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
𝟏 𝒉+𝟑𝒉𝒔
𝒚= 𝒉 where
𝟑 𝒉+𝟐𝒉𝒔
w = weight of the fill in kN/m2

h = height of fill in m up to formation level above the horizontal
section considered
hs = equivalent height of surcharge in m due to dead and live
loads
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
𝛟 = angle of repose of the fill

y = height in m above section at which P acts.
The surcharge due to live loads may be assumed to extend up to
the front face of the ballast wall, and equal to the loads placed at
the formation level as in the following table.
Width of uniform
Surcharge load
Gauge Length distribution at formation
kN/m
level in m
Broad Gauge 134 3.0
Metre Gauge 96 2.1
Narrow Gauge 83 1.8
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
Dispersion of the surcharge load below the formation level may

be taken at a slope of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical; and for design of
wing and return walls, it may be taken as 1 horizontal to 1 vertical.
In case of return walls, the horizontal earth pressure is computed

as sum of two parts P1 due to earth fill and P2 due to surcharge.
𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒘𝒉𝟐 .
𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
𝑺.𝒉′ 𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
𝑷𝟐 =
𝑩+𝟐𝑫 𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛟
P1 acts at a height of h/3 above the section considered and P2 acts

at a height of h/2 above the section considered.
Bridge Engineering
Earth Pressure
where P1 = pressure due to earth fill
P2 = pressure due to surcharge
B= Length of sleeper, 2.75 m for BG and 1.83 m for MG
S= surcharge load
D= depth from bottom of sleeper to a point at which a

45° line from the end of the sleeper cuts a vertical through
the rear toe at the section considered
h′ = height above the section considered, up to a point

where the dispersion line of surcharge load meets the
vertical through the rear toe.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Live Load
 Earth Pressure
Bridge Engineering
Erection Load and Derailment Load
• The forces which may act temporarily during erection should be

considered. It is permissible to allow for stresses during
erection different from those which the member will be
subjected to during actual working.
• Derailment of rolling stock is defined as a wheel or set of

wheels leaving their due place from the rail top surface.
• A derailment may be minor or major in nature i.e. just one

empty wagon may derail near a station limit not affecting traffic
considerably or a good number of loaded wagons may derail,
capsize and foul other lines thus obstructing traffic even on
other lines.
Bridge Engineering
Erection Load and Derailment Load
• It may even lead to a collision if there is insufficient time gap

between the derailment occurring and movement of other trains
on other obstructed lines.
• Whenever derailment takes place due to mounting of flange on

the rail, the flange first comes in contact with the gauge face of
the rail. As a result, a certain lateral force is exerted on the
track.
• Derailment of a wheel occurs when the flange force exerted on

the rail exceeds a critical value in relation to the instantaneous
wheel load. Most of the derailments take place due to gradual
off-loading and climbing of the wheel flange on the rail table.
Bridge Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
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T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 02: Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge Decks

Lecture 06: Design of Slab Culverts
Ø General Features
Ø Flexural Strength
E L
P T
N
Ø Shear Strength
Ø Control of Cracking
Ø Control of Deflection
Ø Effective Width Method
Ø Design Example
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Effective Width Method N
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Basic Features
• A deck slab bridge is the simplest type of construction, adopted

mostly for small span bridges. They are also stated as slab
culverts.
• Slab culverts are slab decks supported on the piers/ abutments.
•
E L
The deck slab is designed to be a one-way slab to support the
P T
dead loads and live loads inclusive of impact factors.
• N
The span of reinforced concrete slab bridges should not exceed
8 m in order to make the superstructure economical.
Bridge Engineering
Basic Features
• The thickness of the slab used for RC bridge deck is

considerably higher.
• For larger spans, prestressed concrete slab decks are preferred

as the slab thickness can be reduced with prestressed concrete
being the structural material.
E L
•
P T
Construction of slab culverts is simpler due to easier
N
fabrication of formwork, reinforcement detailing and placement
of concrete.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Flexural Strength
The ultimate flexural strength of reinforced concrete sections

can be determined by assuming suitable stress block in the
concrete compression zone.
The basic principles of estimating the ultimate strength of
E L
structural elements subjected to flexure are well established.
P T
N
Most of the codes have specified idealized stress block
parameters for concrete in the compression zone.
Bridge Engineering
Flexural Strength: Basic Assumptions
a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
b) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost

compression fiber is taken as 0.0035 in flexure regardless of
the grade of concrete.
E L
c) The relation between the compressive stress distribution and
P T
strain in concrete is assumed to be a rectangular parabola
N
which is in close agreement with the experimental results.
d) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
e) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from

representative stress-strain curve for the type of steel used.
Bridge Engineering
f) The maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at

failure shall be not less than that computed by the relation.
𝒇𝒚 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚
ε𝒔𝒖 = + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 = + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝟏.𝟏𝟓𝑬𝒔 𝑬𝒔
Where 𝒇𝒚 = Characteristic strength of steel

E L
𝑬𝒔 = Modulus of elasticity of steel
P T
N
𝒇𝒄𝒌 = Characteristic strength of concrete
𝟎.𝟔𝟕𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝟎.𝟔𝟕𝒇𝒄𝒌
Design strength of concrete = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝒇𝒄𝒌
𝜸𝒎 𝟏.𝟓
𝜸𝒎 = Partial safety factor
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Characteristic and Design Strength Curves for Concrete

in Compression
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Characteristic and Design Stress-Strain Curves

for Fe 415 Steel
Bridge Engineering
Flexural Strength: Stress Blocks
0.002
E L
P T
N
Stress Block Parameters
Bridge Engineering
Depth of parabolic portion of the stress block from the strain

diagram, using the principle of similar triangles = 0.002 × 𝒙𝒖/ 0.0035
= 4𝒙𝒖/7 = 0.57 𝒙𝒖
Depth of rectangular portion of the stress block = 𝒙𝒖− 4𝒙𝒖/7 = 3𝒙𝒖/7

= 0.43 𝒙𝒖
E L
P T
Compression force in the parabolic stress block = (2/3 × 0.45𝒇𝒄𝒌 ×
0.57𝒙𝒖× b) = 0.17𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b
N
Compression force in the rectangular stress block = (0.45𝒇𝒄𝒌 ×
0.43𝒙𝒖× b) = 0.19𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b
Where 𝒙𝒖 = Depth of Neutral Axis

𝒇𝒄𝒌 = Characteristic Compressive Strength
Bridge Engineering
𝒃 = Width of section
Total Compression Force = Sum of the compression forces from

parabolic and rectangular stress blocks = 0.17𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b +
0.19𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b = 0.36𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b
E L
T
Position of centre of compression from neutral axis = [0.17𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖
0.36𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × b = 0.58 𝒙𝒖 N P
× (3/5 × 0.57) × 𝒙𝒖 × b + 0.19𝒇𝒄𝒌 × 𝒙𝒖 × (0.43/2 + 0.57) × 𝒙𝒖 × b]/
Position of centre of compression from extreme compression

fibre = 𝒙𝒖 − 0.58 𝒙𝒖 = 0.42 𝒙𝒖
Bridge Engineering
Balanced, Under Reinforced and Over Reinforced Sections
• When the compressive strain in concrete reaches a value of

0.0035, reinforced concrete sections in flexure reach the failure.
• When the sections are reinforced in such a way that the tension
steel reaches the yield strain εy = [(0.87fy)/Es+0.002] and
E L
simultaneously the concrete strain is εc = 0.0035, then the
section is termed as Balanced section.
P T
• N
In Under reinforced sections, the tension steel reaches yield
strain at loads lower than the load at which concrete reaches the
failure strain. There will be excessive deflections and cracking
with a clear indication of impending failure, when the steel yields
earlier than concrete.
Bridge Engineering
Balanced, Under Reinforced and Over Reinforced Sections
• It is preferable to design sections as under reinforced since

failure will take place after yielding of steel with visible warnings
like excess deflections and cracking before the ultimate failure.
• In the case of over reinforced sections, concrete reaches the

maximum strain earlier than that of steel.
E L
•
P T
Over reinforced sections fail by compression failure of concrete
N
without much warning, with very few cracks and negligible
deflections.
• In practice, over reinforced concrete sections are not preferred

since they require higher reinforcement and experience sudden
catastrophic failure without any warning.
Bridge Engineering
Depth of Neutral Axis
• For under reinforced sections, the moment resistance can be

computed by using the stress diagram assumed at the limit state
of collapse.
• For a section of width b, effective depth d, Area of tension
E L
reinforcement Ast and neutral axis depth xu, for equilibrium of
forces at the limit state of collapse,
P T
Total tension T = Total compression C N
𝑨𝒔𝒕 . 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 . 𝒃. 𝒙𝒖
𝒙𝒖 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
Or, =
𝒅 𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃 𝒅
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis
• Maximum values of 𝒙𝒖/𝒅 to avoid compression failure i.e. brittle

failure is determined from the condition that the steel strain 𝝐𝒔𝒖
at failure should not be less than the value given by ∈𝒔𝒖 =
𝟎.𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚
+ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐
L
𝑬𝒔
• From proportionality of strains, we have the relation,

T E
𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒅
=
∈𝒄𝒖
∈𝒄𝒖 $∈𝒔𝒖
=
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓$∈𝒔𝒖
=
N
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 P =
𝟎.𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓$ 𝑬 $𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓
𝟎.𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓$ 𝑬
𝒔 𝒔
Here, is the limiting values of 𝒙𝒖/𝒅 to avoid compression
𝒅
failure i.e. brittle failure.
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis
𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓
= 𝟎.𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚
𝒅 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓$ 𝑬
𝒔
• Assuming Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2, the maximum limiting values

of 𝒙𝒖/𝒅 for different grades of steel can be determined.
E L
𝒇𝒚 (in MPa) Yield Strain ∈𝒔𝒖
P T𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙
N
𝒅
250 0.0031 0.53
415 0.0038 0.48
500 0.0042 0.46
Bridge Engineering
Moment of Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Sections
• For under reinforced sections, the moment resistance can be

computed by using the stress diagram assumed at the limit state
of collapse. Taking moments about the centre of compression,
𝑴𝒖 = 𝑻 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝒙𝒖
• Substituting 𝒙𝒖 =
𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
and 𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
E L
T
𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃
𝑴𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕 . [𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐× P

𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
N
𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃
]
𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕
• Simplifying and rearranging, 𝑴𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒕 . 𝒅 ×[𝟏 − ]
𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃𝒅
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑨𝒔𝒕 𝑴𝒖 𝒑 𝒇𝒚 𝒑
• Percentage of steel 𝒑 = ,
𝒃 𝒅 𝒃𝒅𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 . 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ×[𝟏 − 𝒇𝒄𝒌
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ]
Bridge Engineering
• The moment of resistance of a concrete section can also be

determined in terms of concrete strength by taking the moment
of compression force about the tension force in steel
𝑴𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃 𝒙𝒖 𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝒙𝒖
• Simplifying and rearranging, we find

E L
𝑴𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝒙𝒖
P T 𝒙𝒖
N
𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐
𝒅 𝒅
• Limiting values of Moment of resistance can be obtained by
𝒙𝒖 𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙
replacing with
𝒅 𝒅
𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑴𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 𝒃𝒅𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐
𝒅 𝒅
Bridge Engineering
• Limiting Moment of Resistance for Limiting for Different
𝒅
Grades of Steel are shown below.
𝒇𝒚 (in MPa) 𝑴𝒖,𝒎𝒂𝒙
L
𝒅
250 0.53
T E
𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃𝒅𝟐
415 0.48
NP 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃𝒅𝟐
500 0.46 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒇𝒄𝒌𝒃𝒅𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Shear Failures in Bridge Deck Slabs
• Shear failures are likely to occur near the supports of bridge

decks where maximum shear forces develop due to the vehicular
loads.
• The most common types of Shear failures are identified under

the following groups.
E L
a. Diagonal Tension
P T
b. Flexure Shear N
c. Shear Compression
d. Shear Bond
e. Shear Friction
Bridge Engineering
Shear Failures in Bridge Deck Slabs
• The ultimate shear strength of a reinforced concrete beam or

slab section depends upon several factors like percentage
reinforcement ratio, grade of concrete and depth of slab.
• Experimental studies have shown that slabs fail at loads
E L
corresponding to a nominal shear stress that is higher than that
P T
applicable for beams of usual proportions.
• N
In the case of reinforced concrete slab decks, shear resistance
being high, failure due to shear is a rare phenomenon and shear
reinforcements are not generally provided in slabs.
• If nominal shear stress exceeds the permissible values, depth of

the slab is increased to avoid use of shear reinforcements.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength in Bridge Deck Slabs
• According to the IRC bridge design code, the design shear

resistance 𝑽𝑹𝒅.𝒄 of the member without shear reinforcement is
given by the expression:
𝑽𝑹𝒅.𝒄 = [0.12K(𝟖𝟎 𝝆𝟏 𝒇𝒄𝒌)𝟎.𝟑𝟑 ]𝒃𝒘.d
E L
T
𝑨
𝝆𝟏 = 𝒔𝟏 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝒃𝒘 .𝒅
N P
Where 𝑨𝒔𝟏 = area of longitudinal reinforcement in the member
𝒃𝒘 = width of member in slabs and width of rib in beams
d = effective depth of the member
K = shear strength enhancing factor
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength in Bridge Deck Slabs
• The shear strength enhancing factor K depends on the depth of

the solid slab.
• The IS: 456-2000 specifies values of K ranging from 1 to 1.30 for

slabs of depths ranging from 300 to 150 mm respectively.
• The IRC: 112-2011 specifies an

E
empirical L equation for
determining K as follows.
P T
K=1+
𝟐𝟎𝟎 N
≤ 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
𝒅
Where d is the effective depth in mm.
Bridge Engineering
Minimum and Maximum Reinforcements in Bridge Deck Slabs
• In case of deck slabs, the effective cross-sectional area of the

longitudinal tensile reinforcement should be not less than that
required to control cracking and not less than 𝑨𝒔,𝒎𝒊𝒏 given by:
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒎
L
𝑨𝒔,𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 0.26 𝒃𝒕 𝐝 but not less than 0.0013𝒃𝒕 d
𝒇𝒚𝒌
Where 𝒃𝒕 = mean width of the tension zone in slabs

T E
N P
𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒎 = mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete
𝐝 = effective depth
• The maximum reinforcement should not be greater than 0.025

𝑨𝒄 at the sections other than laps.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Permissible Crack Widths
• The IRC: 112-2011 specifies values for the maximum permissible

width of cracks in reinforced and prestressed concrete bridge
decks depending on the exposure conditions.
Conditions Reinforced Concrete Prestressed Members with

of Exposure Members and
E L
Bonded Tendons
Prestressed Concrete
Members with Un-
P T
Bonded Tendons
Quasi-permanent Load
N
Frequent Load Combination
Combination (mm) (mm)
Moderate 0.3 0.2
Severe 0.3 0.2
Very Severe 0.2 0.2 and Decompression
and Extreme
Bridge Engineering
Permissible Crack Widths
(1) The condition of exposure considered applies to the most

severe exposure the surface will be subjected to in service.
(2) For moderate exposure class, crack width has an influence on

durability and this limit is set to guarantee acceptable appearance.
E L
(3) For these conditions of exposure, in addition, decompression
P T
should be checked under the quasi-permanent combination of
N
loads that include DL + SIDL + Prestress including secondary
effect + settlement + temperature effects.
(4) 0.2 applies to the parts of the member that do not have to be
checked for decompression.
Bridge Engineering
Control of Cracking
• The IRC: 112-2011 recommends a simpler procedure for control

of cracking without direct calculations.
• In this method, the code recommends the use of two tables in

which the maximum permissible stress in steel immediately after
E L
cracking is restricted to specified values for different bar
P T
diameters and bar spacings corresponding to the width of
•
cracks.
N
The maximum bar diameters and spacings for control of crack
widths of 0.3 mm and 0.2 mm for different stress levels in steel
are presented in tabular forms.
Bridge Engineering
Control of Cracking
Table 12.2 of IRC: 112-2011
Steel Service Maximum Bar Size (mm)

Stress (MPa) Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
L
160 32 25
200 25
T 16E
240 16
N P 12
280 12 ─
320 10 ─
Bridge Engineering
Control of Cracking
Table 12.3 of IRC: 112-2011
Steel Service Maximum Bar Spacing (mm)

Stress (MPa) Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
L
160 300 200
200 250
T E
150
240 200
N P 100
280 150 50
320 100 ─
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Control of Deflections in Bridge Decks
• The IRC: 112-2011 specifies the limiting values of deflection

taking into account the nature of the super structure, bridge deck
furniture and functional needs of the bridge.
• In the absence other criteria, the following deflection limits under

live load may be considered:
E L
Vehicular
P T Span/800
alone
N
Vehicular and Pedestrian or Pedestrian
Span/1000
Vehicular on Cantilever Span Cantilever Span/300

Vehicular and pedestrian and pedestrian
Cantilever Span/375
only on Cantilever Arms
Bridge Engineering
Control of Deflections in Bridge Decks
• According to the IS: 456-2000 and IS: 1343-2012 code of practice

for reinforced and prestressed concrete, the final deflection due
to all loads including the effects of temperature, creep and
shrinkage is limited to a value of span/250.
•
E L
The deflection limit of span/800 according to the IRC: 112-2011
P T
seems to be very conservative resulting in larger sizes of deck
N
elements with more reinforcements affecting the overall cost of
the deck structure.
• That is why the final deflection limit due to all loads including the
effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage is taken as span/250.
Bridge Engineering
Calculation of Deflections in Bridge Decks
Computation of deflections are considered in two parts.
• Instantaneous or short term deflections due to application of

loads
L
• Long term deflections resulting from differential shrinkage and
creep due to sustained loading
T E
N P
In case of cracked members, appropriate value of cracked moment
of inertia should be used in the computations. If actual value of
cracked moment of inertia cannot be determined, the code permits
the use of 70 percent of the gross moment of inertia for
computations.
Bridge Engineering
Deflection due to Shrinkage in Bridge Decks
𝟏
Deflection due to Shrinkage acs = k L2
rcs
Where k is a constant dependent on the support conditions.
k = 0.5 for cantilever ends, 0.125 for simply supported ends,
0.086 for continuous at one end, 0.063 for fully continuous ends.
𝟏
= Shrinkage curvature = [εcsαe(S/I)]
E L
T
rcs
αe = Modular Ratio =
𝑬𝒔
𝑬𝒄
N P
𝑬𝒔 = Young’s Modulus of Steel
𝑬𝒄 = Young’s Modulus of Concrete
S = First Moment of Area of Reinforcement about Centroid of
Section
I = Second Moment of Area of the section
Bridge Engineering
εcs = Total shrinkage strain = (εcd + εca)

εcd = Drying shrinkage strain
Drying shrinkage strain develops slowly since it is a function of the
migration of the water through the pores in the hardened concrete.
E L
Development of drying shrinkage strain with time εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) ×
kh εcd, unrestrained
P T
N
Where βds(t, ts) = [(t ‒ ts)/{(t ‒ ts) + 0.04√h03}]
h0 = Notional size of cross-section = 2Ac/u
Ac = Cross-sectional area of concrete
u = Perimeter of the cross-section exposed to drying shrinkage
t = Age of concrete in days at the time considered
Bridge Engineering
ts = Age of concrete in days at the beginning of drying shrinkage,

normally at the end of curing i.e. 28 days
kh = a factor dependent on notional size h0
εcd, unrestrained = unrestrained drying shrinkage
E L
T
Table 6.7 of IRC: 112-2011 Table 6.8 of IRC: 112-2011
h0 (mm)
100
kh
1.0
fck
(MPa) N P
εcd, unrestrained (× 106)
Relative Humidity (%)
200 0.85 20 50 80
300 0.75 25 620 535 300
≥ 500 0.70 50 480 420 240

75 380 330 190
95 300 260 150
Bridge Engineering
εca = Autogenous shrinkage strain

Autogenous shrinkage strain develops during hardening of
concrete in the early days after casting and it depends on concrete
strength.
Table 6.6 of IRC: 112-2011
E L
Grade of Concrete M30 M35 M45
T
M50
P
M60 M65
Autogenous Shrinkage
Strain εca (× 106)
35 45
N
65 75 95 105
Bridge Engineering
Deflection due to Creep in Bridge Decks
Deflection due to Creep effects of sustained loading over a long

period is calculated by using the Effective Modulus of Elasticity for
Concrete using the equation below.
Ec,eff = Ecm/(1 + ø)
where
E L
P T
N
Ecm = Secant Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
Ø = Creep Coefficient for different ages of sustained loading and

atmospheric conditions
Bridge Engineering
Deflection due to Creep in Bridge Decks
Table 6.9 of IRC: 112-2011
Creep Coefficient ø
Age at Notional Size 2Ac/u (mm)
Loading 50 150 600 50 150 600
t0 (days)
Dry atmospheric conditions (RH Humid atmospheric conditions (RH
L
50%) 80%)
1 5.50 4.60 3.70 3.60
T E
3.20 2.90
7
28
5.50
3.90
4.60
3.10
3.70
2.60
N
2.60
1.90 P 2.30
1.70
2.00
1.50
90 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.20
365 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.00
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Wheel Loads on Concrete Slabs
• Wheel load is generally considered as a concentrated load on

slab. This load will get dispersed along span wise and widthwise
directions.
• Navier proposed a mathematical model for analysis of moments
L
and shear forces in steel plates subjected to concentrated
E
T
loads. However, this method is not applicable to concrete slabs.
P
•
N
Semi-empirical methods are applied for analysis of slabs
subjected to concentrated loads.
Bridge Engineering
Wheel Loads on Concrete Slabs
• Three methods available for analysis of slabs under

concentrated loads are as follows.
I. Effective Width Method

II. Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method
III. Westergaards Method
E L
•
P T
Effective Width Method is applicable to one way slabs supported
on two opposite edges.
N
• Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method is applicable for two way slabs
supported on all four edges.
• Westergaards Method being complex are rarely used for slab

deck designs.
Bridge Engineering
Effective Width Method
• Effective Width Method is applicable to one way slabs

supported on two opposite edges.
• However, for very long slabs, they are supported on all four
edges.
•
E L
This method is based on the assumption that along with the
P T
strip of the slab, immediately below the load, a certain width of
N
the slab also participate in load sharing.
• The width of the slab over which the load transfer prevails is
termed as the effective width of dispersion of slab.
• The extent of effective width depends on location of wheel load

with reference to support and dimensions of the slab.
Bridge Engineering
Effective Width Method: Single Concentrated Load
in Direction of Span
E L
P T
N
Load Dispersion on Slab
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Load Dispersion on Slab
Bridge Engineering
For a single concentrated load, the effective width may be

calculated by the equation as follows.
𝒙
𝒃𝒆 = 𝑲𝒙 𝟏 − + 𝒃𝒘
𝑳
E L
T
Where 𝒃𝒆 = Effective width of slab on which the load acts
𝑳 = Effective span
N P
𝒙 = Distance of centre of gravity of load from nearer support
𝒃𝒘 = breadth of concentration area of load, i.e. the dimension of the
tyre or track contact area over the road surface of the slab in a
direction at right angles to the span plus twice the thickness of the
wearing coat or surface finish above the structural slab.
Bridge Engineering
𝑩
𝑲 = A constant depending on the ratio 𝑳
where 𝑩 is width of the slab
Values of constant 𝑲 (Annexure B3: IRC 112: 2011)
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The effective width shall not exceed the actual width of the slab.
• In case of a load near the unsupported edge of a slab, the

effective width shall not exceed the above value nor half the
L
above value plus the distance of the load from the unsupported
E
edge.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Effective Width Method: Two or More
Concentrated Loads in Direction of Span
• When two or more concentrated loads are positioned in a line in
the direction of span, the bending moment per unit width of slab
will be calculated separately for each load according to its
appropriate effective width of slab as specified under the single
concentrated load.
E L
P T
N
• When two or more concentrated loads are positioned not in line
in the direction of span and the effective width of slab for one
load overlaps the effective width of slab for an adjacent load, the
resultant effective width for two loads equals to the sum of the
effective widths for each load minus width of overlap, provided
that the slab design is checked for two loads acting separately.
Bridge Engineering
Effective Width Method: Solid Cantilever Slab
The effective width of dispersion in the direction parallel to the

supported edge for a single concentrated load is computed from
the equation.
𝒃𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒃𝒘
L
Where 𝒃𝒆 = Effective width of slab on which the load acts
E
P T
𝒙 = Distance of centre of gravity of load from the face of the
cantilever support
N
𝒃𝒘 = breadth of concentration area of load, i.e. the dimension of the
tyre or track contact area over the road surface of the slab in a
direction parallel to the supporting edge of the cantilever plus twice
the thickness of the wearing coat or surface finish above the
structural slab.
Bridge Engineering
• The effective width should be limited to one-third the length of

the cantilever slab measured parallel to the support.
• When the concentrated load is placed near one of the two

extreme ends of the length of the cantilever slab in the direction
E L
parallel to the support, the effective width should not exceed the
T
prescribed value, nor should it exceed half the above value plus
P
N
the distance of the concentrated load from the nearer extreme
end, measured in the direction parallel to the fixed edge.
Bridge Engineering
• When two or more loads act on the cantilever slab and the
effective width of slab for one load overlaps the effective width of
the adjacent load, the resultant effective width for two loads
should be taken as the sum of the respective effective widths for
each load minus the width of the overlap.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Effective Width Method: Dispersion along Span
The effective length of slab in the direction of the span is computed

as the sum of the tyre contact area over the wearing surface of the
slab in the direction of the slab and twice the overall depth of the
slab inclusive of the thickness of the wearing surface.
𝒗 = 𝒙 + 𝟐× 𝑫 + 𝑯
E L
P T
Where 𝒗 = Effective length of dispersion along the slab
N
𝒙 = Wheel load contact area along the span
𝑫 = Depth of the wearing coat
𝑯 = Depth of the slab
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Strength
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example: Problem Statement
Design a Simply Supported RC Slab Culvert for a National Highway
crossing for IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle Loading.
Carriageway Width: Two lane (7.5 m wide);

Footpath: 1 m on either side;
Clear Span: 6 m;
E L
Wearing Coat: 80 mm;
P T
Width of Bearing: 400 mm; N
Materials: M25 Grade Concrete and Fe 415 Grade HYSD Bars
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle Loading
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example: Solution
1. Given Data:
Clear Span = 6 m; Width of Bearing = 400 mm
M25 Grade Concrete and Fe 415 Grade HYSD Bars
E L
T
2. Material Properties:
Concrete: fck = 25 N/mm2, Ec = 25 GPa
NP
Steel: fyk = 415 N/mm2, Es = 200 GPa
3. Depth of Slab and Effective Span:

Based on limit state of serviceability considerations of limiting
deflections, ratio of Span/ Depth (L/d) = 12-15
Bridge Engineering
For L/d = 15, d = (span/15) = (6000/15) = 400 mm
For L/d = 12, d = (span/12) = (6000/12) = 500 mm
For highway solid slab bridge deck, thickness of slab is assumed

as 80mm/ metre of span.
Depth of slab = 80 × 6 = 480 mm
E L
P T
Overall depth of slab can be adopted as 500 mm.
N
Assuming moderate exposure conditions, clear cover = 40 mm
Using 20 mm diameter HYSD bars with clear cover of 40 mm,
Effective Depth = 500 ‒ (40 + 10) = 450 mm
Width of bearing = 400 mm
Bridge Engineering
Effective Span is least of
(a) Clear Span + Effective Depth = (6 + 0.45) = 6.45 m
(b) Centre to Centre Distance of Bearings = (6 + 0.4) = 6.4 m
Hence, Effective Span = 6.4 m
E L
mm mm
P T mm
N
mm
Cross-Section of Deck Slab
Bridge Engineering
4. Dead Load Bending Moments:
Self-Weight of RC Slab = (24 × 0.5) = 12 kN/m2
Self-Weight of Wearing Coat = (22 × 0.08) = 1.76 kN/m2
Total Dead Load = (12 + 1.76) = 13.76 kN/m2
E L
Bending Moment due to Dead Load = 13.76 × 6.42/8 = 70.45 kN-m
P T
5. Live Load Bending Moments:
N
For IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicles, Impact Factor is 25% of the
span for up to 5 m span decreasing linearly to 10% for span of 9 m.
Therefore, for 6.4 m span, Impact Factor = [25 ‒ (15/4) × (6.4 ‒ 5)] =
19.75%
Bridge Engineering
Tracked Vehicle is placed symmetrically on the span.
Effective Length of Load = 3.6 + 2 × (0.08 + 0.5) = 4.76 m
mm
E L
T
mm
mm
N P
Position of Load for Maximum Bending Moment
Effective Width of Slab perpendicular to Span be = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw

bw = Wheel Contact Dimension in a direction perpendicular to Span
of Slab plus 2 times of the thickness of the wearing coat = 0.85 + 2 ×
0.08 = 1.01 m
Bridge Engineering
x = 3.2 m, L = 6.4 m, B = 9.5 m and B/L = 1.48

For B/L = 1.48, K = 2.84
be = 2.84 × 3.2 × (1 ‒ 3.2/6.4) + 1.01 = 5.56 m
The tracked vehicle is placed close to the kerb with the required
minimum clearance of 1200 mm.
E L
mm mm mm mm
P
mmT
N
mm
mm mm mm
mm
Net Effective Width of Dispersion for IRC Class AA Loading
Bridge Engineering
Net Effective Width of Dispersion = (2.625 + 2.05 + 5.56/2) = 7.455 m

Total Load of two tracks including impact factor = 2 × 350 × 1.1975 =
838.25 kN
Average Intensity of Load = 838.25/ (4.76 × 7.455) = 23.622 kN/m2
E L
Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load is given by Mmax =
P T
(23.622 × 4.76 × 6.4/4) ‒ (23.622 × 4.762/ 8) = 113 kN-m
N
Total Bending Moment M = (MDead + MLive) = (70.45 + 113) = 183.45
kN-m
Total Design Ultimate Bending Moment Mu = (1.35 × MDead + 1.5 ×
MLive) = (1.35 × 70.45 + 1.5 × 113) = 264.61 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
6. Shear Forces due to Dead Load and Live Load

Shear Force from Dead Load = 13.76 × 6.4/2 = 44.03 kN
For Maximum Shear Force at Support, IRC Class AA Tracked
Vehicle is arranged as follows.
mm
E L
mm
P T
mm
N
Position for IRC Class AA Loading for Maximum Shear
Effective Width of Dispersion be = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw
bw = 0.85 + 2 × 0.08 = 1.01 m
Bridge Engineering
x = 2.38 m, L = 6.4 m, B = 9.5 m and B/L = 1.48

For B/L = 1.48, K = 2.84
be = 2.84 × 2.38 × (1 ‒ 2.38/6.4) + 1.01 = 5.256 m
mm mm mm mm mm
E L
P T mm
mm mm N (5256/2) mm
7303 mm

Bridge Engineering

Maximum Shear Force = 24.114 × 4.76 × (6.4 ‒ 2.38)/ 6.4 = 72.10 kN
Total Shear Force V = (VDead + VLive) = (44.03 + 72.10) = 116.13 kN
Total Design Ultimate Shear Force Vu = (1.35 × VDead + 1.5 × VLive) =
(1.35 × 44.03 + 1.5 × 72.10) = 167.59 kN
E L
7. Design of Slab:
P T
N
Using M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars, Limiting moment
of resistance for singly reinforced sections can be expressed as:
Mu,lim = 0.138 × fckbd2
Bridge Engineering
Effective Depth of Slab required, dreqd = √(Mu/0.138 fckb) = √(264.61 ×

106)/(0.138 × 25 × 1000) = 276.94 mm ≈ 277 mm
Since Effective Depth of Slab provided d = 450 mm > 277 mm, the
section is under-reinforced.
L
The area of reinforcement required to resist the ultimate bending
E
T
moment can be computed using the following relation.
P
Mu = 0.87fy Ast [d ‒ (fy Ast / fckb)]
N
where area of tension steel is given by Ast
264.61 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [450 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 162472.5 × Ast + 264.61 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1740.3 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Using 20 mm diameter bars as main reinforcement, the spacing is

given by: S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 314/ 1740.3) = 180.43 mm
20 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided as main reinforcement
at a spacing of 150 mm.
L
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 314/ 150) = 2093.33 mm2
E
P T
The distribution reinforcement should be designed to resist the
transverse moment.
N
Transverse Moment = (0.2 × Multimate Dead + 0.3 × Multimate Live) = (0.2 ×
1.35 × MDead + 0.3 × 1.5 × MLive) = (0.2 × 1.35 × 70.45 + 0.3 × 1.5 × 113)
= 69.87 kN-m
Bridge Engineering

69.87 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [450 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 162472.5 × Ast + 69.87 × 106 = 0
Ast = 437.08 mm2
E L
P T
Using 12 mm diameter bars as distribution reinforcement, the
N
spacing S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 113/ 437.08) = 258.53 mm
12 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided as distribution
reinforcement at a spacing of 200 mm.
Bridge Engineering
8. Check for Ultimate Flexural Strength:

Ultimate Bending Moment of Deck Slab Mu = 0.87fyAst [d ‒
(fyAst/fckb)] = 0.87 × 415 × 2093.33 × [450 ‒ 415 × 2093.33/(25 × 1000)]
= 313845165 N-mm = 313.84 kN-m > 264.61 kN-m (Hence, safe)
9. Check for Ultimate Shear Strength:

E L
P T
Ultimate Shear Strength of Deck Slab VRd,c = [0.12K (80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd
N
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/450) = 1.67
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 2093.33/(1000 × 450) = 0.0046
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd = [0.12 × 1.67 × (80 × 0.0046 × 25)0.33] ×
1000 × 450 = 187569 N = 187.57 kN > 167.59 kN (Hence, safe)
Bridge Engineering
10. Limit State of Cracking:

IRC 112: 2011 prescribes a permissible crack width of 0.3 mm in
reinforced concrete members under moderate exposure condition.
Tables 12.2 and 12.3 of IRC: 112-2011 outlines the maximum bar size
and maximum spacing for permissible crack width and service
E L
stress in steel.
Table 12.2 of IRC: 112-2011
P T
Table 12.3 of IRC: 112-2011
Service
Stress (MPa)
Maximum Bar Size (mm)
Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
N
Service
Stress (MPa)
Maximum Bar Spacing (mm)
Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280 150 50
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
Bridge Engineering
Service Load Bending Moment M = 183.45 kN-m

The stress in steel at working load σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast]
Here x is Neutral Axis Depth.
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x)
500x2 = (200/25) × 2093.33 × (450 ‒ x)
E L
500x2 + 16746.64x ‒ 7535988 = 0
P T
x = 107.16 mm N
σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 183450000/[(450 ‒ 107.16/3) × 2093.33] =
211.54 MPa
Bridge Engineering
For stress in steel 211.54 MPa and permissible crack width of 0.3
mm, maximum bar diameter and maximum bar spacing given by
IRC:112-2011 are 22 mm and 235 mm.
The slab is reinforced with 20 mm diameter bars at 150 mm spacing.
L
Hence, the bar size and the spacing are within the safe limits for
E
control of cracking.
P T
11. Limit State of Deflection:
N
𝟏
a) Deflection due to Shrinkage acs = k L2
rcs
k = 0.125 for simply supported ends,
Bridge Engineering
𝟏
rcs
𝑬𝒔
𝑬𝒄
L
αe =
𝑬𝒔
= 200/25 = 8
T E
P
𝑬𝒄
N
Section = 2093.33 × (250 – 40 – 20/2) = 418666 mm3
I = Second Moment of Area of the section = (1000 × 5003/12) = 10.42
× 109 mm4
S/I = 40.18 × 10‒6 /mm
Bridge Engineering
εcs = Total shrinkage strain = (εcd + εca) where

Development of drying shrinkage strain with time εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) kh
εcd, unrestrained
E L
P
Where βds(t, ts) = [(t ‒ ts)/{(t ‒ ts) + 0.04√h03}]T
h0 = Notional size of cross-section = 2Ac/u N
Ac = Cross-sectional area of concrete = 1000 × 500 = 500000 mm2
u = Perimeter of the cross-section exposed to drying shrinkage =
2000 mm
h0 = 2Ac/u = 2 × 500000/ 2000 = 500 mm
Bridge Engineering
t = Age of concrete in days at the time considered = 365 days

βds(t, ts) = [(t ‒ ts)/{(t ‒ ts) + 0.04√h03}] = [(365 ‒ 28)/{(365 ‒ 28) +
0.04√5003}] = 0.43
E L
T
εcd, unrestrained = 535 × 10‒6 for fck = 25 MPa and Relative Humidity 50%
P
N
Table 6.8 of IRC: 112-2011
kh = 0.70 for h0 = 500 mm
fck
Table 6.7 of IRC: 112-2011 Relative Humidity (%)
(MPa)
h0 (mm) kh 20 50 80
100 1.0 25 620 535 300
200 0.85 50 480 420 240
300 0.75 75 380 330 190
≥ 500 0.70 95 300 260 150
Bridge Engineering
εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) kh εcd, unrestrained = 0.43 × 0.70 × 535 × 10‒6 = 161.03 ×
10‒6
εca = 25 × 10‒6 for M25 Concrete
Table 6.6 of IRC: 112-2011
Grade of Concrete M30 M35 M45
E L
M50 M60 M65
Autogenous Shrinkage Strain εca (× 106) 35 45
P T65 75 95 105
N
Total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca = 161.03 × 10‒6 + 25 × 10‒6 =
186.03 × 10‒6
𝟏
Shrinkage curvature = [εcsαe(S/I)] = 186.03 × 10‒6 × 8 × 40.18 × 10‒6
rcs
= 59797.48 × 10‒12
Bridge Engineering
𝟏
Deflection due to shrinkage acs = k L2 = 0.125 × 59797.48 × 10‒12 ×
rcs
64002 = 0.306 mm
b) Long term Deflection due to Sustained (Dead) Loads ad =
L
5wdL4/384Ec,eff Ieff
Total Dead Load wd = 13.76 kN/m = 13.76 N/mm
T E
Effective Span L = 6.4 m = 6400 mm
N P
Effective Moment of Inertia Ieff = 0.7 I = 7.28 × 109 mm4
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete Ec = 25 kN/mm2 = 25000 N/mm2
Effective Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete Ec,eff = Ec/(1 + ø)
Where ø is Creep Coefficient
Bridge Engineering
Table 6.9 of IRC: 112-2011
Age at
Loading Notional Size 2Ac/u (mm)
t0 50 150 600 50 150 600
(days)
Dry atmospheric conditions (RH 50%) Humid atmospheric conditions (RH 80%)
1 5.50 4.60 3.70 3.60 3.20 2.90
7 5.50 4.60 3.70 2.60
E L
2.30 2.00
28 3.90 3.10 2.60 1.90
P T 1.70 1.50
N
90 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.20
365 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.00
For relative humidity 50%, Notional Size 2Ac/u = 500 mm and Age at
loading = 28 days, Creep Coefficient ø = 2.71 by linear interpolation.
Ec,eff = Ec/(1 + ø) = (25000/3.71) = 6738.54 N/mm2
Bridge Engineering
Maximum long term deflection due to dead load ad =

5wdL4/384Ec,effIeff = (5 × 13.76 × 64004) / (384 × 6738.54 × 7.28 × 109) =
6.127 mm
c) Deflection due to Live Loads al = 5wlL4/384EcIeff

Total Live Load wl = 23.622 kN/m2
E L
P T
N
Effective Moment of Inertia Ieff = 7.28 × 109 mm4
Maximum deflection due to live load al = 5wlL4/384EcIeff = (5 × 23.622
× 64004) / (384 × 25000 × 7.28 × 109) = 2.835 mm < Span/800 =
(6400/800) = 8 mm
Bridge Engineering
Total deflection = acs + ad + al = 0.306 + 6.127 + 2.835 = 9.268 mm <

Span/250 = (6400/250) = 25.6 mm
Hence the serviceability limit state of deflection is found within the
limits specified by IRC: 112 – 2011.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example: Reinforcement Detailing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v N. Krishna Raju, Design of Bridges, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
L
v D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing
E
T
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
N P
v S. Ponnuswamy, Bridge Engineering, McGraw Hill Education.
v T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
v W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group.
v G. Parke and N. Hewson, ICE manual of Bridge Engineering, Thomas
Telford Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 07: Design of T-Beam and Slab Bridge
Ø General Features
Ø Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method

E L
P T
N
Ø Load Distribution
Ø Courbon’s Method
Ø Guyon-Massonnet Method
Ø Hendry-Jaegar Method
Ø Design Example
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Hendry-Jaegar Method N
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• A typical T-beam and slab bridge deck comprises the

longitudinal girders with an integral deck slab between the T-
beams and cross girders to provide lateral rigidity to the bridge
deck.
•
E L
Longitudinal girders are generally spaced at 2-3 m intervals
T
while cross girders are placed at 4-5 m intervals.
P
• N
Reinforced concrete T-beam and slab bridges are ideally suited
for spans in the range of 10-25 m.
• For larger spans, prestressed concrete T-beam and slab bridges

are preferred from the perspective of economy.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Classifications
• Girder and Slab Type: Beams and slabs are cast monolithically
without any cross girders. Deck slab is designed as a one way
slab spanning between the girders. Decks do not possess
torsional rigidity. This configuration is no longer in use.
•
E L
Girder, Slab and Diaphragm Type: Beams and slabs are cast
P T
monolithically and diaphragms connecting the girders are
N
provided at supports and at few intermediate locations without
extending up to the deck slab. This configuration is marginally
better in load resistance due to its improved torsional rigidity in
comparison with the first one.
Bridge Engineering
• Girder, Slab and Cross Beam Type: Girders, slab and cross
beams are cast monolithically to form an integrated bridge
deck possessing superior flexural and torsional rigidity. This
configuration is the most commonly used system in highway
L
bridge decks.
T E
N P
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method
• There are three main structural components in a tee beam

bridge/ slab girder bridge.
a) Deck Slab
b) Longitudinal Girders
E L
c) Cross Girders
P T
•
N
The deck slab supported on all the sides by longitudinal and
cross girders is designed by the moment coefficients proposed
by Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method.
Bridge Engineering
For two-way slabs supported in all four sides subjected to a

symmetrically placed concentrated load, moments in two
directions can be computed using design curves developed by M.
Pigeaud.
E L
P T
N
Load Dispersion
Bridge Engineering
L = Long span length; B = Short span length

u, v = Dimensions of load spread after allowing for dispersion
through deck slab
k = Ratio of short to long span = (B/L)
M1 = Moment in the short span direction
E L
M2 = Moment in the long span direction
P T
N
m1 and m2 = Coefficients for moments along the short and long
spans
μ = Poisson’s ratio for concrete generally assumed as 0.15
W = Load from the wheel under consideration
Bridge Engineering
The bending moments are computed as

M1 = (m1 + μ m2) × W
M2 = (m2 + μ m1) × W
E L
The load dispersion may be assumed at 45° through the wearing
coat and the structural slab.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Moment Coefficients m1 and m2 for k = 0.4
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Coefficients m1 and m2 (× 100)
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Load Distribution in Slab Girder Bridge
• Design of longitudinal girders involve evaluation of the live load

distribution among the number of beams in deck. Distribution of
live loads among the longitudinal girders can be estimated by
any of the following three rational methods:
a) Courbon’s Method
E L
P T
b)
c)
Guyon-Massonnet Method
Hendry-Jaegar Method
N
Bridge Engineering
Load Distribution in Slab Girder Bridge
• By using any of the three methods i.e. Courbon’s method,

Guyon-Massonnet method and Hendry-Jaegar method, the
maximum reaction factors are determined for the intermediate
and end longitudinal girders.
•
E L
The cross beams continuous over supports are designed to
P T
resist the maximum dead load and live load moments resulting
N
from the critical positioning of live loads.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method
• When live loads are positioned near the kerb, centre of gravity
of live loads acts eccentrically with centre of gravity of the
girder system.
• Due to this eccentricity, loads shared by each girder is
E L
increased or decreased depending on the position of girders.
P T
This is calculated by Courbon’s Theory by a reaction factor
given by
N
𝑹𝒙 = ∑ 𝑾⁄𝒏 × 𝟏 + ∑ 𝑰⁄∑ 𝒅𝟐𝒙 ×𝑰 ×𝒅𝒙 ×𝒆
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method
Where
𝑹𝒙 = Reaction factor for the girder under consideration
𝑰 = Moment of Inertia of each longitudinal girder
E L
𝒅𝒙 = Distance of the girder under consideration from the central
axis of the bridge
P T
∑ 𝑾 = Total concentrated load N
𝒏 = Number of longitudinal girders
𝒆 = Eccentricity of live load with respect to axis of the bridge
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method
𝑹𝒙 = ∑ 𝑾⁄𝒏 × 𝟏 + ∑ 𝑰⁄∑ 𝒅𝟐𝒙 ×𝑰 ×𝒅𝒙 ×𝒆
E L
Clearance
b
P Tb
N
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method: Assumptions
Due to simplicity, Courbon’s method is popular among the three

methods.
However, the method is only applicable when following

conditions are satisfied.
E L
a) Ratio of span to width of deck is greater than 2 but less than
4.
P T
N
b) Longitudinal girders are interconnected by at least 5
symmetrically spaced cross girders.
c) Depth of cross girder is at least 0.75 times depth of

longitudinal girder.
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method: Numerical Example
Calculate the reaction forces shared by the girders at A, B and C

of the T-Beam Bridge using Courbon’s Method.
E L
P T
N
Transverse Position of IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle Loading
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method: 𝑹𝒙 = ∑ 𝑾⁄𝒏 × 𝟏 + ∑ 𝑰⁄∑ 𝒅𝟐𝒙 ×𝑰 ×𝒅𝒙×𝒆
Where

E L
P T
axis of the bridge N
∑ 𝑾 = Total concentrated load
Bridge Engineering
For Outer Girders A and C
∑W = 2W1, n = 3 and ∑I = 3I
dx = 2.5 m ∑dx2.I = 2I × 2.52 m2
L
Distance between inner edge of the two wheels = 1.2 m
E
P T
Distance between central axis of the two wheels = (1.2 + 2 × 0.85/
2) m = 2.05 m
N
Distance between central axis of the left wheel and left edge of
deck = (1.2 + 0.85/ 2) m = 1.625 m
Distance between central axis of the left wheel and central axis
of Girder A = (1.625 − 1.25) m = 0.375 m
Bridge Engineering
Distance between central axis of the right wheel and central axis
of bridge = (2.5 − 0.375 − 2.05) m = 0.075 m
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Reaction factors RA or RC = (2W1/3) × [1 + (3I × 2.5 × 1.1)/(2I × 2.52)]
= 1.107 W1
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
For Inner Girder B

E L
P T
∑W = 2W1, n = 3 and ∑I = 3I
dx = 0 m ∑dx 2.I = 2I × 02 m2 =0
N
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
Reaction factor RB = (2W1/3) × (1 + 0) = 2W1/3 = 0.667 W1
Bridge Engineering
For IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle, Total Wheel Load W = 700 kN
Each Wheel Load W1 = 0.5W = 350 kN
RA or RC = 1.107 W1 = 387.45 kN
RB = 0.667 W1 = 233.45 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
• This method is based on application of orthotropic plate theory

to the bridge deck system.
• This method has an advantage of using a single set of

distribution coefficients for extreme cases of no torsion and full
torsion of slabs.
E L
•
P T
The mean bending moment per girder can be expressed as
𝑴𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝑴⁄𝒏 N
Where 𝑴 = Total mean longitudinal bending moment
𝒏 = Number of girders
Bridge Engineering
The design bending moment is computed as
Design B.M. = (1.10 × K × 𝑴𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 × Impact Factor)
Where K = Distribution Coefficient whose magnitude is
L
dependent on flexural and torsional parameters.
T E
The factor 1.10 is used to compensate for the error involved in
N P
using only the first term of the Fourier series in finding the
distribution coefficients as suggested by Rowe based on his
experiments.
Bridge Engineering
Distribution Coefficient K is dependent on the flexural and

torsional parameters, expressed as:
Flexural Parameter 𝜽 = 𝒃⁄𝟐𝒂 𝒊⁄𝒋 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
Torsional Parameter 𝜶 = 𝑮 𝒊𝟎 + 𝒋𝟎 ⁄ 𝟐𝑬 𝒊𝒋
E L
Where 𝟐𝒂 = Span of the bridge
P T
N
𝟐𝒃 = Effective width of the bridge
𝒊 = Second moment of area per unit transverse width
𝒋 = Second moment of area per unit longitudinal width
𝑮 7 𝒊𝟎 = Torsional stiffness per unit width
𝑮 7 𝒋𝟎 = Torsional stiffness per unit length
Bridge Engineering
Distribution Coefficient K is calculated from the interpolation

formula 𝑲 = 𝑲𝟎 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑲𝟎 𝜶
Where 𝑲𝟎 and 𝑲𝟏 refers to Distribution Coefficients corresponding

to 𝜶 = 𝟎 and 𝜶 = 𝟏 respectively. The values of 𝑲𝟎 and 𝑲𝟏 for
ranges of 𝜽 between 0.2 to 0.8 are presented in tabular form for
E L
ready use by Sarkar et al.
P T
N
Ref pt -b -3b/4 -b/2 -b/4 0 b/4 b/2 3b/4 b
Load at
𝑲𝟎
0 0.94 0.99 0.97 1.02 1.06 1.02 0.97 0.99 0.94
b/4 0.25 0.42 0.63 0.84 1.02 1.19 1.35 1.56 1.73
b/2 -0.53 -0.15 0.25 0.63 0.97 1.35 1.72 2.10 2.49
𝛉 = 0.20 3b/4 -1.20 -0.66 -0.15 0.42 0.99 1.56 2.10 2.70 3.27
b -1.90 -1.20 -0.53 0.25 0.94 1.73 2.49 3.27 4.00
𝑲𝟏
0 0.96 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.96
b/4 0.91 0.93 0.97 0.98 1.00 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03
b/2 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.07 1.10 1.13
3b/4 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.93 0.99 1.03 1.10 1.16 1.23
b 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.03 1.13 1.23 1.35
Bridge Engineering
Ref pt -b -3b/4 -b/2 -b/4 0 b/4 b/2 3b/4 b
Load at
𝑲𝟎
0 0.86 0.95 0.97 1.05 1.10 1.05 0.97 0.95 0.86
b/4 0.20 0.40 0.63 0.87 1.05 1.22 1.36 1.53 1.68
b/2 -0.54 -0.16 0.24 0.63 0.97 1.36 1.73 2.10 2.46
𝛉 = 0.30 3b/4 -1.15 -0.63 -0.16 0.40 0.95 1.53 2.10 2.73 3.31
b -1.79 -1.15 -0.54 0.20 0.86 1.68 2.46 3.31 4.10
𝑲𝟏
0 0.94 0.97 1.00 1.02 1.05 1.02 1.00 0.97 0.94
L
b/4 0.85 0.89 0.94 0.97 1.02 1.06 1.06 1.05 1.06
E
b/2 0.77 0.82 0.89 0.94 1.00 1.06 1.13 1.17 1.21
T
3b/4 0.70 0.75 0.82 0.89 0.97 1.05 1.17 1.29 1.38
P
b 0.63 0.70 0.77 0.85 0.94 1.06 1.21 1.38 1.59
N
Ref pt -b -3b/4 -b/2 -b/4 0 b/4 b/2 3b/4 b
Load at
𝑲𝟎
0 0.71 0.90 0.99 1.11 1.2 1.11 0.99 0.90 0.71
b/4 0.12 0.36 0.64 0.91 1.11 1.29 1.40 1.47 1.56
b/2 -0.55 -0.17 0.23 0.63 0.99 1.37 1.76 2.10 2.40
𝛉 = 0.40 3b/4 -1.07 -0.58 -0.17 0.36 0.90 1.47 2.10 2.77 3.38
b -1.65 -1.07 -0.55 0.12 0.71 1.56 2.40 3.38 4.30
𝑲𝟏
0 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.08 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90
b/4 0.77 0.83 0.90 0.96 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.07
b/2 0.66 0.73 0.81 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.26 1.30
3b/4 0.58 0.65 0.73 0.83 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.41 1.55
b 0.50 0.58 0.66 0.77 0.90 1.07 1.30 1.55 1.88
Bridge Engineering
Ref pt -b -3b/4 -b/2 -b/4 0 b/4 b/2 3b/4 b
Load at
𝑲𝟎
0 0.55 0.79 1.00 1.21 1.32 1.21 1.00 0.79 0.55
b/4 0.00 0.30 0.63 0.96 1.21 1.40 1.44 1.40 1.40
b/2 -0.54 -0.17 0.22 0.63 1.00 1.40 1.80 2.08 2.30
𝛉 = 0.50 3b/4 -1.96 -0.54 -0.17 0.30 0.79 1.40 2.08 2.84 3.50
b -1.43 -0.96 -0.54 0.0 0.55 1.40 2.30 3.50 4.80
𝑲𝟏
0 0.85 0.92 1.00 1.07 1.13 1.07 1.00 0.92 0.85
L
b/4 0.68 0.76 0.86 0.96 1.07 1.16 1.15 1.12 1.09
E
b/2 0.55 0.63 0.73 0.86 1.00 1.15 1.30 1.35 1.39
T
3b/4 0.45 0.53 0.63 0.76 0.92 1.12 1.35 1.58 1.76
b 0.38 0.45 0.55 0.68 0.85 1.09 1.39 1.76 2.15
Ref pt
Load at
0
-b
0.31
-3b/4
0.66
-b/2
1.02
-b/4
𝑲𝟎
1.35 N
0
1.50
P
b/4
1.35
b/2
1.02
3b/4
0.66
b
0.31
b/4 -0.17 0.21 0.62 1.02 1.35 1.53 1.47 1.31 1.03
b/2 -0.52 -0.18 0.20 0.62 1.02 1.47 1.87 2.06 2.19
𝛉 = 0.60 3b/4 -0.80 -0.47 -0.18 0.21 0.66 1.31 2.06 2.92 3.08
b -1.05 -0.80 -0.52 -0.20 0.31 1.10 2.19 3.08 5.45
𝑲𝟏
0 0.80 0.89 1.00 1.12 1.19 1.12 1.00 0.89 0.80
b/4 0.58 0.67 0.80 0.95 1.12 1.23 1.20 1.15 1.08
b/2 0.44 0.52 0.63 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.45 1.46
3b/4 0.34 0.41 0.52 0.67 0.89 1.15 1.45 1.75 1.96
b 0.28 0.34 0.44 0.58 0.80 1.08 1.46 1.96 2.50
Bridge Engineering
Ref pt -b -3b/4 -b/2 -b/4 0 b/4 b/2 3b/4 b
Load at
𝑲𝟎
0 -0.04 0.53 1.03 1.52 1.68 1.51 1.03 0.53 -0.04
b/4 -0.37 0.11 0.00 1.06 1.51 1.70 1.55 1.21 0.67
b/2 -0.50 -0.19 0.18 0.60 1.03 1.55 1.96 2.05 2.03
𝛉 = 0.70 3b/4 -0.57 -0.40 -0.19 0.11 0.53 1.21 2.05 3.00 4.01
b -0.48 -0.57 -0.50 -0.37 -0.04 0.73 2.03 4.01 6.03
𝑲𝟏
0 0.71 0.83 0.98 1.17 1.28 1.17 0.98 0.83 0.71
L
b/4 0.50 0.59 0.74 0.94 1.17 1.33 1.27 1.15 1.04
E
b/2 0.33 0.43 0.55 0.74 0.98 1.27 1.51 1.55 1.52
T
3b/4 0.24 0.32 0.43 0.59 0.83 1.15 1.55 1.93 2.16
b 0.18 0.24 0.33 0.49 0.71 1.04 1.52 2.16 2.85
Ref pt
Load at
0
-b
-0.35
-3b/4
0.39
-b/2
1.02
-b/4
𝑲𝟎
N
0
1.66 1.88
P
b/4
1.66
b/2
1.02
3b/4
0.39
b
-0.35
b/4 -0.49 0.02 0.55 1.10 1.66 1.88 1.64 1.10 0.33
b/2 -0.48 -0.18 0.15 0.55 1.02 1.64 2.06 2.03 1.82
𝛉 = 0.80 3b/4 -0.34 -0.30 -0.18 0.02 0.39 1.10 2.03 3.10 4.02
b -0.16 -0.34 -0.48 -0.48 -0.35 0.39 1.82 4.02 7.02
𝑲𝟏
0 0.63 0.78 0.98 1.22 1.38 1.22 0.98 0.78 0.63
b/4 0.40 0.51 0.68 0.93 1.22 1.43 1.34 1.14 1.00
b/2 0.25 0.34 0.47 0.68 0.98 1.34 1.63 1.64 1.55
3b/4 0.16 0.23 0.34 0.51 0.78 1.14 1.64 2.10 2.33
b 0.12 0.16 0.25 0.40 0.63 0.98 1.55 2.33 3.20
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
• In this method, cross beams are replaced by a uniform

continuous transverse medium of equivalent stiffness.
• The load distribution in an interconnected bridge deck system

depends on 3 dimensionless parameters.
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐⁄𝝅𝟒 × 𝑳⁄𝒉 𝟑 × 𝒏 7 𝑬𝑰𝒓 ⁄𝑬𝑰

E L
P T
𝑭= 𝝅𝟐 ⁄𝟐𝒏
N
× 𝒉⁄𝑳 × 𝑮𝑱⁄𝑬𝑰𝒓
𝑪 = 𝑬𝑰𝟏 ⁄𝑬𝑰𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Where L = Span of the bridge deck
h = Spacing of longitudinal girders
n = Number of cross girders
L
EI = Flexural rigidity of one longitudinal girder
E
P T
GJ = Torsional rigidity of one longitudinal girder
N
EI1 and EI2 = Flexural rigidities of outer and inner
longitudinal girders respectively where these parameters
are different
EIr = Flexural rigidity of one cross girder
Bridge Engineering
• The first parameter A represents a function of the ratio of span to

the spacing of longitudinal girders and the ratio of transverse to
longitudinal flexural rigidity.
• The second parameter F is a measure of the ratio of spacing to
E L
the span of longitudinal girders and the ratio of torsional rigidity
P T
of longitudinal girder to flexural rigidity of cross girders. This
N
parameter is difficult to be evaluated due to uncertainties in
computations of torsional rigidity values.
• The third parameter C is the ratio of flexural rigidity of

longitudinal and cross girders.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
E L
P T
Ø Design Example
Bridge Engineering
Design the T-Beam and Slab Deck of RC T-Beam Bridge for IRC
Class AA Tracked Vehicle Loading using the following data.
Clear Width of Road way = 7.5 m
Bridge span = 16 m
Average Thickness of Wearing Coat = 80 mm
E L
S/W of Wearing Coat = 22 kN/m3
P T
M 25 Concrete; Fe 415 Steel Reinforcement , μConcrete = 0.15
S/W of Reinforced Concrete = 24 kN/m3 N

Spacing of Longitudinal Girders = 2.5 m
Spacing of Cross Girders = 4 m, Width of Girders = 300 mm
Dimensions of Kerb = 300 mm × 600 mm
Impact Factor = 1.25 for Deck Slab and 1.1 for Girders
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Wheel Load = 350 kN

Width (W) and Breadth (B) of Wheel Contact = 3600 mm × 850 mm
E L
P T
N
IRC Class AA
Tracked Vehicle
Loading
Bridge Engineering
1. Deck Slab Panel Dimensions:
Long Span Length L = 4 m, Short Span Length B = 2.5 m
Slab Thickness H = 0.2 m.
2. Dead Load Calculation:

Self-Weight of Slab = 0.2 × 24 = 4.8 kN/m2
E L
P T
Self-Weight of Wearing Coat = 0.08 × 22 = 1.76 kN/m2
Total Dead Load per area = 6.56 kN/m2 N
Total Dead Load on Slab Panel = (6.56 × 4 × 2.5) = 65.6 kN
Using Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method,
u/B = 1 and v/L = 1 as Dead Load is uniformly distributed on deck.
Bridge Engineering
For k = B/L = 2.5/4 = 0.625, m1 = 0.049 and m2 = 0.015
Moment in Short Span M1 due to Dead Load = W × (m1 + μm2)
= 65.6 × (0.049 + 0.15 × 0.015) = 3.362 kN-m
Moment in Long Span M2 due to Dead Load = W × (m2 + μm1)
= 65.6 × (0.015 + 0.15 × 0.049) = 1.466 kN-m
E L
P T
For continuous deck slab, Design Bending moment along Short
N
Span due to Dead Load = 0.8 × M1 = 2.69 kN-m
For continuous deck slab, Design Bending moment along Long
Shear Force due to Dead Load = 6.56 × (2.5 ‒ 0.3)/2 = 7.216 kN
Bridge Engineering
3. Live Load Calculation:
Wheel Load Dispersion along Short Span
u = 0.85 + 2 × 0.08 = 1.01 m
Wheel Load Dispersion along Long Span
v = 3.6 + 2 × 0.08 = 3.76 m
E L
k = B/L = 2.5/4 = 0.625
P T
N
u/B = 1.01/2.5 = 0.404; v/L = 3.76/4 = 0.94
Therefore, m1 = 0.085 and m2 = 0.024
Maximum Live Load due to IRC Class AA
Tracked Vehicle Loading = 350 kN
Bridge Engineering
Moment in Short Span M1 due to Live Load = W × (m1 + μm2)
= 350 × (0.085 + 0.15 × 0.024) = 31.01 kN-m
Moment in Long Span M2 due to Live Load = W × (m2 + μm1)
= 350 × (0.024 + 0.15 × 0.085) = 12.862 kN-m
E L
For continuous deck slab, Design Bending moment due to Live
P T
Load along Short Span (including Impact Factor) = 0.8 × M1 × 1.25 =
31.01 kN-m
N
Load along Long Span (including Impact Factor) = 0.8 × M2 × 1.25 =
12.862 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
Using Effective Width Method, Dispersion of Live Load in Direction
of Short Span = x + 2 × (D + H) = 0.85 + 2 × (0.08 + 0.2) = 1.41 m
For Maximum Shear in Deck Slab, the wheel load is placed such
that the centre of wheel is at 1.41/2 = 0.705 m distance from the
edge of the panel.
E L
Effective Span L = 2.5 ‒ 0.3 = 2.2 m
P T
Effective Breadth B = 4 ‒ 0.3 = 3.7 m N
For Span Ratio of Slab = 3.7/2.2 = 1.682, K = 2.55 for Continuous
Deck Slab.
Effective Width of Slab = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw
Bridge Engineering
of Slab plus 2 times of the thickness of the wearing coat
= 3.6 + 2 × 0.08 = 3.76 m
x = 0.705 m
E L
P T
= 2.55 × 0.705 × (1 ‒ 0.705/ 2.2) + 3.76 = 4.982 m
N
Live Load/ metre width due to 350 kN Wheel Load = 350/ 4.982 =
70.253 kN
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load (Including Impact Factor) =

70.253 × (1 ‒ 0.705/ 2.2) × 1.25 = 59.675 kN
Bridge Engineering
4. Design Moment and Shear Force:
Service Load Bending Moment in Slab from Dead Load and Live
Load in Short Span MB = 2.69 + 31.01 = 33.7 kN-m
E L
Load in Long Span ML = 1.173 + 12.862 = 14.035 kN-m
P T
Service Load Design Shear Force in Slab from Dead Load and Live
Load V = 7.216 + 59.675 = 66.891 kN N
Ultimate Design Bending Moment in Slab from Dead Load and Live
Load in Short Span Mult,B = 1.35 × 2.69 + 1.5 × 31.01 = 50.146 kN-m
Load in Long Span Mult,L = 1.35 × 1.173 + 1.5 × 12.862 = 20.876 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
Ultimate Design Shear Force in Slab from Dead Load and Live Load
Vult = 1.35 × 7.216 + 1.5 × 59.675 = 99.254 kN
5. Design of Slab:
Overall depth of slab = 200 mm.
E L
Assuming 40 mm clear cover and 16 mm diameter bars, effective
depth of slab = (200 ‒ 40 ‒ 8) = 152 mm
P T
N
of resistance along short span for singly reinforced sections can be
expressed as: Mu,lim = 0.138 × fckbd2
Effective Depth of Slab required, dreqd = √(M/0.138 fckb) = √(50.146 ×
106)/(0.138 × 25 × 1000) = 120.561 mm ≈ 121 mm
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
50.146 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [152 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 54879.6 × Ast + 50.146 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1029.408 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Therefore, 16 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided along short
span at a spacing of 150 mm.
L
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 201/ 150) = 1340 mm2
E
P T
Similarly, using M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars, Limiting
N
moment of resistance along longer span for singly reinforced
sections is 20.876 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
20.876 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [152 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 54879.6 × Ast + 20.876 × 106 = 0
Ast = 397.656 mm2
E L
given by: S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 78.54/ 397.656) = 197.507 mm
P T
Therefore, 10 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided along longer
N
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 78.54/ 150) = 523.6 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Ultimate Bending Moment of Deck Slab Mu = 0.87fy Ast [d ‒ (fy Ast /
fckb)] = 0.87 × 415 × 1340 × [152 ‒ 415 × 1340/(25 × 1000)]
= 62776861.09 N-mm = 62.777 kN-m > 50.146 kN-m (Hence, safe)

E L
P T
N
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/152) = 2.147 > 2 (Hence, taken as 2)
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 1340/(1000 × 152) = 0.009
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd = [0.12 × 2 × (80 × 0.009 × 25)0.33] × 1000
× 152 = 94687.959 N = 94.688 kN < 99.254 kN (unsafe)
Bridge Engineering
Using 16 mm diameter HYSD at a spacing of 120 mm, area of steel
provided = (1000 × 201/ 120) = 1675 mm2
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 1675/(1000 × 152) = 0.011
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd = [0.12 × 2 × (80 × 0.011 × 25)0.33] × 1000
× 152 = 101170.597 N = 101.171 kN > 99.254 kN (safe)
E L
P T
N
Tables 12.2 and 12.3 of IRC: 112-2011 outlines the maximum bar size
and maximum spacing for permissible crack width and service
stress in steel.
Bridge Engineering
Service Maximum Bar Size (mm) Service Maximum Bar Spacing (mm)
Stress (MPa) Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm Stress (MPa) Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
L
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280
T E150 50
P
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
Service Load Bending Moment M = 33.7 kN-m N

Bridge Engineering
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x)
500x2 = (200/25) × 1675 × (152 ‒ x)
500x2 + 13400x ‒ 2036800 = 0
x = 51.816 mm
E L
σs = M/[(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 33700000/[(152 ‒ 51.816/3) × 1675] = 149.333
MPa
P T
N
IRC:112-2011 are 32 mm and 300 mm.
Bridge Engineering

𝟏
a) Deflection due to Shrinkage acs = k r L2
cs
L
k = 0.063 for continuous ends,
𝟏
T E
P
rcs
αe = Modular Ratio = 𝑬𝒔
𝑬
𝒄 N
𝑬𝒔
αe = = 200/25 = 8
𝑬𝒄
Bridge Engineering

Section = 1675 × (100 – 40 – 16/2) = 87100 mm3
I = Second Moment of Area of the section = (1000 × 2003/12) = 6.67 ×
108 mm4
S/I = 130.585 × 10‒6 /mm
E L
P T
N
εcd, unrestrained
Bridge Engineering

2000 mm
h0 = 2Ac/u = 2 × 200000/ 2000 = 200 mm
E L
P T
N
βds(t, ts) = [(t ‒ ts)/{(t ‒ ts) + 0.04√h03}] = [(365 ‒ 28)/{(365 ‒ 28) +
0.04√2003}] = 0.749
Bridge Engineering
Table 6.8 of IRC: 112-2011
kh = 0.85 for h0 = 200 mm
fck
Table 6.7 of IRC: 112-2011 Relative Humidity (%)
(MPa)
h0 (mm) kh 20 50 80
100 1.0 25 620
E L 535 300
T
200 0.85 50 480 420 240
300
≥ 500
0.75
0.70
75
95
N P380
300
330
260
190
150
εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) kh εcd, unrestrained = 0.749 × 0.85 × 535 × 10‒6 = 340.608 ×
10‒6
Bridge Engineering

Table 6.6 of IRC: 112-2011
Grade of Concrete M30 M35 M45 M50 M60 M65

Autogenous Shrinkage Strain εca (× 106) 35 45 65 75 95 105
E
Total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca = 340.608 × 10‒6 + 25 × 10‒6 = L
365.608 × 10‒6
P T
Shrinkage curvature
rcs
𝟏 N
= [εcsαe(S/I)] = 365.608 × 10‒6 × 8 × 130.585 ×
10‒6 = 381943.365 × 10‒12
𝟏
Deflection due to shrinkage acs = k L2 = 0.063 × 381943.365 × 10‒12
rcs
× 25002 = 0.15 mm
Bridge Engineering

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Table 6.9 of IRC: 112-2011
Age at
t0 50 150 600 50 150 600
(days)
Dry atmospheric conditions (RH 50%) Humid atmospheric conditions (RH 80%)
L
1 5.50 4.60 3.70 3.60 3.20 2.90
E
7 5.50 4.60 3.70 2.60 2.30 2.00
28 3.90 3.10 2.60 1.90
P T 1.70 1.50
N
90 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.20
365 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.00
For relative humidity 50%, Notional Size 2Ac/u = 200 mm and Age at
loading = 28 days, Creep Coefficient ø = 3.04 by linear interpolation.
Ec,eff = Ec/(1 + ø) = (25000/3.04) = 8223.684 N/mm2
Bridge Engineering

5wdL4/384Ec,effIeff = (5 × 6.56 × 25004) / (384 × 8223.684 × 4.67 × 108) =
0.867 mm
E L
Total Live Load wl = (350 × 1.25)/(4.982 × 4.16) = 21.11 kN/m2
P T
N
Maximum deflection due to live load al = 5wlL4/384EcIeff = (5 × 21.11 ×
25004) / (384 × 25000 × 4.67 × 108) = 0.92 mm ≤ Span/800 = (2500/800)
= 3.125 mm
Bridge Engineering
Total deflection = acs + ad + al = 0.15 + 0.867 + 0.92 = 1.937 mm ≤

Span/250 = (2500/250) = 10 mm
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
10. Design of Longitudinal Girder:

Using Courbon’s Method, IRC Class AA loads are arranged for
maximum eccentricity as shown below.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Courbon’s Method: 𝑹𝒙 = ∑ 𝑾⁄𝒏 × 𝟏 + ∑ 𝑰⁄∑ 𝒅𝟐𝒙 ×𝑰 ×𝒅𝒙×𝒆
Where

E L
P T
axis of the bridge
N
∑ 𝑾 = Total concentrated load
Bridge Engineering
For Outer Girders A and C
∑W = 2W1, n = 3 and ∑I = 3I
dx = 2.5 m ∑dx2.I = 2I × 2.52 m2
L
Distance between inner edge of the two wheels = 1.2 m
E
P T
Distance between central axis of the two wheels = (1.2 + 2 × 0.85/ 2)
m = 2.05 m
N
Distance between central axis of the left wheel and left edge of deck
= (1.2 + 0.85/ 2) m = 1.625 m
Distance between central axis of the left wheel and central axis of
Girder A = (1.625 − 1.25) m = 0.375 m
Bridge Engineering
Distance between central axis of the right wheel and central axis of
bridge = (2.5 − 0.375 − 2.05) m = 0.075 m
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Reaction factors RA or RC = (2W1/3) × [1 + (3I × 2.5 × 1.1)/(2I × 2.52)]

= 1.107 W1
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
L
For Inner Girder B
∑W = 2W1, n = 3 and ∑I = 3I
T E
dx = 0 m ∑dx2.I = 2I × 02 m2 = 0 N P
e = (2.05/2 + 0.075) m = (1.025 + 0.075) m = 1.1 m
Reaction factor RB = (2W1/3) × (1 + 0) = 2W1/3 = 0.667 W1
Bridge Engineering
For IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle, Total Wheel Load W = 700 kN
Each Wheel Load W1 = 0.5W = 350 kN
RA or RC = 1.107 W1 = 1.107 × 0.5W = 0.5535 W = 387.45 kN
L
RB = 0.667 W1 = 0.667 × 0.5W = 0.3335 W = 233.45 kN
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Dead Load of Slab to Girder:

Distance of Longitudinal Girders A and
C from Deck Slab Edge = (1.25 ‒ 0.3/2)
= 1.1 m
Weight of Parapet Railing = 0.7 kN/m
E L
Weight of Wearing Coat = (0.08 × 1.1 ×
P T
22) = 1.936 kN/m
N
Weight of Deck Slab = (0.2 × 1.1 × 24) = 5.28 kN/m
Weight of Kerb = (0.5 × 0.6 × 24) = 7.20 kN/m
Total Dead Load from Corner Segment of Deck Slab = 15.116 kN/m
Bridge Engineering
Span of Intermediate Segment of Deck Slab = (7.5 ‒ 1.1 × 2) = 5.3 m

Weight of Wearing Coat = (0.08 × 5.3 × 22) = 9.328 kN/m
Weight of Deck Slab = (0.2 × 5.3 × 24) = 25.44 kN/m
Total Dead Load from Intermediate Segment of Deck Slab = 34.768
kN/m
E L
P T
Total Dead Load from Deck Slab = (2 × 15.116 + 34.768) = 65 kN/m
N
It is assumed that the Dead Load is equally shared by all Girders.
Therefore, Dead Load per Longitudinal Girder = (65/3) = 21.667 kN/m
Bridge Engineering
Dead Load in Main Girder:

Depth of girder = 1600 mm, Depth of rib = 1400 mm, Width = 300 mm
Weight of main girder = (0.3 × 1.4 × 24) = 10.08 kN/m
Assuming that the cross girder also have same cross-sectional
E L
dimensions of main girder, weight of cross girder = 10.08 kN/m
P T
Total Dead Load on girder = (21.667 + 10.08) = 31.747 kN/m
N
Reaction on Main Girder = 10.08 × (2.5/2 + 2.5/2) = 25.2 kN
Maximum Dead Load Bending Moment at centre of span = (31.747 ×
162/8) + (25.2 × 2 × 16)/4 = 1217.504 kN-m
Maximum Dead Load Shear at support = (31.747 × 16/2) + (25.2 × 3/2)
= 291.776 kN
Bridge Engineering
31.747
Dead Load on Main Girder
E L
T
Live Load in Girder
Span of Girder = 16 m
N P
Impact Factor on girder = 1.10
IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle Load is placed centrally on span.
Maximum Bending Moment for Live Load = 350 × (8 ‒ 1.8) + (700/
3.6) × 3.62/8 = 2485 kN-m.
Bridge Engineering
700 kN/ 3.6 m
16 m
8m 8m
1.8 m 1.8 m
Live Loading Diagram

+350 kN
E L
T
+ +
P
‒
N
‒
‒ 350 kN
Shear Force Diagram
+ 2485 kN-m
+ 2170 kN-m + 2170 kN-m
+
+ +
Bending Moment Diagram
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Bending Moment for Live Load in Outer Girder including

impact factor and reaction = 1.1 × 0.5535 × 2485 = 1512.992 kN-m.
Maximum Bending Moment for Live Load in Inner Girder including
impact factor and reaction = 1.1 × 0.3335 × 2485 = 911.622 kN-m.
E L
P T
N
Position of IRC Class AA Loads for Maximum Shear
Bridge Engineering
Reaction of W2 on girder B = (350 × 0.45)/2.5 = 63 kN.
Reaction of W2 on girder A = (350 × 2.05)/2.5 = 287 kN.
Total load on Girder B = (350 + 63) = 413 kN.
L
Maximum Reaction in Girder B = (413 × 14.2)/16 = 366.537 kN
E
P T
Maximum Reaction in Girder A = (287 × 14.2)/16 = 254.712 kN
N
Maximum Live Load Shear with Impact Factor in Inner Girder =
(366.537 × 1.1) = 403.191 kN
Maximum Live Load Shear with Impact Factor in Outer Girder =

(254.712 × 1.1) = 280.183 kN
Bridge Engineering
Design Shear Force and Bending Moment
Maximum Service Load Bending Moment in Inner Girder = (1217.504

+ 911.622) = 2129.126 kN-m.
Maximum Service Load Bending Moment in Outer Girder =
(1217.504 + 1512.992) = 2730.496 kN-m.
E L
P T
Maximum Service Load Shear Force in Inner Girder = (291.776 +
403.191) = 694.967 kN. N
Maximum Service Load Shear Force in Outer Girder = (291.776 +
280.183) = 571.959 kN.
Bridge Engineering
Design Shear Force and Bending Moment
Maximum Design Ultimate Bending Moment in Inner Girder = (1.35 ×

1217.504 + 1.5 × 911.622) = 3011.063 kN-m.
Maximum Design Ultimate Bending Moment in Outer Girder = (1.35
× 1217.504 + 1.5 × 1512.992) = 3913.118 kN-m.
E L
P T
Maximum Design Ultimate Shear Force in Inner Girder = (1.35 ×
N
291.776 + 1.5 × 403.191) = 998.684 kN.
Maximum Design Ultimate Shear Force in Outer Girder = (1.35 ×

291.776 + 1.5 × 280.183) = 814.172 kN.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Longitudinal Girder for Flexure:
Maximum Design Ultimate Load Bending Moment Mu = 3913.118 kN-

m.
Using 25 mm diameter bars in four rows with an effective cover of
E L
150 mm on tension side, effective depth = (1600 ‒ 150) = 1450 mm.
Parameters of the T-beam:
P T
N
bf = 2500 mm, fck = 25 MPa, fy = 415 MPa, d = 1450 mm, Df = 200 mm,
Mu = 3913.118 kN-m
xu = depth of Neutral Axis.
Bridge Engineering
If the neutral axis lies within the flange depth (xu < Df), value of xu
can be determined by using the following equation.
Mu = 0.36 × fck × bf × xu × (d ‒ 0.42xu)
Or, 3913118000 = 0.36 × 25 × 2500 × xu × (1450 ‒ 0.42xu)
E L
Or, 9450 xu2 ‒ 32625000 xu + 3913118000 = 0
P T
Or, xu = 124.427 mm < 200 mm
N
Hence, the neutral axis lies within the flange.
Bridge Engineering
Area of tensile steel can be computed from the following equation:

Mu = 0.87 × fy × Ast × d × [1 ‒ (Ast × fy)/(b × d × fck)]
Or, 3913118000 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 1450 × [1 ‒ (Ast × 415)/(2500 ×
1450 × 25)]
Or, 3913118000 = 523522.5 × Ast ‒ 2.397 Ast2
E L
Or, 2.397 Ast2 ‒ 523522.5 × Ast + 3913118000 = 0
P T
Or, Ast = 7749.565 mm2 N
16 bars of 25 mm diameter bars can be provided as main
reinforcement in 4 rows at a total reinforcement of 7853.982 mm2.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Longitudinal Girder for Shear:
Maximum Design Ultimate Load Shear Force = 998.684 kN.
As per IRC 112: 2011, the ultimate shear strength of concrete

section VRd,c = [0.12K (80 ρ1fck)0.33] bwd
E L
T
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/1450) = 1.371 < 2
P
N
ρ1 = Ast/bwd = 7853.982 /(300 × 1450) = 0.018
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bwd

= [0.12 × 1.371 × (80 × 0.018 × 25)0.33] × 300 × 1450
= 233500.483 N = 233.5 kN < 998.684 kN (unsafe)
Bridge Engineering
Hence, shear reinforcement are required to be designed to resist

the balance shear force VRd,s = (998.684 ‒ 233.5) = 765.184 kN
Using 10 mm diameter 4-legged stirrups, the spacing of stirrups is

evaluated as Sv = 0.87 × fy × Asv × z/ VRd,s
Here, lever arm z = 0.9 d for RC sections

E L
z = 0.9 d = 0.9 × 1450 = 1305 mm
P T
N
Sv = 0.87 × 415 × 4 × 78.54 × 1305/ 765184 = 193.447 mm
10 mm diameter 4-legged stirrups can be provided as shear

reinforcement at the spacing of 150 mm.
Bridge Engineering
11. Design of Cross Girder:
Self-weight of cross girder = 10.08

kN/m
Self-weight of slab and wearing

coat = 6.56 kN/m2
E L
P T
N
Since distribution of dead load is
triangular on cross girders, Dead
load from slab = (2 × 1/2 × 2.5 ×
1.25 × 6.56) = 20.5 kN
Triangular dead load
distribution on cross girders
Bridge Engineering
18.28
Therefore, uniformly distributed load on cross girder = 20.5 kN/ 2.5

m = 8.2 kN/m
E L
P T
Total dead load on cross girder = (10.08 + 8.2) = 18.28 kN/m
N
Assuming the cross girders share the loading uniformly, reaction in
each cross girder = (18.28 × 5/3) = 30.467 kN
Maximum Dead Load Shear Force = 30.467 kN
Maximum Dead Load Bending Moment = 25.394 kN-m.
Bridge Engineering
For maximum bending moment in

cross girder, live load is placed as
shown in figure.
Load on cross girder = 350 × (4 ‒ 0.9)/

4 = 271.25 kN
E L
Reaction on each longitudinal girder =
P T
2 × 271.25/ 3 = 180.833 kN N
Maximum bending moment in cross
girder due to live load = 180.833 × (2.5
‒ 2.05/2) = 180.833 × 1.475 = 266.729
kN-m.
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Bending Moment in Cross Girder due to Live Load

including Impact Factor = 1.1 × 266.729 = 293.402 kN-m.
Maximum Shear Force in Cross Girder due to Live Load = 271.25

kN
E L
Maximum Shear Force in Cross Girder due to Live Load including
P T
Impact Factor = 1.1 × 271.25 = 298.375 kN
N
Maximum Service Load Bending Moment in Cross Girder = (25.394
+ 293.402) = 318.796 kN-m.
Maximum Service Load Shear Force in Cross Girder = (30.467 +

298.375) = 328.842 kN.
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Design Ultimate Bending Moment in Cross Girder = (1.35

× 25.394 + 1.5 × 293.402) = 474.385 kN-m.
Maximum Design Ultimate Shear Force in Cross Girder = (1.35 ×
30.467 + 1.5 × 298.375) = 488.693 kN.
Design of Cross Girder for Flexure:

E L
P T
N
Maximum Design Ultimate Bending Moment Mu = 474.385 kN-m.
Using 25 mm diameter bars with an effective cover of 150 mm on
tension side, effective depth = (1600 ‒ 150) = 1450 mm.
Parameters of the T beam:
bf = 2500 mm, fck = 25 MPa, fy = 415 MPa, d = 1450 mm, Df = 200
mm, Mu = 474.385 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
xu = depth of Neutral Axis.
If the neutral axis lies within the flange depth (xu < Df), value of xu
can be determined by using the following equation.
Mu = 0.36 × fck × bf × xu × (d ‒ 0.42xu)
E L
T
Or, 474385000 = 0.36 × 25 × 2500 × xu × (1450 ‒ 0.42xu)
P
Or, 9450 xu2 ‒ 32625000 xu + 474385000 = 0
N
Or, xu = 14.6 mm < 200 mm
Hence, the neutral axis lies within the flange.
Bridge Engineering
Area of tensile steel can be computed from the following equation:
Mu = 0.87 × fy × Ast × d × [1 ‒ (Ast × fy)/(b × d × fck)]
Or, 474385000 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 1450 × [1 ‒ (Ast × 415)/(2500 ×

1450 × 25)]
E L
Or, 474385000 = 523522.5 × Ast ‒ 2.397 Ast2
P T
N
Or, 2.397 Ast2 ‒ 523522.5 × Ast + 474385000 = 0
Or, Ast = 909.932 mm2
2 nos of 25 mm diameter bars can be provided as main

reinforcement in at a total reinforcement of 981.748 mm2.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Cross Girder for Shear:
Maximum Design Ultimate Load Shear Force = 488.693 kN.
As per IRC 112: 2011, the ultimate shear strength of concrete

section VRd,c = [0.12K (80 ρ1fck)0.33] bwd
E L
T
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/1450) = 1.371 < 2
P
N
ρ1 = Ast/bwd = 981.748/(300 × 1450) = 0.0023
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bwd = [0.12 × 1.371 × (80 × 0.0023 ×

25)0.33] × 300 × 1450 = 118418.087 N = 118.418 kN < 488.693 kN
(unsafe)
Bridge Engineering
Hence, shear reinforcement are required to be designed to resist

the balance shear force VRd,s = (488.693 ‒ 118.418) = 370.275 kN
Using 10 mm diameter 2-legged stirrups, the spacing of stirrups is

evaluated as Sv = 0.87 × fy × Asv × z/ VRd,s
Here, lever arm z = 0.9 d for RC sections

E L
z = 0.9 d = 0.9 × 1450 = 1305 mm
P T
N
Sv = 0.87 × 415 × 2 × 78.54 × 1305/ 370275 = 199.882 mm
10 mm diameter 2-legged stirrups can be provided at the spacing

of 150 mm.
Bridge Engineering
120
E L
120
P T
150
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 08: Voided Slab Bridges, Skew Slab Culverts and Curved Bridge Decks
Ø Voided Slab Bridges
Ø Skew Bridge Decks

E L
P T
N
Ø Curved Bridge Decks
Ø Design of RC Skew Slab Culvert

Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Voided Slab Bridges
• A voided slab bridge is a slab bridge which contains voids in

the bridge deck.
• Voided slab bridge has a typical span of 8-15 m for single span
as well as continuous bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Voided Slab Bridges
• The primary objective of adding voids is to decrease the overall

weight by as much as 35% when compared to solid slab bridges
of the same capacity.
• In voided slab bridges, void ratio i.e. area of voids to the area of
L
solid slabs should not exceed 40% of the superstructure.
E
•
P T
Voided slab bridges are required to be analyzed for longitudinal
N
as well as transverse structural actions.
• If void ratio is more than 40% of the superstructure, it can be

analyzed using either the Orthotropic Plate Method, Grillage
Analysis or Three-dimensional Continuum Method.
Bridge Engineering
Voided Slab Bridges
• Structural detailing should be decided keeping in mind the

presence of voids.
• Detailing of reinforcement should be such that the voided

portion is prevented from cracking from inside.
•
E L
Position of voids should be such that the void center lies in the
P
Neutral Axis where the stresses are zero.T
• N
Position of void centre can be eccentric with the neutral axis
only if the reinforcement present above and below the void can
bear the loads acting on the structure.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Skew Bridges: Overview
• When the alignment of a bridge is such that it crosses an

obstacle (e.g. stream) at any angle other than 90 degrees, the
bridge is termed as Skew bridge.
• The term ‘angle of skew’ or ‘skew angle’ is generally applied to
L
the difference between the alignment of an intermediate or end
E
T
support and a line perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
P
bridge.
N
Bridge Engineering
• High demand of traffic requirements in the recent times has

make skew bridges in demand.
• The behavior of skew bridges differs widely from that of normal

bridges and therefore, the analysis and design of skew bridges
need special attention.
E L
•
P T
A load applied on the deck slab is transmitted to supports in
N
proportion to the rigidity of various possible paths.
• When thickness of the slab is same everywhere, rigidity will be

maximum along shortest span i.e. along the span normal to the
faces of the piers or abutments.
Bridge Engineering
• Therefore, a major proportion of the load tends to reach the

supports in a direction normal to the faces of the abutments and
piers.
• Due to this, the planes of maximum stresses are not parallel to
L
the centre line of the road way and the slab exhibits warped or
E
T
twisted deformational characteristics due to the passage of
P
•
wheel loads on the deck.
N
With increase in skew angle, the stress distribution in the skew
slab differs significantly in comparison with the straight slab.
Bridge Engineering
• The centre line of the bridge is along BC while the plane of

maximum stresses of the slab will be along AB or CD being the
shortest distance between the supports. Therefore, the plane of
maximum stresses in a skew slab deck are not parallel to the
L
centre line of bridge and the deflection of such slab produces a
E
T
warped surface.
N P
Bridge Engineering
Skew Bridges: Observations
• Several researchers adopted numerical modeling techniques for

analyzing the performance of skew bridges to understand their
complex behavior.
• The reactions at the obtuse angled end of the skew slab support
L
are 0-50% larger than the other end for skew angles 20°-50°.
E
•
P T
For skew bridges of short spans ranging between 4-6 m, when
N
the skew angle increases from 15° to 45°, the increase in shear
force is around 20%.
• For skew bridges of long spans ranging between 8-12 m, when

the skew angle increases from 15° to 45°, the shear force is more
or less constant.
Bridge Engineering
Skew Bridges: Observations
• For skew bridges of short spans ranging between 4-6 m, when

the skew angle increases from 15° to 45°, the bending moment
slightly decreases.
• For skew bridges of long spans ranging between 8-12 m, when
L
the skew angle increases from 15° to 45°, the bending moment
E
increases by 10%.
P T
• N
The increase of torsional moment was similar to that of bending
moments. For skew angles exceeding 30 degrees, the torsional
moments are higher for short span bridges requiring larger
magnitude of reinforcements.
Bridge Engineering
Skew Bridges: Design
• An approximate method of design is evolved for smaller skew

angled (<15°) simply supported bridges.
• In this method, the bending moments are evaluated for a right

angled bridge of span length measured from centre to centre
L
distance of the supports and parallel to the centre line of the
E
road way.
P T
• N
Distribution reinforcement of 0.2% of the effective cross-section
of the slab is placed parallel to the supports.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Reinforcement Layout in Slabs with Small Skew Angles
Bridge Engineering
• For higher skew angled (>15°) deck slabs, a more rigorous

analysis and design are required.
• Based on experimental investigations, researchers developed

influence surfaces for bending and torsional moments at the
L
critical points of skew slabs under concentrated load placed
E
T
anywhere on the slabs for various span/width ratios and skew
P
•
angles in the range of 15-60°.
N
The Ministry of Surface Transport (Roads Wing) has prepared
standard designs (in tabular form) for skew bridge decks of clear
spans 5, 6 and 8 m and skew angles of 15°, 30°, 45° and 60° for
IRC loadings suitable for two lane traffic without footpaths on
national highways.
Bridge Engineering
• The bearing width is assumed as 370 mm. M20 Concrete and

Fe415 HYSD bars are considered for designing.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Reinforcement Layout in Slabs with Higher Skew Angles
Bridge Engineering
• The main and distribution reinforcement details to be provided at

the top and bottom of the slabs in a direction perpendicular and
parallel to the supports are shown in the figure (previous slide).
• The main bars in this reinforcement layout are ineffective in
L
resisting the bending moment at the centre of the free edge due
E
T
to lack of anchorage. Therefore, extra steel reinforcement is
P
N
provided near the free edge parallel to the edges at a width
sufficient to provide anchorage for the main bars.
• Reinforcements at the top of the slab are needed at the obtuse

angled corner and at the center of free edges. Short bars parallel
to the long diagonal are provided at the obtuse angled corner.
Bridge Engineering
• Transverse bars are provided parallel to the supports. Nominal

reinforcements of 10 mm diameter spaced at 300 mm centre to
centre distance are provided parallel to the free edge over the full
width of bridge deck.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Overview
• Curved Bridges are normally provided for viaducts and

interchanges where divergent traffic lanes converged into multi-
lane bridge or over-bridge or vice versa. On a curved bridge, the
skew angle is different at each support.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Overview
• In Curved Bridges, the support reactions are not in the same

plane as that of dead and live loads. Consequently, the dead and
live moments are accompanied by torque for equilibrium of the
structural system.
• In case of bridge structures

E L
of moderate curvature,
P T
simple beam theory
involving simple bending
N
theory and torsion of thin
walled structures is
sufficient in general.
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Methods of Analysis
• Simple Beam Theory
• Folded Plate Analysis
• Finite Strip Method
• Finite Element Method

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Simple Beam Theory
• Simple Beam Theory
This theory is based on simple bending and torsion of thin walled

structural members. The incremental torque at any section is
computed as a function of longitudinal beam for straight beam and
E L
applied torque along the span and the radius of curvature of the
bridge deck.
P T
N
Warping and distortion are ignored in this method. Local bending
moments in the deck slab are determined from the influence
surfaces and the transverse moments around the girders by
moment distribution for the element.
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Analysis of Curved Girders
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Warping and Distortion
Warping and distortion are ignored in Simple Beam Theory.
E L
P T
N
Warping Distortion
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Moment Distribution of Elements
Local bending moments in the deck slab are determined from the
influence surfaces and the transverse moments around the girders
by moment distribution for the element.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Folded Plate Analysis
• Folded Plate Analysis
In this method, the structure is represented as an assembly of

plates joined rigidly along the longitudinal edges. Individual plate
stiffness matrices for the displacements at various points of the
E L
edges are derived from classical plate theory and the overall
P T
stiffness matrix for edge loading of the structure assembled.
N
All points of the longitudinal edges have four degrees of freedom.
Based on the load position, the fixed end moments and forces are
determined and applied to the structure.
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Folded Plate Analysis
The solutions are obtained using Fourier series and the final
results are obtained by superposition of the results of each
harmonic loading. This method is ideally suited for curved simply
supported structures of constant cross-sections.
E L
Continuous structures are analyzed by considering the structure
P T
as simply supported in the first stage and then eliminating the
N
displacements at the interior supports as a second stage in the
analysis.
Due to development of advanced methods like finite strip method

and finite element method, this method is rarely used.
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Finite Strip Method
• Finite Strip Method
This method is a simplified version of the folded plate method in

which the folded surfaces are subdivided into number of plates
simulating finite strips. The degrees of freedom chosen are same
E L
as that for the folded plate method and the solution is based on the
superposition of loading harmonics.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Curved Bridges: Finite Element Method
• Finite Element Method
In this method, the entire structure is divided into small elements

and the stiffness of the structure is assembled from the bending
stiffness of each element. This method is applicable to all type of
E L
structures with its accuracy dependent on the nature and number
of elements.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of RC Skew Slab Culvert: Problem Statement
Design a Simply Supported RC Slab Culvert for a National Highway
crossing for IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle Loading.
Carriageway Width: Two lane (7.5 m wide);

Clear Span: 6 m;
Skew Angle 30°;
E L
Wearing Coat: 80 mm;
P T
Width of Bearing: 370 mm; N
Materials: M20 Grade Concrete and Fe 415 Grade HYSD Bars
Bridge Engineering
Design of RC Skew Slab Culvert: Problem Statement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of RC Skew Slab Culvert: Solution
1. Given Data:
Clear Skew Span = 6 m
Width of Bearing = 370 mm
L
M20 Grade Concrete and Fe 415 Grade HYSD Bars
2. Material Properties:
T E
NP

Based on limit state of serviceability considerations of limiting
deflections, ratio of Span/ Depth (L/d) = 12-15
Bridge Engineering
For L/d = 15, d = (span/15) = (6000/15) = 400 mm
For L/d = 12, d = (span/12) = (6000/12) = 500 mm
For higher skew angled (>15°) deck slabs, the table prepared by
The Ministry of Surface Transport (Roads Wing) can be used.
E L
depth of slab can be adopted as 540 mm.
P T
Based on the Table, for clear span 6 m, skew angle 30°, overall
N
Using 20 mm diameter HYSD bars with clear cover of 40 mm,
Effective Depth of slab d = 540 ‒ (40 + 10) = 490 mm
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Effective Depth of slab d = 490 mm
• Clear Span + Effective Depth = (6 + 0.49) = 6.49 m
•
E L
Centre to Centre Distance of Bearings = (6 + 0.37) = 6.37 m
Hence, Effective Span = 6.37 m
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Self-Weight of RC Slab = (24 × 0.54) = 12.96 kN/m2
Self-Weight of Wearing Coat = (22 × 0.08) = 1.76 kN/m2
Total Dead Load = (12.96 + 1.76) = 14.72 kN/m2
E L
Bending Moment due to Dead Load = 14.72 × 6.372/8 = 74.661 kN-m
P T
5. Live Load Bending Moments:
N
For IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicles, Impact Factor is 25% of the
span for up to 5 m span decreasing linearly to 10% for span of 9 m.
Therefore, for 6.37 m span, Impact Factor = [25 ‒ (15/4) × (6.37 ‒ 5)]
= 19.86%
Bridge Engineering
Tracked Vehicle is placed symmetrically on the span.
4840 mm
3185 mm
E L
6370 mm
P T
N
Position of Load for Maximum Bending Moment
Effective Width of Slab perpendicular to Span be = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw

of Slab plus 2 times of the thickness of the wearing coat = 0.85 + 2
× 0.08 = 1.01 m
Bridge Engineering
x = 3.185 m, L = 6.37 m, B = 7.5 m and B/L = 1.18
For B/L = 1.18, K = 2.63
be = 2.63 × 3.185 × (1 ‒ 3.185/6.37) + 1.01 = 5.198 m
minimum clearance of 1200 mm.
E L
mm mm mm mm
P T
N 540
mmmm
1625 mm mm (5198/2) mm
6274 mm
mm
Bridge Engineering
Total Wheel Load of two tracks including impact factor = 2 × 350 ×

1.1986 = 839.02 kN
E L
T
Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load is given by Mmax =
P
(27.63 × 4.84 × 6.37/4) ‒ (27.63 × 4.842/ 8) = 132.057 kN-m
N
Total Service Load Bending Moment M = (MDead + MLive) = (74.661 +
132.057) = 206.718 kN-m
Total Design Ultimate Bending Moment Mu = (1.35 × MDead + 1.5 ×

MLive) = (1.35 × 74.661 + 1.5 × 132.057) = 298.878 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
6. Shear Forces due to Dead Load and Live Load
Shear Force from Dead Load = 14.72 × 6.37/2 = 46.883 kN
For Maximum Shear Force at Support, IRC Class AA Tracked
Vehicle is arranged as follows.
4840 mm
mm
E L
mm
P T
N
x = 2420 mm
6370 mm
mm
Position for IRC Class AA Loading for Maximum Shear
Effective Width of Dispersion be = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw

bw = 0.85 + 2 × 0.08 = 1.01 m
Bridge Engineering
x = 2.42 m, L = 6.37 m, B = 9.5 m and B/L = 1.18
For B/L = 1.18, K = 2.63
be = 2.63 × 2.42 × (1 ‒ 2.42/6.37) + 1.01 = 4.956 m
mm mm mm mm
E L
P T 540
mm
N
mm
1625 mm mm (4956/2) mm
6153 mm
mm
Net Effective Width of Dispersion = 2.625 + 2.05 + (4.956/2) = 6.153 m
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Shear Force = 28.713 × 4.84 × (6.37 ‒ 2.42)/ 6.37 = 86.175
kN
Total Service Load Shear Force V = (VDead + VLive) = (46.883 + 86.175)
= 133.058 kN
E L
T
Total Design Ultimate Shear Force = (1.35 × VDead + 1.5 × VLive) =
P
N
(1.35 × 46.883 + 1.5 × 86.175) = 192.554 kN
7. Design of Slab:
of resistance for singly reinforced sections can be expressed as:
Mu,lim = 0.138 × fckbd2
Bridge Engineering
106)/(0.138 × 20 × 1000) = 329.073 mm ≈ 330 mm
section is under-reinforced. The area of reinforcement required to
L
resist the ultimate bending moment can be computed using the
E
T
following relation.
N P
298.878 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [490 ‒ 415 × Ast / (20 × 1000)]
7.49 × Ast2 ‒ 176914.5 × Ast + 298.878 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1831.39 mm2
Bridge Engineering
20 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided as main reinforcement

at a spacing of 115 mm. (Conforming to the Table).
E L
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 314/ 115) = 2730.435 mm2
P T
The distribution reinforcement should be designed to resist the
transverse moment. N
Transverse Moment = (0.2 × Multimate Dead + 0.3 × Multimate Live) = (0.2 ×
1.35 × MDead + 0.3 × 1.5 × MLive) = (0.2 × 1.35 × 74.661 + 0.3 × 1.5 ×
132.057) = 79.584 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
The area of reinforcement required to resist the transverse moment
can be computed using the following relation.
E L
79.584 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [490 ‒ 415 × Ast / (20 × 1000)]
P
7.49 × Ast2 ‒ 176914.5 × Ast + 79.584 × 106 = 0 T
Ast = 458.754 mm2 N
Using 10 mm diameter bars as distribution reinforcement, the
spacing S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 78.54/ 458.754) = 171.203 mm
Bridge Engineering
reinforcement at a spacing of 100 mm as part of the bottom
reinforcement. (Conforming to the Table)
The free edges of skew slabs are strengthened by 20 mm diameter

bars at a spacing of 110 mm. (As per the Table)
E L
P T
N
reinforcement at a spacing of 260 mm as part of the top
reinforcement. (As per the Table)
Further, 16 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided as corner

reinforcement at a spacing of 300 mm as part of the top
reinforcement. (As per the Table)
Bridge Engineering
Ultimate Flexural Strength of Deck Slab Mu = 0.87fyAst [d ‒
(fyAst/fckb)]
= 0.87 × 415 × 2730.435 × [490 ‒ 415 × 2730.435/ (20 × 1000)]
E L
= 427200205 N-mm = 427.2 kN-m > 298.878 kN-m (Hence, safe)

P T
N
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/490) = 1.639
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 2730.435/ (1000 × 490) = 0.0056
Bridge Engineering
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd
= [0.12 × 1.639 × (80 × 0.0056 × 20)0.33] × 1000 × 490
= 198709 N = 198.709 kN > 192.554 kN (Hence, safe)
L
T E
N P
Tables 12.2 and 12.3 of IRC: 112-2011 outlines the maximum bar
size and maximum spacing for permissible crack width and service
stress in steel.
Bridge Engineering
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
L
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280
T E150 50
P
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
Service Load Bending Moment M = 206.718 kN-m N

Bridge Engineering
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x)
500x2 = (200/23) × 2730.435 × (490 ‒ x)
500x2 + 23742.913x ‒ 11634027.39 = 0
x = 130.632 mm
E L
σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 206718000/ [(490 ‒ 130.632/3) × 2730.435]
= 169.578 MPa
P T
N
IRC:112-2011 are 30 mm and 288 mm.
Bridge Engineering
𝟏
a) Deflection due to Shrinkage acs = k r L2
cs
L
k = 0.125 for simply supported ends
𝟏
T E
P
rcs
𝑬𝒔
𝑬𝒄
N
𝑬𝒔
αe = = 200/23 = 8.696
𝑬𝒄
Bridge Engineering
Section = 2730.435 × (270 – 40 – 20/2) = 602895.7 mm3
I = Second Moment of Area of the section = (1000 × 5403/12) =
13.122 × 109 mm4
S/I = 45.952 × 10‒6 /mm
E L
P T
N
εcd, unrestrained
Bridge Engineering
2000 mm
h0 = 2Ac/u = 2 × 540000/ 2000 = 540 mm
E L
P T
N
βds(t, ts) = [(t ‒ ts)/{(t ‒ ts) + 0.04√h03}]
= [(365 ‒ 28)/{(365 ‒ 28) + 0.04√5403}] = 0.402
Bridge Engineering
Table 6.8 of IRC: 112-2011
kh = 0.70 for h0 = 540 mm εcd, unrestrained (× 106)
Table 6.7 of IRC: 112-2011 fck
Relative Humidity (%)
(MPa)
h0 (mm) kh
20 50 80
100 1.0
L
25 620 535 300
200 0.85
E
50 480 420 240
T
300 0.75
75 380 330 190
≥ 500 0.70
95
N P 300
εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) khεcd, unrestrained = 0.402 × 0.70 × 558 × 10‒6 = 157.021 ×
260 150
10‒6
Table 6.6 of IRC: 112-2011
Grade of Concrete M30 M35 M45 M50 M60 M65
Autogenous Shrinkage Strain εca (× 106) 35 45 65 75 95 105
Bridge Engineering
Total shrinkage strain εcs = εcd + εca = 157.021 × 10‒6 + 15 × 10‒6 =
172.021 × 10‒6
𝟏
Shrinkage curvature r = [εcsαe(S/I)] = 172.021 × 10‒6 × 8.696 × 45.952
cs
× 10‒6 = 68739.349 × 10‒12
Deflection due to shrinkage acs = k
𝟏
rcs
E L
L2 = 0.125 × 68739.349 × 10‒12
× 63702 = 0.349 mm
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Table 6.9 of IRC: 112-2011
E L
T
P
Age at
t0
(days)
50 150 600
Dry atmospheric conditions (RH 50%)
N50 150 600
Humid atmospheric conditions (RH 80%)
1 5.50 4.60 3.70 3.60 3.20 2.90
7 5.50 4.60 3.70 2.60 2.30 2.00
28 3.90 3.10 2.60 1.90 1.70 1.50
90 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.20
365 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.00
Bridge Engineering
For relative humidity 50%, Notional Size 2Ac/u = 540 mm and Age
at loading = 28 days, Creep Coefficient ø = 2.667 by linear
interpolation.
Ec,eff = Ec/(1 + ø) = (23000/3.667) = 6272.157 N/mm2
E L
T
5wdL4/384Ec,effIeff = (5 × 14.72 × 63704) / (384 × 6272.157 × 9.185 ×
P
109) = 5.478 mm
N
Total Live Load wl = 27.63 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
Maximum deflection due to live load al = 5wlL4/384EcIeff
= (5 × 27.63 × 63704) / (384 × 23000 × 9.185 × 109) = 2.804 mm <
Span/800 = (6370/800) = 7.962 mm
E L
P T
Total deflection = acs + ad + al = 0.349 + 5.478 + 2.804 = 8.631 mm <
Span/250 = (6370/250) = 25.48 mm
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of RC Skew Slab Culvert: Reinforcement Detailing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 03: Box Culverts and Pipe Culverts

Lecture 09: Design of Box Culverts
 General Features
 Loading Conditions
E L
 Structural Design P T
 Design Example
N
Topic of Discussion
 Structural Design
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Box culverts consist of 2 horizontal and 2 vertical slabs built

monolithically. Box culverts are constructed as a road or
railway bridge crossing with high embankments crossing a
stream with limited flow.
L
• Reinforced Concrete rigid box culverts with square or
E
not more than 3 m. P T
rectangular openings are used for a span up to 4 m and height
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Box culverts comprise the following structural components.

• Solid barrel or box section of sufficient length to accommodate
the road width of the carriage way along with kerbs and foot
paths;
•
E L
For deep embankments, wing walls splayed at 45° are used to
T
guide the flow of water in the stream through the box culvert.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Box culverts are economical due to their rigidity and monolithic

actions. For box culverts, separate foundations are not required
to be constructed as the bottom slab resting directly on the soil
serves as raft slab foundation for the culvert.
•
E L
For small discharge, single celled box culvert can be employed.
T
For larger flow, multi-celled box culvert may be adopted.
P
N
• The barrel of the box culvert should be of sufficient length to
support the entire width of the carriage way.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In hydraulic design, the vent way required to carry the

discharge in the stream is computed by examining the
discharge records over a period of time at the bridge site.
• Except in case of buried barrel, the maximum flood level is
L
generally fixed below the bottom of top slab allowing for a
E
vertical clearance.
P T
•
between 1:1 and 1.5:1.
N
In general, the ratio of span to height of the vent way lies
• The top of soffit slab is generally fixed at the bed level of

stream.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Loading Conditions in Box Culverts
• The structural design of box culvert requires computation of

the thrusts, shear forces and bending moments through
detailed structural analysis.
• Various types of loading conditions are summarized below.

1. Concentrated Load
E L
P T
2.
3.
Uniformly Distributed Load
Weight of Side Walls
N
4. Water Pressure inside Culvert
5. Earth Pressure on Vertical Side Walls
6. Uniform Lateral Load on Side Walls
Bridge Engineering
Case 1: Concentrated loads due to

wheel loads on the deck.
E L
P T
Case 2: Uniformly distributed load
due to weight of deck slabs,
N
embankment and wearing coat and
track load.
Bridge Engineering
Case 3: Weight of two side walls

which would act as concentrated
loads producing uniform soil
reaction on the bottom slab.
E L
Case 4: When culvert is full with
P T
water, pressure distribution on side
wall is assumed to be triangular
N
with maximum pressure intensity p
= γwH where γw is density of water
and H is depth of flow.
Bridge Engineering
Case 5: Earth pressure on vertical

side walls of the box culvert is
computed from Coloumb’s Theory.
Soil pressure p = [γsoil H × (1 −
sinφ)/ (1 + sinφ)]
E L
Case 6: Uniform lateral load on
P T
Side Walls due to live load
surcharge. Trapezoidal pressure
N
distribution on side walls due to
embankment loading can be
obtained by combining e) and f).
Bridge Engineering
Design of critical sections of box culvert requires computation

of the maximum shear forces and bending moments. Maximum
moments in critical section are generally developed for different
loading conditions:
L
• When top slab supports dead load and live load and the
E
culvert is empty.
P T
N
• When top slab supports dead load and live load and the
culvert is full.
• When sides of culvert do not carry the live load and the
culvert is full.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Design of Box Culverts
• Fixed edges of the box culvert: A, A', D and D'

• Clear Span of vent: l l
• Height of vent: h
• Thickness of slab: ts
• Thickness of wall: tw
E L
• Span of the box culvert: L
P T
• Height of the box culvert: H N
• L = l + tw and H = h + ts
• K = H/L × (ts/tw)3
Bridge Engineering
Fixed end moments MA, MA', MD and MD' developed in the box
culvert for the six different loading conditions are as follows.
Here positive moment indicates tension on inside face.
For symmetry, MA = MA' and MD = MD'
E L
T
Load Fixed End Moments Fixed End Moments
P
Case MA = MA' MD = MD'
1
2
− 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 / 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
−𝒘𝒘𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
N
− 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟔𝟔 / 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
−𝒘𝒘𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
3 + 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟔𝟔 � 𝑲𝑲⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 + 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 − 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟔𝟔 � 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 + 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
4 + 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟖𝟖 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏

5 − 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟖𝟖 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
6 −𝒑𝒑 � 𝑲𝑲𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 −𝒑𝒑 � 𝑲𝑲𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
Bridge Engineering
Considering symmetry of the design, moment shear and thrust

coefficients (whenever applicable) calculated for B1, A2, A3, E4, D5,
D6 and C7 points for L/H = 1 and L/H = 1.5 are shown in next slide.
Here positive moment indicates tension

L
l
on inside face.
T E
Positive shear indicates summation of
forces at the left of section acting N P
outward when viewed from within.
Positive thrust indicates compression
on the section.
Bridge Engineering
Factor Load Cases

for 1 2 3 4 5 6
L:H Section M WL wL2 WL pL2 pL2 pL2
N W wL W pL pL pL
V W wL W pL pL pL
L
M + 0.182 + 0.083 + 0.021 + 0.019 − 0.019 − 0.042
B1
N 0 0 0
T E
− 0.167 + 0.167 + 0.500
P
M − 0.068 + 0.042 + 0.021 + 0.019 − 0.019 − 0.042
1:1
A2 N
V
M
0
+ 0.500
− 0.068
0
+ 0.500
− 0.042
N 0
0
+ 0.021
− 0.167
0
+ 0.019
+ 0.167
0
− 0.019
− 0.500
0
− 0.042
A3 N 0 0 0 + 0.167 − 0.167 − 0.500
V 0 0 0 + 0.167 − 0.167 − 0.500
M − 0.052 − 0.042 − 0.042 − 0.043 − 0.043 + 0.083
E4
N + 0.500 + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0
Bridge Engineering
Factor Load Cases

for 1 2 3 4 5 6
N W wL W pL pL pL
V W wL W pL pL pL
L
M − 0.036 − 0.042 − 0.004 + 0.023 − 0.023 − 0.042
D5 N + 0.500 + 0.500 + 1.000
T E
− 0.333 + 0.333 0
P
V 0 0 0 0 0 + 0.500
1:1
D6
M
N
− 0.036
0
− 0.042
0 N
− 0.104
0
+ 0.023
0
− 0.023
0
− 0.042
+ 0.500
V − 0.500 − 0.500 − 1.000 − 0.333 + 0.333 0
M + 0.088 + 0.083 + 0.146 + 0.023 − 0.023 − 0.042
C7
N 0 0 0 − 0.333 + 0.333 0
Bridge Engineering
Factor Load Cases

for 1 2 3 4 5 6
N W wL W pL pL pL
V W wL W pL pL pL
L
M + 0.170 + 0.075 + 0.018 + 0.015 − 0.015 − 0.033
B1
N 0 0 0
T E
− 0.167 + 0.167 + 0.500
P
M − 0.079 − 0.050 + 0.018 + 0.015 − 0.015 − 0.033
1.5:1
A2 N
V
M
0
+ 0.500
− 0.079
0
+ 0.500
+ 0.050
N 0
0
+ 0.018
− 0.167
0
+ 0.015
+ 0.167
0
− 0.015
+ 0.500
0
− 0.033
A3 N + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0 0
V 0 0 0 + 0.167 − 0.167 − 0.500
M − 0.062 − 0.052 − 0.050 − 0.047 + 0.047 + 0.092
E4
N + 0.500 + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0
Bridge Engineering
Factor Load Cases

for 1 2 3 4 5 6
N W wL W pL pL pL
V W wL W pL pL pL
L
M − 0.045 − 0.050 − 0.118 + 0.018 + 0.018 − 0.033
D5 N + 0.500 + 0.500 + 0.100
T
0
E 0 0
P
V 0 0 0 − 0.333 + 0.333 + 0.500
1.5:1
D6
M
N
− 0.045
0
− 0.050
0 N
− 0.118
0
+ 0.018
− 0.033
− 0.018
+ 0.033
− 0.033
+ 0.500
V − 0.500 − 0.500 − 0.100 0 0 0
M − 0.079 − 0.075 − 0.132 − 0.018 − 0.018 − 0.033
C7
N 0 0 0 − 0.033 + 0.033 + 0.500
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Problem Statement
A RC box culvert has a clear vent way of 2.4 m height by 3.6 m
length according to IRC 112: 2011. Slab thickness = wall thickness =
360 mm. The box culvert is not carrying any vehicle. The
superimposed dead load on the culvert is 12 KN/m2. The live load is
30 KN/m2. The density of soil site is 18 KN/m3. Angle of repose is
E L
25°. Material grades are M20 Concrete and Fe415 HYSD bars.
P T
Sketch the critical sections of box culvert with proper notations.
N
Calculate the fixed end moments of the box culvert.
Determine the critical load combinations for the critical sections of
the box culvert.
Design the box culvert and draw the reinforcement detailing.
Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Solution
Fixed edges of the culvert are A, A', D and D'.
Clear Span of vent l = 3600 mm

l
Height of vent h = 2400 mm
Slab thickness ts = 360 mm

E L
Wall thickness tw = 360 mm
P T
Effective Span L = l + tw = 3960 mm, N
Effective Height H = h + ts = 2760 mm
K = H/L × (ts/tw)3 = 0.697 ≈ 0.7
Bridge Engineering
Material Properties:
αe = Es/Ec = 200/23 = 8.696
Load Calculation:
Case 2: Self-Weight of RC Slab = (24 × 0.36) = T
L
EkN/m
P 8.64 2
Superimposed Dead Load = 12 kN/m N 2
Total Dead Load = (12 + 8.64) = 20.64 kN/m2

Live Load = 30 kN/m2
Total Distributed Load w = (20.64 + 30) = 50.64 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
Case 3: Weight of Vertical Side Walls W = (2.76 × 0.36 × 24) = 23.85
kN
Case 4: For complete-filled culvert, water pressure p = γw H = 10 ×
2.76 = 27.6 kN/m2
Case 5: Angle of repose φ = 25°
E L
Height of Soil fill H = 2.76 m
Soil pressure p = [γ H × (1 − sinφ)/ (1 +P
T
soil
sin25°)/(1 + sin25°)] = 20.16 kN/m2
N sinφ)] = [18 × 2.76 × (1 −
Case 6a: Uniform lateral pressure due to superimposed dead load

and live load surcharge p = [(12 + 30) × (1 − sin25°)/(1 + sin25°)] =
17.05 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
Case 6b: Uniform lateral pressure due to superimposed dead load
surcharge p = [12 × (1 − sin25°)/ (1 + sin25°)] = 4.87 kN/m2
Fixed end moments MA, MA', MD and MD' developed in the box
culvert for six different loading conditions are as follows.
For symmetry, MA = MA' and MD = MD'
E L
Load
Case
Fixed End Moments MA = MA'
T
Fixed End Moments MD = MD'
P
1
2
− 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 / 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐
−𝑾𝑾𝑳𝑳 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
N
− 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟔𝟔 / 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
−𝑾𝑾𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
3 + 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟔𝟔 � 𝑲𝑲⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 + 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 − 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾⁄𝟔𝟔 � 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 + 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
4 + 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟖𝟖 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
5 − 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒑𝒑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑲𝑲 � 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟖𝟖 ⁄ 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟑𝟑 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
6 −𝒑𝒑 � 𝑲𝑲𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏 −𝒑𝒑 � 𝑲𝑲𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 � 𝑲𝑲 + 𝟏𝟏
Bridge Engineering
Load Case Fixed End Moments Fixed End Moments

MA = MA' (kN-m) MD = MD' (kN-m)
2 − 38.927 − 38.927
3 + 29.738 − 45.479
4 +3.276 +3.939
E L
5 − 2.391
P T − 2.875
N
6a − 4.457 − 4.457
6b − 1.273 − 1.273
Here positive moment indicates tension on inside face.
Bridge Engineering
The moments, shear forces and thrusts for different load cases
are calculated using coefficients summarized in a Table below.
Factor Load Cases
for 1 2 3 4 5 6
N W wL W
E
pL
L pL pL
V
M
W
+ 0.170
wL
+ 0.075
W
P
+ 0.018 T pL
+ 0.015
pL
− 0.015
pL
− 0.033
B1
N
M
0
− 0.079
0
− 0.050
N 0
+ 0.018
− 0.167
+ 0.015
+ 0.167
− 0.015
+ 0.500
− 0.033
A2 N 0 0 0 − 0.167 + 0.167 + 0.500
1.5:1
V + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0 0
M − 0.079 + 0.050 + 0.018 + 0.015 − 0.015 − 0.033
A3 N + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0 0
V 0 0 0 + 0.167 − 0.167 − 0.500
Bridge Engineering
Factor Load Cases

for 1 2 3 4 5 6
N W wL W pL pL pL
V W wL W pL pL pL
E4
M − 0.062 − 0.052 − 0.050
L
− 0.047
E
+ 0.047 + 0.092
T
N + 0.500 + 0.500 + 0.500 0 0 0
D5
M
N
V
− 0.045
+ 0.500
0
− 0.050
+ 0.500
0 N P
− 0.118
+ 0.100
0
+ 0.018
0
− 0.333
+ 0.018
0
+ 0.333
− 0.033
0
+ 0.500
1.5:1
M − 0.045 − 0.050 − 0.118 + 0.018 − 0.018 − 0.033
D6 N 0 0 0 − 0.033 + 0.033 + 0.500
V − 0.500 − 0.500 − 0.100 0 0 0
M − 0.079 − 0.075 − 0.132 − 0.018 − 0.018 − 0.033
C7
N 0 0 0 − 0.033 + 0.033 + 0.500
Bridge Engineering
Point LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6a LC6b
M (kN-m) 59.56 1.70 6.49 - 4.75 − 8.82 − 2.52
B1
N (kN) 0 0 − 18.25 13.34 33.76 9.64
M (kN-m) − 39.71 1.70 6.49 - 4.75 − 8.82 − 2.52
A2 N (kN) 0 0 − 18.25 13.33 33.76 9.64
V (kN) 100.27 0 0 0
E L
0 0
T
M (kN-m) 39.71 1.70 6.49 - 4.75 − 8.82 − 2.52
A3 N (kN)
V (kN)
100.27
0
0
0
0
18.25
N P 0
− 13.33
0
− 33.76
0
− 9.64
M (kN-m) − 41.29 − 4.72 − 20.34 14.86 24.60 7.03
E4
N (kN) 100.27 11.92 0 0 0 0
M (kN-m) − 39.71 − 11.14 7.79 5.69 − 8.82 − 2.52
D5 N (kN) 100.27 2.38 0 0 0 0
V (kN) 0 0 − 36.40 26.58 33.76 9.64
Bridge Engineering
Point LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6a LC6b
M (kN-m) − 39.71 − 11.14 7.79 − 5.69 − 8.82 − 2.52
D6 N (kN) 0 0 − 3.61 2.63 33.76 9.64
V (kN) − 100.27 − 2.38 0 0 0 0
M (kN-m) − 59.56 − 12.47 − 7.79 − 5.69 −8.82 −2.52
L
C7
E
N (kN) 0 0 − 3.61 2.63 33.76 9.64
Here positive moment indicates tensionP

T
•
•
N on inside face.
Positive shear indicates summation of forces at the left of

section acting outward when viewed from within.
• Positive thrust indicates compression on the section.
Bridge Engineering
The service load design forces resulting from the combinations of

various load cases yielding maximum moments and forces at
support section and at mid span sections are shown in the
following table.
Section
Loading Moment
E L
Thrust Shear Force
Combinations
P T
M (kN-m) N (kN) V (kN)
N
Bottom Support D6 2+3+5+6a − 65.36 36.39 ‒102.65
Top Support A2 2+3+5+6a – 51.58 47.09 100.27
Mid Point of Top Slab B1 2+3+4+5+6b 60.51 4.73 0
Mid Point of Bottom Slab C7 2+3+4+5+6a − 94.33 32.78 0
Mid Point of Vertical Wall E4 2+3+4+5+6b ‒ 44.46 112.19 0
Bridge Engineering
From the summary of results at various critical sections, the

following observations are made.
• Maximum positive moments develop at the centre of top slab

when the sides of culvert do not carry the live load and the
culvert is full with water.
E L
P T
• Maximum negative moments develop at the centre of bottom
N
slab when the sides of culvert carry the dead and live loads and
the culvert is full with water.
• Maximum negative moments develop at the bottom for empty

culvert with sides carrying dead and live loads.
Bridge Engineering
• Maximum negative moments develop at the centre of vertical

wall when sides of the culvert do not carry the live load and the
culvert is full with water.
E L
Subsequently, the critical sections of the box culvert can be
P T
designed using SP-16: 1980, IS 456: 2000 and IRC 112: 2011.
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of Section C-7 (Mid Span of Bottom Slab):
Service Load Bending Moment Mw = 94.33 kN-m

Design Ultimate Bending Moment Mu = (1.5 × 94.33) = 141.49 kN-m
Service Load Thrust N = 32.78 kN (Compression)
E L
T
Ultimate Thrust Nu = 1.5 × 32.78 = 49.17 kN (Compression)
P
N
Nu/fckbD = (49.17 × 1000)/(20 × 1000 × 360) = 0.0068
Mu/fckbD2 = (141.49 × 1000000)/(20 × 1000 × 3602) = 0.0546
Adopting effective cover of 40 mm, D = 360 mm and d´ = 40 mm,
(d´/D) = (40/360) = 0.111, Effective depth d = (360 − 40) = 320 mm
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
From Design charts 32 and 33 of SP-16: 1980 for compression with

bending on rectangular section, for (d´/D) = 0.111 and fyk = 415
N/mm2, p/fck = 0.04
p = 0.04 × fck = 0.04 × 20 = 0.8 = 100Ast/bd = (100 × Ast)/(1000 × 320)
Or, Ast = (1000 × 320 × 0.8)/100 = 2560 mm2
E L
P T
This reinforcement will be distributed equally on both faces.
N
given by: S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 201)/ (2560/2) = 157 mm
16 mm diameter bars can be provided at 150 mm spacing as main
reinforcement. Ast, provided = 2 × (1000 × 201)/150 = 2680 mm2
Bridge Engineering
10 mm diameter bars can be provided on both faces at 150 mm

spacing as distribution reinforcement.

L
E
T
size and maximum spacing for permissible crack width and
P
service stress in steel.
N
Bridge Engineering
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
L
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280
T E150 50
P
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x) N

500x2 = 8.696 × 2680 × (320 ‒ x)
500x2 + 23305.28x ‒ 7457689.6 = 0
x = 101.03 mm
Bridge Engineering
σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 94330000/[(320 ‒ 101.03/3) × 2680] = 122.93

MPa
IRC:112-2011 are 32 mm and 300 mm.
The slab is reinforced with 16 mm diameterE
L
P T bars at 150 mm
limits for control of cracking.

N
spacing. Hence, the bar size and the spacing are within the safe
Bridge Engineering
Design of Section D-6 (Support Section):

E L
T
P
N
Nu/fckbD = (54.58 × 1000)/(20 × 1000 × 360) = 0.0076
Mu/fckbD2 = (98.04 × 1000000)/(20 × 1000 × 3602) = 0.0378
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering

N/mm2, p/fck = 0.02
p = 0.02 × fck = 0.02 × 20 = 0.4 = 100Ast/bd = (100 × Ast)/(1000 × 320)
Or, Ast = (1000 × 320 × 0.4)/100 = 1280 mm2
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering


L
E
T
P
N
Bridge Engineering
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
L
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280
T E150 50
P
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x) N

500x2 = 8.696 × 1507× (320 ‒ x)
500x2 + 13104.87x ‒ 4193559.04 = 0
x = 79.41 mm
Bridge Engineering
σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 65360000/[(320 ‒ 79.41/3) × 1507] = 147.76

MPa
IRC:112-2011 are 32 mm and 300 mm.
L
P T bars at 150 mm

N
Bridge Engineering
Design of Section E-4 (Vertical Side Wall):

E L
T
P
N
Nu/fckbD = (168.28 × 1000)/(20 × 1000 × 360) = 0.023
Mu/fckbD2 = (66.69 × 1000000)/(20 × 1000 × 3602) = 0.026
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering

N/mm2, p/fck = 0.015
p = 0.015 × fck = 0.015 × 20 = 0.3 = 100Ast/bd = (100 × Ast)/(1000 ×
320)
E L
Or, Ast = (1000 × 320 × 0.3)/100 = 960 mm2
P T
N
Bridge Engineering


L
E
T
P
N
Bridge Engineering
160 32 25 160 300 200
200 25 16 200 250 150
L
240 16 12 240 200 100
280 12 ─ 280
T E150 50
P
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x) N

500x2 = 8.696 × 1507× (320 ‒ x)
500x2 + 13104.87x ‒ 4193559.04 = 0
x = 79.41 mm
Bridge Engineering
σs = M/ [(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 44460000/[(320 ‒ 79.41/3) × 1507] = 100.51

MPa
IRC:112-2011 are 32 mm and 300 mm.
L
P T bars at 150 mm

N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Reinforcement Detailing
3600
mm
E L
2400
P T
N
mm
360 mm
360 mm
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 03: Box Culverts and Pipe Culverts

Lecture 10: Design of Pipe Culverts
 Classification of Pipes
E L
 Design Principle P T
 Design Example
N
Topic of Discussion
 Design Principle
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Reinforced concrete pipes are widely used as cross drainage

structural elements for a road or railway embankment when the
discharge in the stream is small.
• During the last three

decades Precast RCC
E L
pipes have replaced
P T
the steel pipes for
many works due to
N
the initial and
maintenance costs.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Reinforced concrete pipes are commonly used for various

types of applications like water supply and sanitary systems,
bridge structures, gravity mains for carrying water under
hydrostatic pressure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The main advantage of reinforced concrete pipes is its initial

negligible maintenance costs in comparison with the traditional
steel pipes which are costly and prone to corrosion damage.
• When the earth fill over the pipe is small, return type wing walls
L
are provided at the ends of the road formation width to retain
E
the earth.
P T
N
• If the earth fill is large, the length of the pipe culvert is
increased so that embankment with its natural side slopes is
retained by the splayed type wing walls.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In coastal regions where the structure has to withstand severe

environmental conditions, reinforced concrete pipes are
invariably used due to its superior durability characteristics.
• Rapid improvements in the manufacturing process of precast
L
pipes by spinning process has reduced the costs and also
E
T
significantly improved the structural quality of reinforced
P
•
concrete pipes.
N
For the last few decades, concrete pipes have more or less
replaced steel pipes due to their superior durability and
reduction in costs.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The application of prestressing techniques has further

improved the structural performance of concrete pipes for large
scale water supply systems using large diameter pipes to
convey water under hydrostatic pressure.
L
• Prestressed concrete pipes have been used for water supply
E
T
systems of metropolitan areas in many countries.
P
N
• Reinforced concrete hume pipes have been used for culverts of
bridges and for drainage of storm water at city road crossings.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Classification of Pipes
According to IS:458-2003, reinforced concrete pipes are classified

as Non-Pressure (NP) and Pressure (P) pipes.
Pipe Designation Conditions Where Used
Unreinforced concrete non pressure For drainage and irrigation use above ground or
NP-1
pipe in shallow trenches
NP-2
pressure pipe carrying light traffic L
Reinforced concrete light duty non For drainage and irrigation use for culverts
E
NP-3
pressure pipe
P T
Reinforced concrete medium duty non For drainage and irrigation use for culverts
carrying heavy traffic
NP-4
Reinforced concrete heavy duty non
pressure pipe
N
For drainage and irrigation use for culverts
carrying very heavy traffic such as Railway
loadings
RC pressure pipes tested to a hydraulic For use in gravity mains, the design pressure not
P-1
pressure of 0.2 N/mm2 exceeding 2/3 of test pressure
RC pressure pipes tested to a hydraulic For use in pumping mains, the design pressure
P-2
pressure of 0.4 N/mm2 (40 m head) not exceeding half the test pressure
RC pressure pipes tested to a hydraulic For use in gravity mains, the design pressure not
P-3
pressure of 0.6 N/mm2 (60 m head) exceeding half the test pressure
Bridge Engineering
Pipes for Culverts
• Non-pressure reinforced concrete pipes NP-2, NP-3 and NP-4

are used for culverts.
• The longitudinal and hoop reinforcements are designed for the
loads but the minimum quantity of steel reinforcements is
L
specified for different classes of pipes in IS:458-2003.
E
•
for pipes of classes NP-2, NP-3 andP
T
Typical reinforcement, design and strength test requirements
N NP-4 generally used for

highway and railway embankment culverts are specified in
IS:458-2003.
• Precast pipes should conform to the serviceability and strength
requirements specified in the code with regard to the cracking
and ultimate loads.
Bridge Engineering
Reinforced Concrete Light Duty NP2 Pipes
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Reinforced Concrete Medium Duty NP3 Pipes
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Reinforced Concrete Heavy Duty NP4 Pipes
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Pipe Culverts
The cross sectional area of the pipe depends on the amount of flow
in the stream crossing the road way.
If 𝑸𝑸 = Discharge to be carried in the pipe
𝑨𝑨 = Cross-sectional area of the pipe
E L
𝒗𝒗 = Velocity of flow
P T
𝒅𝒅 = Diameter of the pipe
N
𝑸𝑸 𝝅𝝅𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨 = = and 𝒅𝒅 = (𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒/(𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅)
𝒗𝒗 𝟒𝟒
Bridge Engineering
Structural design of the pipe involves computations of
• The bearing strength of the pipe
• The weight of the earth fill over the pipe and
L
• The load on pipe due to a surface concentrated live load
E
T
associated with a strength factor generally taken as 1.5.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
The type of non-pressure pipe and bedding are chosen such that a
factor of safety of 1.5 is available even under the worst combination
of field loading, as given by the equation below,
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐁𝐁𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭

E L
𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓)
P T
=�
𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋 𝐖𝐖 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 N
𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋 𝐖𝐖 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐒𝐒𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐋𝐋𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨
+ �
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓)
Bridge Engineering
The load acting on the pipe due to the soil embankment is

computed from the equation,
𝑾𝑾 = 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆 . 𝒘𝒘. 𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐
Where, 𝑾𝑾 = Vertical external load in kN/m of pipe due to

embankment material
E L
P T
N
𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆 = Coefficient depending on the ratio of height of
embankment H to the external diameter of the pipe D.
𝒘𝒘 = Density of the embankment material kN/𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑
D = External diameter of pipe (m)
Bridge Engineering
𝑾𝑾 = Vertical external load in kN/m of pipe due to embankment

material
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The load on the pipe due to a concentrated highway wheel load ‘P’
is obtained from the equation below.
𝑾𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 . 𝑰𝑰. 𝑷𝑷
Where, 𝑾𝑾 = Vertical external load in kN/m due to concentrated
surface load.
E L
P T
𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 = Influence coefficient dependent on D and H
N
𝑯𝑯 = Vertical depth of top of pipe below the surface (m)
D = External diameter of pipe (m)
𝑷𝑷 = Concentrated wheel load (kN)
𝑰𝑰 = Impact factor (1.5 for highways)
Bridge Engineering
𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 = Influence coefficient dependent on D and H
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
In case of Railway loading, the load is uniformly distributed due to

the sleepers and ballast. The load on a buried pipe in a railway
embankment is given by the equation,
𝑾𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 . 𝑼𝑼. 𝑫𝑫
Where, 𝑾𝑾= Load on pipe in kN/m

E L
P T
N
𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 = Influence coefficient dependent on length of the sleeper,
distance between two axles and depth of top of pipe below surface.
𝑼𝑼 = Uniformly distributed load in kN/m2 on the surface

directly above the pipe = 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷/𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟐𝟐. 𝑾𝑾𝒕𝒕 . 𝑩𝑩
𝑷𝑷 = Axle load in kN (229 kN for B.G.)
Bridge Engineering
𝑨𝑨 = Half the length of the sleeper in m (1.35m for B.G.)
𝑩𝑩 = Half the distance between the two driving axles in m (0.92

m for B.G.)
𝑾𝑾𝒕𝒕 = Weight of track structure in kN/m (generally 3kN/m)
E L
P T
𝑫𝑫 = Outside diameter of the pipe in m for broad gauge loading,
the equation reduces to
N
𝑾𝑾 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝑪𝑪 . 𝑫𝑫
𝒔𝒔
Bridge Engineering
Influence Coefficient 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 for Broad Gauge Loading
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design a suitable R.C.C. pipe culvert to suit the following data:
Discharge through pipe culvert = 1.57 m3/s
Velocity of flow through pipe = 2 m/s
Width of road (two lane) = 7.5 m
Top width of embankment = 1.5:1
E L
Bed level of stream = 100.00
P T
Top of embankment = 103.00 N
Loading = IRC class AA wheeled vehicle with a maximum wheel load
of 62.5 kN
Draw the longitudinal section, plan and end view of the pipe culvert.
Bridge Engineering
1. Diameter of Pipe Culvert:
Discharge through pipe culvert 𝑸𝑸 = 𝑨𝑨 × 𝒗𝒗 = 1.57 m3/s
Velocity of flow through pipe 𝒗𝒗 = 2 m/s
Cross-sectional Area of Pipe 𝑨𝑨 = (𝑸𝑸⁄𝒗𝒗)= (1.57/2) = 0.785 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
E L
If 𝒅𝒅 = Internal diameter of the pipe, 𝑨𝑨 =
P T
𝝅𝝅𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 /4
= 0.785 𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐
So, 𝒅𝒅 = 1 m N
We can adopt NP-3 medium duty RC non-pressure pipe for carrying
heavy road traffic.
From IS:458-2003, for a pipe of internal diameter d = 1 m, the

external diameter D = 1.115 m ≈ 1.2 m
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
2. Load due to Earth fill:
Height of embankment over pipe H = 2 m
For d = 1000 mm, D = 1200 mm and H = 2 m,

Vertical external load of pipe due to embankment 𝑾𝑾 = 59.5 kN/m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
3. Load due to IRC Class AA Wheeled Vehicle:
Assuming IRC Class A wheel load of 62.5 kN to be directly above the
pipe, Loading on pipe 𝑾𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 . 𝑰𝑰. 𝑷𝑷
Where, 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 = Influence coefficient dependent on D and H = 0.032
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
𝑷𝑷 = Concentrated wheel load = 62.5 kN
𝑰𝑰 = Impact factor = 1.5 for highways
Loading on pipe 𝑾𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 . 𝑰𝑰. 𝑷𝑷 = 4 × 0.032 × 1.5 × 62.5 = 12 kN/m
4. Check for Strength Factor:
E L
The type of non-pressure pipe and bedding should be so chosen
P T
N
that under the worst combination of field loading, a factor of safety
of 1.5 is available. This is computed as follows:
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐁𝐁𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋 𝐖𝐖 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋 𝐖𝐖 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐒𝐒𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐋𝐋𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨
= +
𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓) 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓)
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
From IS: 458-2003, Three-edge bearing strength for NP3 medium
duty pipes of 1000 mm internal diameter pipe is 71.85 kN/m
𝐖𝐖 due to filling material = 59.5 kN/m
𝐖𝐖 due to surface load= 12 kN/m
E L
𝐁𝐁𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭
𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓)
=
𝐖𝐖 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐅𝐅𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐌𝐌𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
P T +
𝐖𝐖 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐒𝐒𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐋𝐋𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐒𝐒𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐅𝐅𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓)
Or, (71.85/ 1.5) = (59.5/ Strength Factor) + (12/ 1.5) N

Solving, Strength Factor = 1.49
Bridge Engineering
The strength factor for first class bedding is 2.3 while the strength
factor for concrete cradle bedding is 3.7. Any of these two
beddings can be provided for the pipe culvert as shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
First Class Bedding Concrete Cradle Bending
Bridge Engineering
5. Reinforcements in pipe:
The minimum reinforcements in the pipe according to IS: 458-

2003 are as follows:
Allowable weight of spiral reinforcement of hard drawn steel wire

in NP3 pipes = 21.52 kg/m
E L
P T
Allowable weight of longitudinal reinforcement of hard drawn
N
steel for 3 m length in NP3 pipes = 2.66 kg/m
For 4 m length i.e. maximum allowable length, it should be

increased to (2.66 × 42/32) = 4.729 kg/m
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Using 12 mm diameter bars at 60 mm centres as spiral
reinforcement, Average diameter of spiral = 1.1 m
Weight of one spiral of 12 mm diameter per metre length = (π/4 ×

0.0122 × 7850) = 0.888 kg/m
E L
Weight of one spiral of 12 mm diameter = (π × 1.1 × 0.888) = 3.069 kg
P T
Number of spirals in 1 m = (1000/ 60) = 16.667 ≈ 17
N
Weight of spiral reinforcement per meter length of pipe = (3.069 ×
17) = 52.173 kg/m
The quantity of spiral steel provided is greater the minimum of 21.52

kg/m specified in the code. Hence, it is okay to proceed with the
reinforcement.
Bridge Engineering
Considering 6 mm diameter hard drawn steel bars as longitudinal
reinforcement, weight of each bar = (π/4 × 0.0062) × 7850 = 0.222
kg/m
Minimum number of bars required = (4.729/0.222) = 21.302 ≈ 22
For symmetry, 24 bars can be provided
E L
as longitudinal
reinforcement.
P T
N
The quantity of longitudinal steel provided is greater the minimum
of 12 as specified in the code. Hence, it is okay to proceed with the
reinforcement.
Spacing = (π x 1100/ 24) = 144 mm
We can adopt 130 mm spacing for the longitudinal reinforcements.
Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Reinforecement Layout
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Co. Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
& Francis Group.
Telford Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 04: Steel Truss Bridges

Lecture 11: Design of Steel Truss Bridges
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Trusses
E L
P T
N
Ø Design Principle
Ø Influence Line Diagram

Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Trusses
Ø Design Principle

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Steel truss bridges are generally preferred for long span railway
bridges.
• Steel truss bridges are generally found economical in the span

range of 100 to 200 m.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Trussed bridges are economical since the members are

subjected to direct forces and the open web construction
facilitates the use of larger depths with a reduction in the self-
weight.
• The construction
E L
of steel trussed
P T
bridge is faster
due to lightness
N
of members and
fabrication of
joints at site.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The maintenance costs of a steel bridge is higher since the

members have to be painted periodically to prevent their
deterioration due to corrosion.
• In addition, steel
bridges should
E L
be provided with
P T
rocker and roller
bearings which
N
need periodical
inspection and
maintenance.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• A steel trussed bridge deck consists of the flooring, stringer

beams, cross girders, supported by the main truss system.
• The flooring is
either made up of
steel plates or
E L
reinforced concrete
P T
slab which
generally adopted
is
N
due to its rigidity.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Trusses
Ø Design Principle

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types for Trusses
• The most common type of steel truss used for bridges is the
Warren truss.
• This type can be advantageously used both for through and

deck bridges.
•
E L
Different configurations of the Warren trusses can be used in
P T
steel truss bridges as shown in the next slide.
N
Bridge Engineering
Types for Trusses
E L
P T
N
Different configurations of Warren trusses used in steel truss bridges
Bridge Engineering
Types for Trusses
• When the depth of the bay

is twice its panel length, K-
bracing can be adopted.
• In the case of long span

truss bridges, the top
E L
chords can be gradually
P T
curved
supports.
towards the
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Trusses
Ø Design Principle

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Truss Bridges
• The deck slab is designed as a two-way slab to support the IRC

loads using Pigeaud's curves.
• The stringer beams are designed generally as rolled steel joists

to resist the dead and live loads on the beams.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The cross girders are designed as plate girders to resist the load
transmitted by the stringer beams.
• The main truss members are designed on the assumption that

the members are subjected to axial forces only with the loads
applied at the nodal points.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The depth of the truss for a high-way bridge is generally in the

range of 1/6 to 1/20 times span length and for railway bridges, it
ranges from 1/5 to 1/10 times span length.
• The panel length is selected such that the slope of the diagonals
is not less than 45 degrees with the horizontal.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Tension Members
The design strength of a member under axial tension Td is the

lowest of the design strength due to yielding of gross section, Tdg,
rupture strength of critical section Tdn, and block shear Tdb.
E L
Design strength of a member under axial tension due to yielding of
gross section, Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0
P T
Where fy = yield stress of the material, N
Ag = gross area of cross-section,
γm0 = Partial safety factor for failure in tension by yielding.
Bridge Engineering
Design rupture strength of critical section Tdn = (0.9An × fu)/ γm1
An = Net root area at the threaded section,
γm1 = Partial safety factor for failure governed by ultimate stress,
fu = Ultimate stress of the material.

E L
P T
The block shear strength, Tdb shall be checked for welded end
N
connections by taking an appropriate section in the member around
the end weld, which can shear off as a block.
The design strength of a member under axial tension Td must be

higher than Factored design tension force T for a safe design.
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Compression Members
The design compressive strength Pd, of a member = Ac × fcd
Where Ac = Effective Cross-sectional Area
L
Design compressive stress, fcd of axially loaded compression
E
members can be calculated as follows.
P T
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5]
N
Where φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2]
λ = Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E]
Bridge Engineering
KL/r = Effective slenderness ratio or ratio of effective length KL to

appropriate radius of gyration r
α = Imperfection factor dependent on buckling class and flange

thickness
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor for material strength

E L
P T
N
The design compressive strength of a member Pd must be higher
than Factored design compression force P for a safe design.
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Stringer Beams
For Compact Sections under Simply Supported boundary

conditions, Design Bending Strength Md = (1.2 × Ze × fy)/ γm0 ≥
Design Bending Moment M
E
Where Ze = Elastic Section Modulus of Cross-sectionL
P T
fy = Yield Stress of Material
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor

N
Design Shear Strength Vd = Vn/ γm0 ≥ Design Shear Force V
Where Vn = Nominal Shear Resistance of Section = Av fyw/√3
Bridge Engineering
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor against shear failure
Av = Shear Area = (h × tw) for hot rolled sections
fyw = Yield Strength of the Web
h = Overall depth of the section

E L
tw = Thickness of the Web
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Trusses
Ø Design Principle

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Influence Line Diagram
• An influence line represents variation of reaction, shear or
moment at a specific point in a member as a concentrated load
moves over the member.
• Magnitude of the associated reaction, shear or moment at the
L
point can be calculated using the ordinates of the influence-line
E
diagram.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Influence Line Diagram for Truss Bridges
• In truss bridges, loading on bridge deck is transmitted to
stringers which in turn transmit the loading to floor beams and
then to joints along the bottom cord.
• Ordinate values of the

influence line of a member
E L
can be obtained by
P T
loading each joint along
the deck with a unit load N
and then using method of
joints or method of
sections to calculate the
member force.
Bridge Engineering
• The datasets indicating ‘unit load at joint’ and ‘force in member’
once obtained, can be summarized in tabular form.
• As per convention, if the member force is tensile, it is

considered a positive value. On the other hand, if it is
compressive it is negative.
E L
• The influence line for the
P T
member is constructed
by plotting the data and
N
drawing straight lines
between the points.
Bridge Engineering
Draw the influence line for the force in member GB of the truss
bridge for a unit load moving from joint A to B, C, D and E.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Each successive joint at the bottom cord is loaded with a unit
load and the support reaction at E is computed using equations of
equilibrium. The force in member GB is then calculated using the
method of sections.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Since the influence line extends over the entire span of truss,
member GB is referred to as a primary member.
This means that GB is subjected to a force regardless of where
the bridge deck is loaded.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The magnitudes of support reaction at E when unit load is at Joint
A, B, C, D or E are summarized in this table below.
1 kN Support
Load at Reaction
Joint at E, RE
(kN)
E L
A 0
P T
B
C
0.25
0.5 N
D 0.75
E 1
Bridge Engineering
The force in member GB, FGB is calculated using the method of
sections.
For Unit Load at A and B,

the free body diagram of
the cut section will be as
E L
shown in the figure.
PCT D E
Applying vertical force
equilibrium condition, i.e.,
N
RE
↑ + ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 0
FGB × sin 45°= RE
Or, FGB = √2 RE
Bridge Engineering
For unit load at C, D and E, the force in member GB, FGB can be
calculated as follows.
For Unit Load at C, the free

body diagram will be as
E L
Applying vertical force
C
P T D E
equilibrium condition, i.e.,
↑ + ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 0
N 1
RE
FGB × sin 45°= RE − 1
Or, FGB = √2 × (RE − 1)
Bridge Engineering
Support
1 kN Load Force in member GB, FGB
Reaction at
at Joint (kN)
E, RE (kN)
A 0
FGB = √2 RE
E L
0
B 0.25
P T
0.354
C
D
0.5
0.75
FGB =
N
√2 × (RE − 1)
– 0.707
– 0.354
E 1 0
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Influence Line Diagram for Member Force FGB
The point of zero force is determined by similar triangles.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
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Bridge Engineering
v R.C. Hibbeler, Structural Analysis, Pearson Education Limited.
L
E
T
v D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
v T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd.
v W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group.
v G. Parke and N. Hewson, ICE manual of Bridge Engineering, Thomas Telford
Publishing.
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T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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N
Module 04: Steel Truss Bridges

Lecture 12: Design Example of Steel Truss Bridges
Ø Design Example
E L
P T
N
Design a steel trussed bridge to suit the following data.
Effective span = 30 m
Roadway: 7.5 m (two lanes)
Kerbs: 600 mm
E L
Loading: IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle
P T
N
Materials: a) M-25 Grade concrete and Fe-415 HYSD bars for deck
slab.
b) Rolled steel sections with an yield stress of 250 N/mm2.
Bridge Engineering
1. Given Data:
Roadway: 7.5 m (two lanes)
Kerbs: 600 mm
E L
Loading: IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle
P T
N
Materials: a) M-25 Grade concrete and Fe-415 HYSD bars for deck
slab.
b) Rolled steel sections with an yield stress of 250 N/mm2.
Bridge Engineering
2. Arrangement of Members:
For a span of 30 m, it is proposed to provide a Warren truss with 6

panels of 5 m each.
Cross girders are provided at 5 m intervals joining the nodal

points.
E L
P T
N
The stringers are spaced at 1.875 m centres.
The configuration of the Warren truss and the arrangement of

cross girders and stringers are shown in next slides.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Stringer Beams
Steel Truss
Bridge Engineering
3. Dead Load:
Self-weight of Deck Slab of 200 mm thickness = (0.2 × 24) = 4.8

kN/m2
Weight of Wearing Coat of 100 mm thickness = (0.1 × 22) = 2.2

kN/m2
E L
P T
N
Total Dead Load per area = 7.0 kN/m2
Total Dead Load on Slab Panel = (7 × 5 × 1.875) = 65.625 kN

Using Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method,
u/B = 1 and v/L = 1 as Dead Load is uniformly distributed on deck.
Bridge Engineering
For k = B/L = 1.875/5 = 0.375 ≈ 0.4,

Pigeaud’s Coefficients m1 = 0.045 and m2 = 0.009
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For k = B/L = 0.375 ≈ 0.4, m1 = 0.045 and m2 = 0.009

Moment in Short Span M1 due to Dead Load = W × (m1 + μm2)
= 65.625 × (0.045 + 0.15 × 0.009) = 3.042 kN-m
Moment in Long Span M2 due to Dead Load = W × (m2 + μm1)
E L
T
= 65.625 × (0.009 + 0.15 × 0.045) = 1.034 kN-m
N P
For continuous deck slab, Design Bending moment along Short
For continuous deck slab, Design Bending moment along Long

Shear Force due to Dead Load = 7 × (1.875 ‒ 0.01)/2 = 6.527 kN
Bridge Engineering
4. Live Load:
Live load: IRC Class AA tracked vehicle
Wheel Imprint: 3.6 m long and 0.85 m wide
Each wheel is carrying a load of 350 kN

E L
Impact factor: 1.25
P T
N
One wheel is placed at the centre of panel
as shown in Figure.
L = 5 m, B = 1.875 m,
k = B/L = 1.875/5 = 0.375 ≈ 0.4
Bridge Engineering
Wheel Load Dispersion along Short Span

u = (0.85 + 2 × 0.1) = 1.05 m
Wheel Load Dispersion along Long Span

v = (3.6 + 2 × 0.1) = 3.80 m
E L
L = 5 m, B = 1.875 m,
P T
k = B/L = 1.875/5 = 0.375 ≈ 0.4
N
u/B = 1.05/1.875 = 0.56
v/L = 3.80/5.0 = 0.76
Bridge Engineering
For k = 0.4, u/B = 0.56 and (v/L) = 0.76,

Pigeaud’s Coefficients m1 = 0.083 and m2 = 0.018
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Moment in Short Span M1 due to Live Load = W × (m1 + μm2)

= 350 × (0.083 + 0.15 × 0.018) = 29.995 kN-m
Moment in Long Span M2 due to Live Load = W × (m2 + μm1)

= 350 × (0.018 + 0.15 × 0.083) = 10.657 kN-m
E L
T
P
N
Load along Short Span (including Impact Factor) = 0.8 × M1 × 1.25 =
29.995 kN-m

Load along Long Span (including Impact Factor) = 0.8 × M2 × 1.25 =
10.657 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
Using Effective Width Method, Dispersion of Live Load in Direction

of Short Span = x + 2 × (D + H) = 0.85 + 2 × (0.1 + 0.2) = 1.45 m
For Maximum Shear in Deck Slab, the wheel load is placed such
that the centre of wheel is at 1.45/2 = 0.725 m distance from the
edge of the panel.
E L
Effective Span L = 1.875 ‒ 0.01 = 1.865 m
P T
Effective Breadth B = 5 ‒ 0.01 = 4.99 mN
Span Ratio of Slab = 4.99/1.865 = 2.676
Bridge Engineering
𝑩
𝑲 = A constant depending on the ratio 𝑳
where 𝑩 is width of the slab
Values of constant 𝑲 (Annexure B3: IRC 112: 2011)
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For Span Ratio of Slab = 2.676, K = 2.60 for Continuous Deck Slab.
bw = Wheel Contact Dimension in a direction perpendicular to

Span of Slab plus 2 times of the thickness of the wearing coat
= 3.6 + 2 × 0.1 = 3.8 m
E L
x = 0.725 m
P T
N
= 2.60 × 0.725 × (1 ‒ 0.725/ 1.865) + 3.8 = 4.952 m
Bridge Engineering
Live Load/ metre width due to 350 kN Wheel Load = 350/ 4.952 =
70.678 kN
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load (Including Impact Factor)

= 70.678 × (1 ‒ 0.725/ 1.865) × 1.25 = 54.003 kN
E L
P T
Load in Short Span MB = 2.434 + 29.995 = 32.429 kN-m
N
Load in Long Span ML = 0.827 + 10.657 = 11.484 kN-m
Service Load Design Shear Force in Slab from Dead Load and Live
Load V = 6.527 + 54.003 = 60.853 kN
Bridge Engineering
Load in Short Span Mult,B = 1.35 × 2.434 + 1.5 × 29.995 = 48.278 kN-
m
E L
Load in Long Span Mult,L = 1.35 × 0.827 + 1.5 × 10.657 = 17.102 kN-
m
P T
N
Ultimate Design Shear Force in Slab from Dead Load and Live
Load Vult = 1.35 × 6.527 + 1.5 × 54.003 = 89.816 kN
Bridge Engineering
5. Design of Slab:
Overall depth of slab = 200 mm.
Assuming 40 mm clear cover and 12 mm diameter bars, effective

depth of slab = (200 ‒ 40 ‒ 6) = 154 mm
E L
T
Using M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars, Limiting
N P
moment of resistance along short span for singly reinforced
sections can be expressed as: Mu,lim = 0.138 × fckbd2

106)/(0.138 × 25 × 1000) = 118.295 mm ≈ 119 mm
Bridge Engineering


E L
P T
N
48.278 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [154 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 55601.7 × Ast + 48.278 × 106 = 0
Ast = 969.553 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Using 12 mm diameter bars as main reinforcement, the spacing S

= (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 113.097/ 969.553) = 116.648 mm
Therefore, 12 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided along short

E L
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 113.097/ 100) = 1131 mm2
P T
N
Similarly, using M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars,
Limiting moment of resistance along longer span for singly
reinforced sections is 17.102 kN-m

Bridge Engineering
17.102 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × [154 ‒ 415 × Ast / (25 × 1000)]
5.99 × Ast2 ‒ 55601.7 × Ast + 17.102 × 106 = 0
Ast = 318.51 mm2
E L
given by: S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (1000 × 78.54/ 318.51) = 246.586 mm
P T
N
Therefore, 10 mm diameter HYSD bars can be provided along
longer span at a spacing of 150 mm.
Area of steel provided = (1000 × 78.54/ 150) = 523.6 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Check for Ultimate Flexural Strength:
Ultimate Bending Moment of Deck Slab Mu = 0.87fy Ast [d ‒ (fy Ast /

fckb)] = 0.87 × 415 × 1131 × [154 ‒ 415 × 1131/(25 × 1000)]
= 55218960.79 N-mm = 55.219 kN-m > 48.278 kN-m (Hence, safe)
E L
Check for Ultimate Shear Strength:
P T
N
Here, K = 1 + √(200/d) = 1 + √(200/154) = 2.14 > 2 (Hence, taken as 2)
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 1131/(1000 × 154) = 0.007
Bridge Engineering
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd = [0.12 × 2 × (80 × 0.007 × 25)0.33] ×

1000 × 154 = 88298.681 N = 88.299 kN < 89.816 kN (unsafe)
Using 12 mm diameter HYSD at a spacing of 90 mm, area of steel

provided = (1000 × 113.097/ 90) = 1256.633 mm2
ρ1 = Ast/bd = 1256.633/(1000 × 154) = 0.008

E L
P T
N
VRd,c = [0.12K(80 ρ1fck)0.33] bd = [0.12 × 2 × (80 × 0.008 × 25)0.33] ×
1000 × 154 = 92276.594 N = 92.277 kN > 89.816 kN (safe)
Limit State of Cracking:

Bridge Engineering
L
Stress (MPa) Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm Stress (MPa)
T E
Wk = 0.3 mm Wk = 0.2 mm
P
160 32 25 160 300 200
200
240
25
16
16
12 N
200
240
250
200
150
100
280 12 ─ 280 150 50
320 10 ─ 320 100 ─
Bridge Engineering

bx2/2 = (Es/Ec) × Ast × (d ‒ x)
500x2 = (200/25) × 1256.633 × (154 ‒ x)
E L
500x2 + 10053.064x ‒ 1548171.856 = 0
P T
x = 46.493 mm N
σs = M/[(d ‒ x/3)Ast] = 32429000/[(154 ‒ 46.493/3) × 1256.633] =
186.324 MPa
Bridge Engineering
IRC:112-2011 are 27 mm and 267 mm.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
6. Design of Stringer Beams:

Dead load due to self-weight of slab and wearing coat = (7 ×
1.875) = 13.125 kN/m
Self-weight of Stringer = 1 kN/m (assumed)
E L
T
Total Dead Load on Stringer = (13.125 + 1) = 14.125 kN/m
N P
Maximum Bending Moment due to Dead Load = (14.125 × 52)/ 8 =
44.141 kN-m
Maximum Shear Force due to Dead Load = (14.125 × 5)/2 = 35.312

kN
Bridge Engineering
The stringer is subjected to maximum bending moment when

one of the tracks is directly on it such that the C.G. of the
loading is coinciding with the centre line of the beam, as shown
in Figure below.
E L
Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load = [(0.5 × 350 × 2.5) −
(0.5 × 350 × 0.25 × 3.6)] = 280 kN-m
P T
N
Live Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load including Impact

Factor = (280 × 1.25) = 350 kN-m
The stringer is subjected to maximum shear force when one of

the tracks is placed at the support, as shown in Figure below.
E L
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load = (350 × 3.2)/ 5 = 224 kN
P T
N
Live Load Position for Maximum Shear Force
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load including Impact

Factor = (224 × 1.25) = 280 kN
Ultimate Design Bending Moment from Dead Load and Live Load
M = (1.5 × 44.141 + 1.5 × 350) = 591.212 kN-m
E L
Ultimate Design Shear Force from Dead Load and Live Load V =
(1.5 × 35.312 + 1.5 × 280) = 472.968 kN
P T
N
For Compact Sections under Simply Supported boundary
conditions, Design Bending Strength Md = (1.2 × Ze × fy)/ γm0 ≥
Design Bending Moment M
Where Ze = Elastic Section Modulus of Cross-section
Bridge Engineering
fy = Yield Stress of Material = 250 MPa
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor = 1.1
Let us consider Wide Flange Beam Section ISWB 550 with Ze =

2720 mm3
E L
T
Design Bending Strength Md = (1.2 × Ze × fy)/ γm0 = (1.2 × 2720 ×
P
N
250)/ 1.1 = 741818.18 N-mm = 741.818 kN-m > Design Bending
Moment M = 591.212 kN-m. (Hence, safe).
Design Shear Strength Vd = Vn/ γm0 ≥ Design Shear Force V
Where Vn = Nominal Shear Resistance of Section = Av fyw/√3
Bridge Engineering
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor against shear failure = 1.1
Av = Shear Area = (h × tw) for hot rolled sections
fyw = Yield Strength of the Web = 250 MPa
h = Overall depth of the section = 550 mm

E L
tw = Thickness of the Web = 10.5 mm
P T
N
Vn = Av fyw/√3 = (550 × 10.5) × 250/√3 = 833549.451 N = 833.549 kN
Design Shear Strength Vd = Vn/ γm0 = (833.549/1.1) = 757.772 kN >

Design Shear Force V = 472.968 kN (Hence, safe)
Bridge Engineering
7. Design of Cross Girders:

Span of cross girder = (7.5 + 2 × 0.6) = 8.7 m
Dead Load due to Slab and Wearing Coat = (7 × 5) = 35 kN/m
L
Dead load due to Stringer Beams = (1.125 × 5) = 5.625 kN
E
Load due to Connectors = 0.375 kN
P T
Total Dead Load = 6.00 kN N
Self-weight of cross girder = (0.2 L + 1) kN/m = (0.2 × 8.7 + 1) =
2.74 kN/m ≈ 3 kN/m
Total Uniformly Distributed Load = (35 + 3) = 38 kN/m
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Dead Load Bending Moment at centre of span Mg

= [(180.3 × 4.35) – (38 × 4.35 × 0.5 × 4.35) – (6 × 3.75) – (6 × 1.875)]
= 391.028 kN-m
E L
P T
N
Position of Dead Load for Maximum Bending Moment
Maximum Dead Load Shear at Support = (38 × 8.7/2) + (6 × 5/2) =

180.3 kN
Bridge Engineering
Span of Girder = 8.7 m

Impact Factor on girder = 1.40
Maximum Live Load Bending Moment including impact factor
occurs when the two tracks of IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle
E L
Load are spaced symmetrically from the centre of cross girder.
P T
N
Position of Live Load for Maximum Bending Moment
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Bending Moment for Live Load = (350 × 8.7/2) ‒ (350 ×

2.05/2) = 1163.75 kN-m.
Maximum Bending Moment for Live Load including Impact Factor

= (1.40 × 1163.75) = 1629.25 kN-m.
E L
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load occurs when one of the
P T
edges of the left wheel is 1.2 m from the kerb.
N
This means that the centre line of the left wheel is at (0.6 + 1.2 +
0.85/2) = 2.225 m from the nearest (left) support and (8.7 – 2.225)
= 6.475 m from the farthest (right) support.
Bridge Engineering
Also, the centre line of the right wheel is at (6.475 – 1.2 – 2 ×

0.85/2) = 4.425 m from the farthest (right) support.
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load = [(350 × 6.475) + (350 ×

4.425)]/8.7 = 438.506 kN.
E L
Maximum Shear Force due to Live Load including Impact Factor
= (1.40 × 438.506) = 613.908 kN.
P T
N
Ultimate Design Bending Moment from Dead Load and Live Load
M = (1.5 × 391.028 + 1.5 × 1629.25) = 3030.417 kN-m
Ultimate Design Shear Force from Dead Load and Live Load V =
(1.5 × 180.3 + 1.5 × 613.908) = 1191.312 kN
Bridge Engineering
Trial section of Web Plate of Plate Girder:

Optimum depth of plate girder d = (Mk/fy)0.33 when intermediate
transverse stiffeners are not to be provided.
Where k = (d/tw) = 180 for thin webs and fy = 250 N/mm2
E L
T
Substituting, d = [(3030.417 × 106 × 180)/250]0.33 = 1207.301 mm
N P
Optimum web thickness of plate girder tw = (M/fyk2)0.33
For k = (d/tw) = 180 for thin webs and fy = 250 N/mm2,
Substituting, tw = [(3030.417 × 106)/(250 × 1802)]0.33 = 7.065 mm
We can try to consider web plate of dimensions 1200 mm depth ×

10 mm thickness.
Bridge Engineering
Trial section of Flange Plate of Plate Girder:

Let us assume that the bending moment will be resisted by the
flanges and shear by the web.
Required area of flange of plate girder Af = (M × γm0)/ fyd
E L
T
Where γm0 = Partial Safety Factor
N P
Substituting, d = 1200 mm, γm0 = 1.1 and fy = 250 N/mm2
Af = [(3030.417 × 106 × 1.1)/(250 × 1200)] = 11111.529 mm2
Assuming flange width bf = 0.3 times depth of the girder d, flange

width bf = 0.3 × 1200 = 360 mm
Bridge Engineering
Considering flange width bf = 400 mm, flange thickness tf = Af/ bf =

(11111.529/ 400) = 27.779 mm
We can try to consider flange plates of dimensions 400 mm width

× 30 mm thickness.
E L
Overall depth of plate girder D = d + 2 tf = 1200 + 2 × 30 = 1260
mm
P T
Classification of Flanges: N
Outstand of flange b = (bf − tw)/2 = (400 − 10)/2 = 195 mm
b/tf = (195/30) = 6.5 < 8.4
Hence, the flanges are plastic.
Bridge Engineering
Check for Bending Strength:

Plastic Section Modulus Zp = 2 bf tf × (D − tf)/2 = 2 × 400 × 30 ×
(1260 − 30)/2 = 14760000 mm3
Moment capacity Md = (Zp× fy)/ γm0 = (14760000 × 250)/ 1.1 =
E L
3354545455 N-mm = 3354.545 kN-m > Ultimate Design Bending
Moment M = 3030.417 kN-m
P T
Hence, the section is safe. N
Shear Capacity of Web:
d/ tw = 1200/10 = 120 < 200
Elastic critical shear stress τcr,e = Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
Bridge Engineering
Where Kv = 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at

supports.
μ = Poisson’s Ratio = 0.3.
Elastic critical shear stress τcr,e = Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2] =
E L
(5.35 × π2 × 2 × 105)/ [12 × (1 − 0.32) × 1202] = 67.158 N/mm2
P T
N
Non-dimensional web slenderness ratio for shear buckling stress
λw = √[fyw/(√3 × τcr,e)] = √[250/(√3 × 67.158)] = 1.466 ≈ 1.4 > 1.20
Shear stress corresponding to buckling, for λw > 1.20, τb = fyw/(√3

× λw2) = 250/ √3 × 1.42 = 73.642 N/mm2
Bridge Engineering
Shear force corresponding to web buckling Vcr = dtw τb = (1200 ×

10 × 73.642) = 883.704 kN < Ultimate Design Shear Force V =
1191.312 kN
Hence, it is unsafe.
Let us revise web thickness from 10 mm to 12 mm.

E L
P T
N
(5.35 × π2 × 2 × 105)/ [12 × (1 − 0.32) × (1200/12)2] = 96.708 N/mm2

λw = √[fyw/(√3 × τcr,e)] = √[250/(√3 × 96.708)] = 1.222 > 1.20
Bridge Engineering
Shear stress corresponding to buckling, for λw > 1.20, τb = fyw/(√3

× λw2) = 250/ √3 × 1.2222 = 96.658 N/mm2
Shear force corresponding to web buckling Vcr = dtw τb = (1200 ×

12 × 96.658) = 1391.875 kN > Ultimate Design Shear Force V =
1191.312 kN
E L
Hence, it is safe.
P T
Check for lateral torsional buckling: N
Since the compression flange of the girder is laterally restrained
throughout, the check for lateral torsional buckling is not
required.
Bridge Engineering
Flange to Web Connection:

Maximum shear force at the junction of web and flange is given
by qw = (V × Af × ӯ)/ 2Iz
Iz = (bf − tw) × d3/ 12 = (400 − 12) × 12003/ 12 = 1.081 × 1010 mm4
E L
T
qw = (V × Af × ӯ)/ 2Iz = [1191.312 × (400 × 30) × (600 + 30/2)]/ (2 ×
1.081 × 1010) = 0.406 kN/mm
N P
Let us provide weld of size S = 6 mm. KS = 0.7 × 6 = 4.2 mm
Strength of weld per unit length fwd = (4.2 × 250 × 10-3)/(√3 × 1.25)
= 0.485 kN/mm > 0.406 kN/mm
6 mm continuous fillet welds can be provided on either side.
Bridge Engineering
30
12
E L
P T
1200
Section of Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
Intermediate Stiffeners:
Since the ratio of (d/t) = (1200/12) = 100 > 85, vertical stiffeners
are required.
Adopting the spacing of stiffeners c = 1000 mm
E L
T
Greater unsupported panel dimension of the web = 1000 mm <
270 tw < (270 × 12) = 3240 mm
N P
The Intermediate stiffeners are designed to have a minimum
moment of inertia specified as I = 1.5d3t3/c2 = 1.5 × 12003 ×
123/10002 = 4478976 mm4
Bridge Engineering
Using 12 mm thick plate, outstand of stiffener should be not

greater than 12t = (12 × 12) = 144 mm
Adopt a plate 12 mm by 120 mm, having,
I = (12 × 1203)/3 = (691.2 × 104) > (448 × 104) mm4
E L
Connections of Vertical Stiffener to Web
P T
N
Shear on welds connecting stiffener to web = (126t2/h)
Where, t = web thickness (mm) = 12 mm
h = outstand of stiffener (mm) = 120 mm
Bridge Engineering
Shear on welds connecting stiffener to web = (126t2/h) = (126 ×

122)/ 120 = 151.2 N/mm
Size of weld s = [151.2/ (0.7 × 158)] = 1.37 mm
Effective Length of weld should be not less than 10t = (10 × 12) =
120 mm
E L
P T
N
Provide 120 mm long, 5 mm fillet welds alternately on either side.
Bridge Engineering
8. Design of Steel Truss:

A Warren truss with 6 panels of 5 m each is used.
Span of the truss = 30 m
Height of truss = 1/6 span = (30/6) = 5 m
E L
T
Dead loads due to deck slab, wearing coat, stringer beams and
P
N
cross girders acting at each node = 180.3 kN ≈ 181 kN
Self-weight of truss = (0.15 L + 5.5) = (0.15 × 30 + 5.5) = 10 kN/m
Self-weight at each node point = (5 × 10) = 50 kN
Total dead load = (181 + 50) = 231 kN
Bridge Engineering
Live loads: IRC Class AA loading.
Maximum bending moment is produced when the class AA

vehicle is closest to main girder.
Maximum load transferred when one track is at 1.625 m from the

edge of the kerb as shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Live Load Position for Truss Design
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Live Load = [(350 × 6.475)/8.7] + [(350 × 4.425)/8.7] =

438.51 kN ≈ 439 kN
Impact factor = 1.10
Maximum Live Load including impact = (439 × 1.1) = 483 kN
E L
T
Average uniformly distributed loading = (483/3.6) = 134.17 kN/m ≈
P
N
135 kN/m
Forces in the members of the truss is determined when a rolling

load of length 3.6 m, shorter than span rolls on the bridge.
Influence lines are drawn for forces in the various members of

the truss as shown in figures.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T U0U1
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
I. Member L0L1
Taking moments about U0, influence line ordinate at U0
= (B.M. about U0)/(Perpendicular distance)
= (2.5 × 27.5)/(30 × 5) = 0.46

E L
P T
Influence line ordinate at L1 = (0.46 × 25)/27.5 = 0.416
N
Using the influence line diagram, force due to dead loads
= 231 × (0.416 + 0.33 + 0.25 + 0.16 + 0.08) = 286 kN (Tension)
Force due to live loads = [0.5 × (0.416 + 0.366) × 3.6 × 135] = 190
kN (Tension)
Bridge Engineering
II. Member L1L2
= (7.5 × 22.5)/(30 × 5) = 1.13

E L
P T
N
= 231 × (0.75 + 1 + 0.75 + 0.5 + 0.25) = 751 kN (Tension)
Force due to live loads = [0.5 × (0.88 + 0.94) × 3.6 × 135] = 442 kN
(Tension)
Bridge Engineering
III. Member L2L3
= (12.5 × 17.5)/(30 × 5) = 1.46
L
E
P T
N
= 231 × (1.17 + 1.26 + 0.58 + 0.84 + 0.42) = 989 kN (Tension)
Force due to live loads = [0.5 × (1.13 +1.11) × 3.6 × 135] = 544 kN
(Tension)
Bridge Engineering
IV. Member U0U1
Taking moments about L1, influence line ordinate at L1
= (5 × 25)/(30 × 5) = 0.833
L
E
P T
= 231 × (0.833 + 0.67 + 0.5 + 0.33 + 0.17) = 578 kN (Compression)
N
Force due to live loads = [0.5 × (0.735 + 0.883) × 3.6 × 135] = 381
kN (Compression)
Bridge Engineering
V. Member U1U2
= (10 × 20)/(30 × 5) = 1.33
L
E
P T
= 231 × (0.66 + 1.33 + 1.0 + 0.66 + 0.33) = 920 kN (Compression)
N
(Compression)
Bridge Engineering
VI. Member U2U3
= (15 × 15)/(30 × 5) = 1.5
L
E
P T
= 231 × (0.5 + 1 + 1.5 + 1 + 0.5) = 1040 kN (Compression)
N
(Compression)
Bridge Engineering
VII. Member L0U0
Force in L0U0 is governed by the shear force in panel L0L1
Influence line ordinate at L1 = [(30 - 5)/30] secθ = (25/30) × 1.13 =

0.94
E L
T
P
N
= 231 × (0.94 + 0.75 + 0.56 + 0.37 + 0.19) = 650 kN (Compression)
(Compression)
Bridge Engineering
VIII. Member U0L1
Force in member U0L1 is same as in L0U0 but with different sign.
Force in U0L1 is governed by the shear force in panel L0L1
L
Influence line ordinate at L1 = [(30 - 5)/30] secθ = (25/30) × 1.13 =
E
0.94
P T
N
= 231 × (0.94 + 0.75 + 0.56 + 0.37 + 0.19) = 650 kN (Tension)
(Tension)
Bridge Engineering
IX. Member U1L1
Influence line ordinate at L1 = (5/30) secθ = (5/30) × 1.13 = 0.19
L
E
T
= 231 × (– 0.19 + 0.75 + 0.56 + 0.375 + 0.187) = 389 kN (Compression)
P
Force due to live loads: N
Maximum compressive force = (0.5 × 0.72 × 3.6 × 135) = 175 kN
Maximum tensile force = (0.5 × 0.19 × 1.22 × 135) + 0.5 × (0.09 + 0.19)
× (2.38 × 135) = 61 kN
Bridge Engineering
X. Member U1L2
Force in member U1L2 is same as in U1L1 but with different sign.
L
E
T
P
N
= 231 × (– 0.19 + 0.75 + 0.56 + 0.375 + 0.187) = 389 kN (Tension)
Force due to live loads:

Maximum tensile force = (0.5 × 0.72 × 3.6 × 135) = 175 kN
Maximum compressive force = (0.5 × 0.19 × 1.22 × 135) + 0.5 ×

(0.09 + 0.19) × (2.38 × 135) = 61 kN
Bridge Engineering
XI. Member U2L2
L
E
P T
N
= 231 × (– 0.377 – 0.189 + 0.565 + 0.376 + 0.188) = 130 kN
(Compression)

Maximum tensile force = (0.5 × 0.377 × 2 × 135) + (0.316 + 0.377)/2
× (1.6 × 135) = 126 kN
Bridge Engineering
Maximum compressive force = (0.5 × 3 × 0.565 × 135) + [0.565 +

0.542)/2 × (0.6 × 135) = 160 kN
XII. Member U2L3
Force in member U2L3 is same as in U2L2 but with different sign.
E L
T
P
N

= 231 × (– 0.377 – 0.189 + 0.565 + 0.376 + 0.188) = 130 kN (Tension)
Bridge Engineering

Maximum compressive force = (0.5 × 0.377 × 2 × 135) + (0.316 +
0.377)/2 × (1.6 × 135) = 126 kN
Maximum tensile force = (0.5 × 3 × 0.565 × 135) + [0.565 + 0.542)/2

× (0.6 × 135) = 160 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Forces in Truss Members:
Due to Live Load (kN) Due to Dead Load (kN) Combined Load (kN) Critical Load
Member
Compression Tension Compression Tension Maximum Minimum (kN)
L0L1 ----- 190 ----- 286 – 476 – 286 – 476
L1 L2 ----- 442 ----- 751 – 1193 – 751 – 1193
L2L3 ----- 544 ----- 986 – 1530 – 986 – 1530
U0U1 381 ----- 578 ----- + 959
L
+ 578
E
+ 959
T
U1U2 608 ----- 920 ----- + 1528 + 920 + 1528
P
U2U3 686 ----- 1040 ----- + 1726 + 1040 + 1726
N
U0L0 423 ----- 650 ----- + 1073 + 650 + 1073
U0L1 ----- 423 ----- 650 – 1073 – 650 – 1073
– 61
U1L1 175 61 389 ----- + 564 – 61
+ 564
– 564
U1L2 61 175 ----- 389 – 564 + 61
+ 61
+ 290
U2L2 160 126 130 ----- + 290 – 126
– 126
– 290
U2L3 126 160 ----- 130 – 290 + 126
+ 126
Bridge Engineering
Design of Truss Members:
a) Member L2L3
Factored design force in member L2L3, T = 1.5 × 1530 kN = 2295

kN (Tension)
E L
Let’s try a section as follows.
P T
N
2 plates of 350 × 12 mm with a cross sectional area = 8400 mm2
4 angles of 75 × 75 × 10 mm with a cross sectional area = 5608

mm2
Total cross sectional area Ag = 13708 mm2
Bridge Engineering

lowest of the design strength due to yielding of gross section,
Tdg, rupture strength of critical section Tdn, and block shear Tdb.
Design strength of a member under axial tension due to yielding

of gross section, Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0
E L
P T
γm0 = Partial safety factor for failure in tension by yielding = 1.1
N
Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0 = (13708 × 250)/ 1.1 = 3115454.54 N = 3115 kN
An = Net root area at the threaded section = 13708 mm2
Bridge Engineering
γm1 = Partial safety factor for failure governed by ultimate stress =

1.25
fu = Ultimate stress of the material = 400 MPa (assumed)
Tdn = (0.9An × fu)/ γm1 = (0.9 × 13708 × 400)/ 1.25 = 3947904 N =

3948 kN
E L
P T
N
The design strength of a member under axial tension Td = 3115
kN > Factored design tension force T = 2295 kN
Hence, the design is safe.
Bridge Engineering
b) Member U2U3
Factored Design force in member U2U3, P = 1.5 × 1726 kN = 2589

kN (Compression)
E L
T
1 top flange (500 × 8) with an area = 4000 mm2
P
N
2 ISMC 350 with an area = (2 × 5366) = 10732 mm2
Total cross sectional area Ac = 14732 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Where design compressive stress, fcd of axially loaded

compression members can be calculated as follows.
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5]
Where φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2]
E L
T
λ = Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio = √[fy ×
P
N
(KL/r)2/π2E]

α = Imperfection factor
Bridge Engineering
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor for material strength = 1.1
Radius of gyration rxx = 0.4d = (0.4 × 350) = 140 mm
Radius of gyration ryy = 0.34b = (0.34 × 500) = 170 mm
Effective length KL = (0.85 × 5000) = 4250 mm

E L
P T
Effective slenderness ratio = (KL/r) = (4250/140) = 30.36
N
For tf = 8 mm i.e. ≤ 40 mm and buckling class b,
α = Imperfection factor = 0.34
λ = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E] = √[(250 × 30.362)/(π2 × 2 × 105)] = 0.34
Bridge Engineering
φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2] = 0.5 × [1 + 0.34 × (0.34 – 0.2) +

0.342] = 0.58
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5] = (250/ 1.1)/[0.58 + (0.582 – 0.342)0.5] =

216.47 MPa
E L
Pd = Ac × fcd = (14732 × 216.47) = 3189036 N = 3189 kN > Factored
design compression force P = 2589 kN
P T
Hence, the design is safe. N
Bridge Engineering
c) Member U0L1 (Diagonal Tension Member)
Factored design force in member U0L1, T = 1.5 × 1073 kN = 1610 kN

(Tension)
E L
T
1 plate of 280 × 15 mm with a cross sectional area = 4200 mm2
P
N
4 angles of 75 × 75 × 10 mm with a cross sectional area = 5608 mm2
Total cross sectional area Ag = 9808 mm2

lowest of the design strength due to yielding of gross section, Tdg,
rupture strength of critical section Tdn, and block shear Tdb.
Bridge Engineering

Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0 = (9808 × 250)/ 1.1 = 2229091 N = 2229 kN
E L
T
P
N
γm1 = Partial safety factor for failure governed by ultimate stress =

1.25
Bridge Engineering
Tdn = (0.9An × fu)/ γm1 = (0.9 × 9808 × 400)/ 1.25 = 2824704 N = 2825
kN
Block shear Tdb is not considered critical for welded sections.

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
d) Member U1L1 (Diagonal Member)
Factored Design force in member U1L1, P = 1.5 × 564 kN = 846 kN

(Compression)
E L
T
1 top flange (280 × 10) with an area = 2800 mm2
P
N
4 angles of 100 × 100 × 12 mm with a cross sectional area = (4 ×
2106) = 9036 mm2
Total cross sectional area Ac = 11836 mm2
Bridge Engineering
Where design compressive stress, fcd of axially loaded

compression members can be calculated as follows.
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5]
Where φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2]
E L
T
P
N
(KL/r)2/π2E]

Bridge Engineering
Radius of gyration rxx = 0.39d = (0.39 × 280) = 109 mm
Radius of gyration ryy = 0.21b = (0.21 × 210) = 44 mm
Effective length KL = (0.85 × 5600) = 4760 mm

E L
P T
Effective slenderness ratio = (KL/r) = (4760/44) = 108
N
For tf = 10 mm i.e. ≤ 40 mm and buckling class c,
α = Imperfection factor = 0.49
λ = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E] = √[(250 × 1082)/(π2 × 2 × 105)] = 1.48
Bridge Engineering
φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2] = 0.5 × [1 + 0.49 × (1.48 – 0.2) +

1.482] = 1.91
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5] = (250/ 1.1)/[1.91 + (1.912 – 1.482)0.5] =

72.91 MPa
E L
Pd = Ac × fcd = (11836 × 72.91) = 862963 N = 862.96 kN > Factored
P T
Hence, the design is safe. N
The detailed drawings of the truss consisting of the cross
sectional details at the typical junctions of the members are
shown in subsequent figures.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Detailing of Truss Members
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
Clear Roadway Width 7.5 m
400 x 1200
Cross-section of Steel Truss Bridge
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v R.C. Hibbeler, Structural Analysis, Pearson Education Limited.
L
E
T
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
v T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 05: Plate Girder Bridges

Lecture 13: Design of Plate Girder Bridges
Ø General Features
Ø Structural Configurations
E L
P T
N
Ø Design Principle
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Design Principle
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Plate girder bridges are the most common type of steel bridges
generally used for railway and high way crossings since late
18th century.
• The earliest forms of steel bridges constructed were plate girder
E L
bridges due to their simplicity and elegant aesthetics.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In general, plate girder bridges are economical for railway and

highway bridges of spans in the range of 15 to 40 m.
• Plate girder bridges may be very competitive for much longer

spans, when they are continuous in the range 50 to 200 m.
•
E L
For short span less than 10 m, plate girder bridges are
P T
uneconomical due to higher connection cost. Rolled I-sections
N
are preferred for short span steel beam bridges.
• Plate girder bridges are built up using two flange plates and a
web plate to form an I-shaped cross section.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Before widespread use of welding, connecting the components

of the cross section was a major concern in the design of plate
girders. All of the connections were made by riveting or bolting.
• Plate girder bridges
constructed after 1960 are
E L
generally shop welded,
P T
N
replacing riveted fasteners.
• Riveted/bolted plate girders

are economically used for
15-30 m span. Welded plate
girders may be used up to
100 m span.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The primary reasons of selection of the plate girder bridges are

the rapid assembling and lesser construction time in
comparison with the concrete bridges.
• However, maintenance
costs of steel plate girder
E L
bridges are quite high
P T
due to their susceptibility
to corrosion damages,
N
especially in coastal
areas, due to aggressive
exposure conditions.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In case of railway bridges, the plate girders support the

sleepers over which the steel rails are fastened. Each rail is
supported on a plate girder so that the wheel loads are
transmitted directly to the plate girder without any torsion.
• Twin plate girders are

E L
braced laterally at the
P T
level of the bottom flange
to provide the lateral
N
stability. Cross bracings
and the end cross frames
resist the lateral loads on
the plate girder.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The design of a plate girder is essentially an upgradation of an

ordinary beam design:
Ø the proportioning of a member with a section modulus
adequate to resist bending
Ø a web capable of resisting shear
E L
Ø sufficient stiffness
P T
• N
Designer has greater control over the dimensions of the section
and may make the web thinner in proportion to its depth than in
any of the rolled shapes.
• Local buckling of compression flange and shear buckling of

web may be of great concern.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Practical alternatives to plate girders in the spans for which

they are economical, are trusses.
• Advantages over Trusses:
Ø Lower fabrication cost as compared to trusses
E L
Ø Erection is faster and cheaper than trusses
P T
N
Ø Require small vertical clearances than trusses
Ø Vibration and impact are not major problem due to

compactness
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Disadvantages over Trusses:
Ø Heavier than trusses for the same span and loads
Ø Larger exposed wind area as compared to truss
L
Ø Low torsional stiffness (box girder provides better torsional
E
stiffness)
P T
N
Ø Susceptibility to stability problems of the compression flange
during erection
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Design Principle
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations
Three types of plate girders are generally used in railway and high
way crossings.
The 1st figure shows the

simplest type of plate
girder built using cover
E L
plates to function as
P T
flanges and a web plate
connecting the flange
N
plates.
Bridge Engineering
way crossings.
The 2nd figure shows a

plate girder used for
longer spans built by
E L
using more cover plates,
P T
to strengthen the flanges
and a web plate.
N
Bridge Engineering
way crossings.
This figure shows a built

up plate girder generally
used for railway bridges
E L
of long spans using two
P T
plate girders connected
by lateral bracing.
N
Bridge Engineering
• Plate girders used for longer span lengths require deeper web
plates.
• To prevent buckling, intermediate stiffeners comprising rolled

steel angles are used at regular intervals along the span and at
the supports.
E L
•
P T
If the span length is large, the web and flange plates are
N
connected by splices for structural integrity in resisting
external loads.
Bridge Engineering
• Web plate: Vertical plate of the plate girder
• Flange or cover plates: Horizontal plates connected with the

web plate by welding or bolted through flange angles
L
• Flange angles: Rolled steel angles sections with or without
E
flange plates connected through rivets/bolts at the top and
T
• N P
bottom of the web plate, used in earlier time
Stiffeners: When web of a plate girder acting alone (without

stiffeners) proves inadequate, stiffeners may be provided for
various purposes.
Bridge Engineering
• Types of Stiffeners: Intermediate transverse and longitudinal

stiffeners, load carrying and bearing stiffeners, diagonal,
torsional and tension stiffeners
• Intermediate transverse and longitudinal web stiffeners: The
E L
function of this stiffener is to improve the buckling strength of
a slender web due to shear.
P T
• N
Load carrying stiffener: The function of this stiffener is to
prevent local buckling of the web due to concentrated loading.
• Bearing stiffener: The function of this stiffener is to prevent

local crushing of the web due to concentrated loading.
Bridge Engineering
• Torsional stiffener: The function of this stiffener is to provide

torsional restraint to beams and girders at supports.
• Diagonal stiffener: The function of this stiffener is to provide

local reinforcement to a web under shear and bearing
•
E L
Tension stiffener: The function of this stiffener is to transmit
P T
tensile forces applied to a web through a flange
N
Bridge Engineering
• Flange Splices: Flange splices should preferably, not be located

at the points of maximum stress. Where splice plates are used,
their area shall be not less than 5% in excess of the area of the
flange element spliced. The centre of gravity of splice plate and
L
the flange element spliced shall coincide, as nearly as possible.
E
•
T
Web Splices: Splices and cutouts for service ducts in the webs
P
N
should preferably not be located at points of maximum shear
force and heavy concentrated loads. Splices in the webs of the
plate girders shall be designed to resist the shear force and
moments at the spliced section.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bolted Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Welded Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Components of Welded Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Plate Girder with Holes for Services
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Design Principle
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Plate Girder Bridges
The main structural elements in a plate girder to be designed are

the web and flanges plate together with the intermediate and the
end bearing stiffeners conforming to the specifications of IRC : 24-
2010 and IS: 800-2007.
The modes of failure of a plate girder are:

E L
• By yielding of the tension flange
P T
• N
By buckling of the compression flange
The compression flange buckling can take place in various ways,

such as vertical buckling in web, flange local buckling or lateral
torsional buckling.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
Bending Stress Distribution (left) and Shear Stress
N
Distribution (right) in an I-section
Based on the stress distribution diagrams, it is evident that the

flanges carry a major portion of the flexural load while the web
carries most of the shear load in the plate girder.
Bridge Engineering
• Proportioning of plate girder is to be done so as to maintain

minimum self-weight and high strength and stiffness.
• Curtailment of flange width or thickness can be done in low

bending moment zone.
•
E
Thicker web can be provided in high shear zone. L
P T
•
N
Hybrid girder an be constructed by utilizing plates of different
strengths for flanges and web, matching the strength
requirements of the structure.
• Flange to web connectors: The flanges of plate girders shall be

connected to the web by sufficient rivets, bolts or welds to
transmit the maximum horizontal shear force.
Bridge Engineering
• Maximum shear flow qw at the junction of web and flange is given

by qw = (V × Af × ӯ)/ 2Iz
Where Iz = (bf − tw) × d3/ 12,
Af = Area of flange = bf × tf,
bf = flange width,
E L
tf = flange thickness,
P T
d = depth of web, N
tw = thickness of web,
V = Factored shear force,
Af × ӯ = moment about neutral axis of the area between the
horizontal shear plane and the outside face of the section
Bridge Engineering
• It is economical to choose a relatively deep web to keep flange

areas at the greatest distance from the neutral axis.
• Thin slender web would be the consequence of this requirement.
L
• Slender web is prone to buckling at low values of applied shear,
E
necessitating provision of intermediate stiffeners.
T
•
N P
Web plate thickness should not be less than 6 mm if painted and
8 mm if unpainted.
• Thin stiffened web is economical and hence, used in the past.
• Recent practice is to provide thick web without stiffeners to

reduce fabrication time and cost.
Bridge Engineering
Minimum Web Thickness:
The thickness of the web of a plate girder section should meet the
following serviceability and compression flange buckling criteria.
L
• Serviceability Criteria:
T E
w
N P
w
Here, d = depth of web, tw = thickness of web
εw = yield stress ratio of web = √(250/fyw), fyw = yield stress of web
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Here, c = spacing of transverse stiffener
d = depth of web, tw = thickness of web
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Here, c = spacing of transverse stiffener
d = depth of web, tw = thickness of web
Bridge Engineering
E L
Here,
P T
d = depth of web, N tw = thickness of web
Bridge Engineering
• Compression Flange Buckling Criteria:
In order to avoid buckling of the compression flange into the web,
L
the web thickness shall satisfy the following.
T E
N P
Here, d = depth of web,
εf = yield stress ratio of the compression flange = √(250/fyf),
fyf = yield stress of the compression flange
Bridge Engineering
• Compression Flange Buckling Criteria:
E L
P T
Here, d = depth of web, N
c = spacing of the transverse stiffener,
εf = yield stress ratio of the compression flange = √(250/fyf),
fyf = yield stress of the compression flange
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Web Thickness:
If the moment M is assumed to be resisted entirely by the flanges,

then for an I-section beam, approximately
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
For trial girder section d/tw ratio of the web may be considered
somewhere between 135 and 240.
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Web Depth:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Web Depth:
E L
P T
N
The optimum depth of the plate girder is determined based on the
area of steel used is minimum. It is desirable to know the optimum
depth for economy so that even if it cannot be adopted, it will serve
as a guide. Normally, a depth less than the optimum depth is
provided in case of design of plate girder.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength:
• The shear strength of a plate girder depends on the depth to

thickness ratio of the web and the spacing of the intermediate
stiffeners provided.
•
E L
The shear capacity of the web has two components, namely,
P T
shear strength before onset of buckling and shear strength at
post-buckling stage. N
• Prior to buckling, shear stress can be deduced from the simple
beam theory.
• Thin unstiffened web plate does not carry much load after
buckling.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength:
• As the shear force increases on

a stiffened web panel, the web
panel buckles. This load does
not indicate the maximum
E L
shear capacity of the web.
P T
• The shear force can be further
increased and the web panel
N
will continue to carry further
load relying on the tension field
Tension Field Action
action.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength:
• Part of the buckled web

takes the load in
tension. This tension
member action takes
E L
place across the web
P T
panel in an inclined
direction to the web
N
panel diagonal.
Tension Field Action
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength:
• At this stage the girder acts like a N-type Pratt truss with the
compression forces being carried by the flanges and the
intermediate stiffeners. The buckled web resists the tension
E L
forces. This additional reserve strength is termed as tension field
action.
P T
• N
If no intermediate stiffeners are present or their spacing is large,
it is not possible for tension field action to take place. Then, the
shear capacity is restricted to the shear strength before
buckling.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Strength of Web:
• Pre-buckling Behavior:
When a web plate is subjected to vertical shear, complementary
L
shear stresses are developed to satisfy equilibrium of the plate.
E
As a consequence, the plate develops diagonal tension and
T
diagonal compression.
N P
Critical elastic shear stress:
It is the shear stress τcr,e beyond which the
plate can not take any further compressive
stress along diagonal AC. V1 = t cr ,e dt w
Bridge Engineering
Critical elastic shear stress: For simply supported condition,

critical elastic shear stress τcr,e = Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
Where μ = Poisson’s Ratio
d = Depth of web,
tw = Thickness of web
E L
Kv = Shear buckling Coefficient,
P T
= 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are N
provided only at supports
= 4.0 + 5.35/ (c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0/ (c/d)2 for c/d ≥ 1.0
c = Spacing of transverse stiffener
Bridge Engineering
Resistance to shear buckling shall be verified as specified in IS

800:2007, when
E L
P T
Where d = Depth of web,
tw = Thickness of web
N
Kv = Shear buckling Coefficient
ε = Yield stress ratio = √(250/fy)
Bridge Engineering
The nominal shear strength Vn of webs with or without intermediate

stiffeners as governed by buckling may be evaluated using one of
the following methods:
• Simple Post-critical Method
• Tension field method

E L
P T
N
The simple post-critical method, based on the shear buckling
strength can be used for web of I-section girders, with or without
intermediate transverse stiffeners, provided that the web has
transverse stiffeners at the supports.
The nominal shear strength is given by: Vn = Vcr
Bridge Engineering
The nominal shear strength Vn is given by: Vn = Vcr
= d tw tb
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
N f = axial force in the flanges = Mz/d1

M z = design bending moment, d1 = c/c distance between the flanges
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Components of Welded Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
Outstand of Web Stiffeners:
Unless the outer edge is continuously stiffened, the outstand from

the face of the web should not exceed 20 tqε. When the outstands
of web is between 14 tqε and 20 tqε, then the stiffener design should
L
be on the basis of a core section with an outstand of 14 tqε where tq
E
T
is thickness of the stiffener and ε is yield stress ratio = √(250/fy)
P
Eccentricity:
N
Where a load or reaction is applied eccentric to the centreline of the
web or where the centroid of the stiffener does not lie on the
centreline of the web, the resulting eccentricity of loading should
be accounted for in the design of the stiffener.
Bridge Engineering
Stiff Bearing Length:
The stiff bearing length of any element b1, is that length which
cannot deform appreciably in bending. To determine b1, the
dispersion of load through a steel bearing element should be taken
L
as 45° through solid material, such as bearing plates, flange plates,
E
etc.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Buckling Resistance of Stiffeners:
• The buckling resistance Fqd should be based on the design

compressive stress fcd of a strut, the radius of gyration being
taken about the axis parallel to the web.
E L
• The effective section is the full area or core area of the stiffener
P T
together with an effective length of web on each side of the
N
centre line of the stiffeners, limited to 20 times the web
thickness.
• The design strength used should be the minimum value

obtained for buckling about the web or the stiffener.
Bridge Engineering
• The effective length for intermediate transverse stiffeners used
in calculating the buckling resistance, Fqd should be taken as 0.7
times the length L of the stiffener.
• The effective length for load carrying web stiffeners used in
L
calculating the buckling resistance Fxd assumes that the flange
E
T
through which the load or reaction is applied is effectively
P
N
restrained against lateral movement relative to the other flange,
and should be taken as:
a) KL = 0.7 L, when flange is restrained against rotation in the
plane of the stiffener (by other structural elements)
b) KL = L, when flange is not so restrained where L = length of

the stiffener
Bridge Engineering
Intermediate Transverse Stiffener:
• Intermediate Transverse Stiffener can be termed as vertical

stiffeners also.
• It increases the buckling resistance of the web caused by shear.
E L
T
• It must be sufficiently stiff so as to not deform appreciably as
the web tends to buckle.
N P
• It must be sufficiently strong to withstand the shear transmitted
by the web.
• Angle sections, (in pairs or single), are provided for

riveted/bolted construction of plate girders and plate flat
sections for welded plate girders.
Bridge Engineering
• Minimum Stiffeners:
Transverse web stiffeners not subjected to external loads or

moments should have a second moment of area, Is about the centre
E L
line of the web, if stiffeners are on both sides of the web; and about
P T
the face of the web, if single stiffener on only one side of the web is
used such that:
N
Where d = Depth of web, tw = Minimum required web thickness,
c = actual stiffener spacing
Bridge Engineering
• Buckling Check:
This check is required only for intermediate stiffeners in webs
when tension field action is utilized. Stiffeners not subjected to
E L
external loads or moments should be checked for a stiffener force:
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Intermediate Longitudinal Stiffener:
• Intermediate longitudinal stiffener can be termed as horizontal

stiffeners also.
• It increases the buckling resistance considerably as compared
E L
to transverse stiffeners when the web is subjected to bending
P T
• It consists of angle section for a riveted/ bolted plate girder and
N
plate section for a welded plate girder.
• Intermediate longitudinal stiffeners are provided in the

compression zone of the web.
Bridge Engineering
Intermediate Longitudinal Stiffener:
• First horizontal stiffener is provided at 1/5th of the distance from

the compression flange to the tension flange.
• Another stiffener is provided at the neutral axis if needed.
E L
P T
• It can be extended between the vertical stiffeners, however, it is
not required to be continuous over the vertical stiffeners.
•
N
Intermediate longitudinal stiffeners can be provided in pairs on
each side of the web, or single located on one side of the web.
Bridge Engineering
Load Carrying Stiffener:
• Load-carrying web stiffeners are provided where compressive

forces applied through a flange exceed the buckling strength
Fcdw of the unstiffened web.
•
E L
The design compressive strength Fcdw, of a member = Acdw × fcdw
•
P T
The area of cross section Acdw is taken as (b1 + n1) tw where
tw = thickness of web
N
b1 = stiff bearing length
n1 = length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the web

junction at a slope of 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange
Bridge Engineering
Design compressive stress, fcdw of axially loaded compression

fcdw = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5]
E L
Where φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2]
P T
N
λ = Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E]
α = Imperfection factor dependent on buckling class and flange

thickness
γm0 = Partial Safety Factor for material strength
Bridge Engineering

The effective length of the web for evaluating the slenderness ratio
is calculated as follows.
E L
P T
a) KL = 0.7 L, when flange is restrained against rotation in the
N
plane of the stiffener (by other structural elements)
b) KL = L, when flange is not so restrained where L = length of

the stiffener
Bridge Engineering
• Load carrying web stiffeners should be of sufficient size to have

bearing strength of the stiffener Fpsd not less than the load
transferred, Fx
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Bearing Stiffener:
• This is used to transfer concentrated loads on the girder and

heavy reactions at supports to the full depth of the web.
• This is required when the web has insufficient strength for any
E L
of the limit states of web yielding, web crippling, or side sway
web buckling.
P T
• N
Where the web and the stiffener materials are of different
strengths the lesser value should be assumed to calculate the
capacity of the web and the stiffener.
Bridge Engineering
Bearing Stiffener:
• Bearing stiffeners should project nearly as much as the

overhang of the flange through which load is transferred.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Bearing Stiffener:
Bearing stiffeners should be designed for the applied load or

reaction less the local capacity of the web, Fw given by
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Torsion Stiffeners:
When bearing stiffeners are required to provide torsional restraint

at the supports of the beam, they should meet the following criteria.
• Bearing stiffeners should be designed for the applied load or
E L
reaction less the local capacity of the web, Fw given by
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Torsion Stiffeners:
• Second moment of area of the stiffener section about the centre

line of the web Is should be such that:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Diagonal Stiffeners:
• Diagonal stiffeners should be designed to carry the portion of

the applied shear and bearing that exceeds the capacity of the
web.
•
E L
Where the web and the stiffener materials are of different
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Tension Stiffeners:
• Tension stiffeners should be designed to carry the portion of the

applied load or reaction less the capacity of the web Fw given by.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Tension Stiffeners:
• Where the web and the stiffener materials are of different

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v N. Subramanian, Design of Steel Structures: Limit States Method, Oxford
L
University Press.
T E
N P
v D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
v T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 05: Plate Girder Bridges

Lecture 14: Design Example of Plate Girder Bridges
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
The cross-section of a stream is as shown in the Figure. Design a
plate girder bridge as railway crossing using the following data.
Effective Span L = 30 m; Material Grade Fe250
Broad Gauge rail track of gauge length = 1676 mm, Main Line,
Single Track. Dead load of track = 7.5 kN/m
Each rail is supported by a plate girder withE
L
P T cross bracings at
intervals of 6 m.
N
Cross-Section of Stream
Bridge Engineering
1. Given Data:
Effective Span L = 30 m.
Material Grade Fe 250 of yield strength 250 MPa
Broad Gauge rail track of gauge length = 1676 mm, Main Line,
Single Track.
E L
Dead load of track = 7.5 kN/m
P T
N
Each rail is supported by a plate girder with cross bracings at
intervals of 6 m.
The total loading is resisted by twin plate girders.
Bridge Engineering
2. Dead Loads:
Dead load of track = 7.5 kN/m
Self-weight of plate girder = (0.2 L + 1) = (0.2 × 30) +1 = 7 kN/m
Total dead load = (7.5 + 7) = 14.5 kN/m

E L
3. Live Loads:
P T
N
Equivalent Total live load for Bending Moment per Broad Gauge
track for 30 m span = 2727 kN
Total live load per girder = (2727/2) = 1363.5 kN
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Live Load for Bending Moment

per girder = 1363.5/30 = 45.45 kN/m
Equivalent Total live load for Shear Force per Broad Gauge track
for 30 m span = 2997 kN
Total live load per girder = (2997/2) = 1498.5 kN

E L
P T
Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Live Load for Shear Force per
girder = 1498.5/30 = 49.95 kN/m N
Coefficient of Dynamic Augment (CDA) = 0.372
Bridge Engineering
4. Design Bending Moments:
Bending Moment due to Dead Load = (14.5 × 302)/8 = 1631.25 kN.m
Bending Moment due to Live Load = (45.45 × 302)/8 = 5113.125 kN.m
L
Bending Moment due to Impact of Live Loads = (1.372 × 5113.25) =
E
7015.379 kN.m
P T
Design Bending Moment due to Dead Load
N
1631.25 + 1.5 × 7015.379) = 12969.943 kN.m
and Live Load = (1.5 ×
Bridge Engineering
5. Design Shear Forces:
Shear Force due to Dead Load = (14.5 × 30)/2 = 217.5 kN

Shear Force due to Live Load = (49.95 × 30)/2 = 749.25 kN
Shear Force due to Impact of Live Loads = (1.372 × 749.25) =
1027.971 kN
E L
P T
Design Shear Force due to Dead Load and Live Load = (1.5 × 217.5
+ 1.5 × 1027.971) = 1868.206 kN N
Bridge Engineering
6. Trial section of Web Plate:
Optimum depth of plate girder d = (Mk/fy)0.33 when intermediate

transverse stiffeners are not to be provided.
Where k = (d/tw) = 180 for thin webs and fy = 250 N/mm2
E L
T
Substituting, d = [(12969.943 × 106 × 180)/250]0.33 = 1950.695 mm
Optimum web thickness of plate girder t P

N = (M/f k )
w y
2 0.33
For k = (d/tw) = 180 for thin webs and fy = 250 N/mm2,
Substituting, tw = [(12969.943 × 106)/(250 × 1802)]0.33 = 11.415 mm
We can try to consider web plate of dimensions 1800 mm depth ×

14 mm thickness.
Bridge Engineering
7. Trial section of Flange Plate of Plate Girder:

Let us assume that the bending moment will be resisted by the
flanges and shear by the web.
Required area of flange of plate girder Af = (M × γm0)/ fyd
Where γm0 = Partial Safety Factor

E L
Substituting, d = 1800 mm, γ = 1.1 and fP
T
N = 250 N/mm 2
m0 y
A = [(12969.943 × 10 × 1.1)/(250 × 1800)] = 31704.305 mm

f
6 2
Assuming flange width bf = Span Length/40, flange width bf =

30000/40 = 750 mm
Bridge Engineering
Considering flange width bf = 750 mm, flange thickness tf = Af/ bf =

(31704.305/ 750) = 42.27 mm
We can try to consider flange plates of dimensions 750 mm width ×

50 mm thickness.
E L
Overall depth of plate girder D = d + 2 tf = 1800 + 2 × 50 = 1900 mm
Classification of Flanges: P T
N
Outstand of flange b = (bf − tw)/2 = (750 − 14)/2 = 368 mm
b/tf = (368/50) = 7.36 < 8.4
Hence, the flanges are plastic.
Bridge Engineering
750
50
950
900
1800
E L
P T
14
N
50
Cross-section of a Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
8. Check for Bending Strength:

Plastic Section Modulus Zp = 2 bf tf × (D − tf)/2 = 2 × 750 × 50 × (1900
− 50)/2 = 69375000 mm3
Moment capacity Md = (Zp× fy)/ γm0 = (69375000 × 250)/ 1.1 =
E L
15767045450 N-mm = 15767.045 kN-m > Ultimate Design Bending
Moment M = 12969.943 kN-m
P T
Hence, the section is safe. N
9. Check for Shear Strength:
d/ tw = 1800/14 = 128.57 < 200
Elastic critical shear stress τcr,e = Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
Bridge Engineering
Where Kv = Shear buckling Coefficient,

= 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at supports
= 4.0 + 5.35/ (c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0/ (c/d)2 for c/d ≥ 1.0
c = Spacing of transverse stiffener
E L
P T
Assuming spacing of stiffeners c as equal to the depth of web plate
d, c/d = 1 N
Therefore, Kv = 5.35 + 4.0/ (c/d)2 = 9.35
μ = Poisson’s Ratio = 0.3
d/ tw = 1800/14 = 128.57
Bridge Engineering
(9.35 × π2 × 2 × 105)/ [12 × (1 − 0.32) × 128.572] = 102.244 N/mm2
The nominal shear strength Vn is given by: Vn = Vcr

= d tw τ b
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering

λw = √[fyw/(√3 × τcr,e)] = √[250/(√3 × 102.244)] = 1.188 < 1.20
Shear stress corresponding to web buckling, for λw < 1.20,

τb = [1 – 0.8 × (λw – 0.8)] × (fyw/√3) = [1 – 0.8 × (1.188 – 0.8)] × (250/√3)
= 99.593 N/mm2
E L
P T
Shear force corresponding to web buckling Vcr = dtw τb = (1800 × 14
N
× 99.593) = 2509743.6 N = 2509.744 kN > Ultimate Design Shear
Force V = 1868.206 kN
Hence, the section is safe.
Bridge Engineering
10. Check for lateral torsional buckling:

Since the compression flange of the girder is laterally restrained
throughout, the check for lateral torsional buckling is not required.
11. Flange to Web Connection:
E L
Maximum shear force at the junction of web and flange is given by
qw = (V × Af × ӯ)/ 2Iz
P T
N
Iz = (bf − tw) × d3/ 12 = (750 − 14) × 18003/ 12 = 35.77 × 1010 mm4
qw = (V × Af × ӯ)/ 2Iz = [1868.206 × (750 × 50) × (900 + 50/2)]/ (2 ×

35.77 × 1010) = 0.091 kN/mm
Let us provide weld of size S = 6 mm. KS = 0.7 × 6 = 4.2 mm
Bridge Engineering
Strength of weld per unit length fwd = (4.2 × 250 × 10-3)/(√3 × 1.25) =
0.485 kN/mm > 0.091 kN/mm
6 mm continuous fillet welds can be provided on either side.
12. Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners:
E L
Since the ratio of (d/tw) = (1800/14) = 128.57 > 85, vertical stiffeners
are required.
P T
N
Adopting the spacing of stiffeners c = 1500 mm
Greater unsupported panel dimension of the web = 1500 mm < 270

tw < (270 × 14) = 3780 mm
Bridge Engineering
c/d = 1500/1800 = 0.833
the Intermediate transverse stiffeners are designed to have a

minimum moment of inertia Is = 1.5d3tw3/c2 = 1.5 × 18003 × 143/15002
= 10668672 mm4
E L
Using 12 mm thick plate, outstand of stiffener should not be
greater than 12 t = (12 × 12) = 144 mm
P T
N
We can adopt a plate of 12 mm × 140 mm with I = (12 × 1403)/3 =
10976000 mm4 which is greater than Is = 10668672 mm4
Bridge Engineering
Shear on welds connecting stiffener to web = (126t2/h)
Where t = web thickness = 14 mm
h = outstand of stiffener = 140 mm
L
Shear on welds connecting stiffener to web = (126t2/h) = (126 × 142)/
E
140 = 176.4 N/mm
P T
N
Size of weld s = [176.4/ (0.7 × 158)] = 1.59 mm
Effective Length of weld should be not less than 10t = (10 × 14) =
140 mm
Provide 160 mm long, 5 mm fillet welds alternately on either side.
Bridge Engineering
13. End Bearing Stiffeners:

The end bearing stiffener is designed as a column having the
ratio (h/t) not greater than 12.
Where h = outstand of stiffener and t = thickness of stiffener
If h = 300 mm, t = (300/12) = 25 mm

E L
Let us use 300 mm × 25 mm plate for end P
T
N bearing stiffener.
Permissible bearing stress = 0.8f = (0.8 × 250) = 200 N/mm 2

y
Bearing area required = (1868.206 × 103)/200 = 9341.03 mm2
If two plates of 300 mm × 25 mm are used, total area provided =

(300 × 25 × 2) = 15000 mm2 > 9341.03 mm2
Bridge Engineering
The length of web plate which acts

along with stiffener plates in bearing
reaction is specified as 20 t = (20 ×
14) = 280 mm 280 280
I = (25 × 6143)/12 + (2 × 280 × 143 )/12

E L 14
= 482 × 106 mm4

P T
Area of section Ac = [(614 × 25) +
(560 × 14)] = 23190 mm2
N
Radius of gyration r = √(I/A)= √[(482
× 106)/ 23190] = 144 mm
End Bearing Stiffener
Bridge Engineering
Effective length of stiffener KL = (0.7 × 1800) = 1260 mm
Effective slenderness ratio KL/r = (1260/144) = 8.75
For built-up sections, buckling class is c.
L
Design compressive stress fcd of axially loaded compression
E
P
10, buckling class c and fy = 250 MPa as 227 MPaT
members can be calculated from Table 9.3 of IS 800: 2007 for KL/r =
N
The design compressive strength P , of a member = A
d × fcd = c
(23190 × 227) = 5264130 N ≈ 5264 kN > Factored design
compression force P = 1868.206 kN
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Length available for welding using alternate intermittent welds = 2

× (1800 – 50) = 3500 mm
Required strength of weld = [(1868.206 × 103)/3500] = 533.77 N/mm
Size of weld = [533.77/(0.7 × 158) ] = 4.83 mm
E L
both sides. P T
We can use 6 mm fillet welds of 160 mm length intermittently on
Bridge Engineering
14. Lateral Bracing:

For resisting, wind, racking and centrifugal forces, lateral bracing
is provided at intervals of 6 m along the span.
Wind load for Broad Gauge Bridges = 1.5 kN/m2
Depth of girder = (1.8 + 2 × 0.05) = 1.9 m

E L
P T
Span Length = 30 m
N
Coefficient for wind load on leeward girder = 0.25
Wind load on windward girder = (1.5 × 1.9 × 30) = 85.5 kN
Wind load on leeward girder = (0.25 × 85.5) = 21.375 kN
Bridge Engineering
Total wind load on windward girder and leeward girder = (85.5 +

21.375) = 106.875 kN
Lateral load due to racking forces = 5.9 kN/m
Total racking force for 30 m span length = (5.9 × 30) = 177 kN
E L
(177 + 106.875) = 283.875 kN ≈ 284 kN P T
Total lateral load on cross bracing due to wind and racking force =
N
This load is shared equally by 2 diagonal cross bracings.
Bridge Engineering
The plan layout of cross-bracing is shown in figure.

Maximum compression
force in the member U1L1
is P = (284/2) = 142 kN
Maximum tension force

E L
in the diagonal T =
P T
(284/2)/ sin θ = 142/ sin θ
N
Here, sin θ = 1.676/
√(1.6762 + 22) = 0.642
So, T = 142/0.642 = 284/2 = 142 kN

221.18 kN
Bridge Engineering
Design of Member U1L1:
Factored Design force P = 1.5 × 142 kN = 213 kN (Compression)
Let’s try ISA 80 × 80 × 8 with a cross sectional area Ac = 1220

mm2.
E L
T
P
N
Design compressive stress, f of axially
cd loaded compression
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5]
Where φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2]
Bridge Engineering

(KL/r)2/π2E]
KL/r = Effective slenderness ratio or ratio of effective length KL

to appropriate radius of gyration r
E L
P T
N
For ISA 80 × 80 × 8 section, Radius of gyration r = 24.4 mm
Effective length KL = (0.7 × 1676) = 1173.2 mm
Effective slenderness ratio = (KL/r) = (1173.2/24.4) = 48.08
Bridge Engineering
For angle sections, buckling class is c as per Table 10 of IS

800:2007.
For buckling class c, Imperfection factor α = 0.49 as per Table 7
of IS 800:2007.
E L
λ = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E] = √[(250 × 48.082)/(π2 × 2 × 105)] = 0.54
P T
φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2] = 0.5 × [1 + 0.54 × (0.54 – 0.2) +
0.542] = 0.74 N
fcd = (fy/ γm0)/[φ + (φ2 – λ2)0.5] = (250/ 1.1)/[0.74 + (0.742 – 0.542)0.5] =
182.41 MPa
Bridge Engineering
Pd = Ac × fcd = (1220 × 182.41) = 222540.2 N = 222.54 kN > Factored

E L
Design of Diagonal Member:
P T
(Tension)
N
Factored Design force P = 1.5 × 221.18 kN = 331.77 kN ≈ 332 kN
Let’s try ISA 100 × 100 × 8 with a cross sectional area Ag = 1540
mm2.
Bridge Engineering


E L
P T
N
Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0 = (1540 × 250)/ 1.1 = 350000 N = 350 kN
Bridge Engineering
γm1 = Partial safety factor for failure governed by ultimate stress

= 1.25
E L
443.520 kN P T
Tdn = (0.9An × fu)/ γm1 = (0.9 × 1540 × 400)/ 1.25 = 443520 N =
N
The design strength of a member under axial tension T = 350 kN
d
> Factored design tension force T = 332 kN
Bridge Engineering
15. Cross Frame:
End cross frames and

intermediate cross frames
are provided for spans
greater than 20 m.
E L 1.8 m
Lateral load to be resisted

P T
by one cross frame = 142 kN
142 kN N
Tension in diagonal = 142
secθ = 142 × (2.46/1.676) =
208.42 kN Cross Frame
Bridge Engineering
Design of Diagonal Member of Cross Frame:
Factored Design force P = 1.5 × 208.42 kN = 312.63 kN ≈ 313 kN

(Tension)
Let’s try ISA 100 × 100 × 8 with a cross sectional area Ag = 1540
mm2.
E L
P T
N

Bridge Engineering
Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0 = (1540 × 250)/ 1.1 = 350000 N = 350 kN
L
E
m1
P T
γ = Partial safety factor for failure governed by ultimate stress
= 1.25
N
Tdn = (0.9An × fu)/ γm1 = (0.9 × 1540 × 400)/ 1.25 = 443520 N =

443.520 kN
Bridge Engineering

The cross frames are provided at 6 m intervals.
E L
shown in the subsequent figures. P T
Details of the plate girder, lateral bracings and stiffeners are
Bridge Engineering
ISA 100 ×
100 × 8
End
stiffeners
1800 with
E L
T
66 stiffeners
280
280 N P ISA 80 ×
80 × 8
280 750
560 × 25 800
Details of the Plate Girder
Bridge Engineering
End Bearing Stiffener 750 750
12
Intermediate
Stiffener 140
750
14 mm 140 140
ISA 100 × 100 × 8

14 14
ISA 80 ×
E L
T
ISA 80 ×
80 × 8 80 × 8
NP
140 750 750
750
Intermediate End Bearing

12
Stiffener Stiffener
Details of Lateral Bracings with Stiffeners
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
 N. Subramanian, Design of Steel Structures: Limit States Method, Oxford
L
University Press.
E
T
N P
 D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
 T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
 W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group.
 G. Parke and N. Hewson, ICE manual of Bridge Engineering, Thomas Telford
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 06: Arch Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Cable-Stayed Bridges, Balanced

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 15: Masonry Arch Bridges
 Structural Configurations
E L
 Design Principle P T
 Design Example
N
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Masonry Arch bridges were the first category of bridges to be

evolved.
• These bridges are aesthetically superior to slab bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• An arch bridge consists of a solid barrel between two face walls

that is mounted on the arch ring.
• The arch ring is the major load carrying member of the bridge.
• The ring sustains of the superimposed load essentially as a

compressive thrust.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Since naturally available

stones are strong in
bearing compressive loads,
the masonry arch bridges
that are still existing in the
world have withstood
E L
around 40% more load than
P T
their design load. N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The arch ring is made up of stones cut to the shape of wedges

arranged in radial joints. The central key stone is a little bigger
than the rest and it is placed at the end of construction of the
arch.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Type of Arch Rings
Bridge Engineering
• Arches have a general tendency of opening up at the springing

level because of self weight and superimposed loads. To
prevent this, some extra weight is placed on the haunch of the
arch by laying lean concrete that is sloped tangential to the
extrados.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The haunch filling serves dual purpose, i.e. it serves as an

additional weight and provides a working platform for
construction of face wall. The haunch filling is retained by back
wall/ curtain wall.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• End Connectors:
End connectors are structures of masonry built together with the

abutment.
Purpose of providing end connectors is:
• to anchor the bridge to its approach road,
E L
•
P T
to pave a confined way for smooth movement of water
beneath, N
• to retain the earthen embankment and prevent it from spilling
into or interfering with flow of stream
Bridge Engineering
Two types of wing walls are commonly in use as end connectors.

• Return type wing wall
• Splayed type wing wall
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Return type wing wall:

Return type wing walls emerge at
right angles to the abutment and
are prolonged towards the road
bund. Their top is kept at
E L
embankment formation level.
P T
This type of wing wall is
preferred if approaches are in
N
cuttings, or for small
embankments of height less than
4 m or if the banks are steep and
soil is firm.
Bridge Engineering
• Splayed type wing wall:

Splayed type wing wall is built at
an angle to the abutment.
Inclination of wing wall with
respect to face of abutment is
E L
termed as splay. For bridges it is
P T
45º in general.
Top of wing wall slopes down
N
from top level of embankment to
general ground level at site.
Bridge Engineering
• Masonry Arch Bridges are preferable to locations where

supplies of materials such as cement and steel, skilled labour
and heavy machinery are inadequate.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Masonry Arch Bridges can be constructed for bridge spans up

to 30 m. The span may be restricted to 6 m in seismic zones.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Now-a-days, masonry bridges have become almost obsolete as

the construction of these bridges is labour intensive and
uneconomical.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Masonry Arch Bridges
Design of an Arch Bridge involves dimensions of various

components of the bridge superstructure such as rise of the arch,
radius of the arch ring, thickness of the arch ring, depth of haunch
filling etc. by using empirical formula.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Rise of Arch:
Rise of an arch is decided based on rise to span ratio. Too large rise
results in big headroom and too small rise results in increased
lateral thrust.
L
Thus, the rise of the arch varies from 1/2 - 1/10 of spans. For
E
T
segmental arches, a rise of 1/3 to 1/4 of the span is found to be
P
strong and economical.
N
Bridge Engineering
• Radius of Arch:
Radius of an arch is calculated based on the geometry of the circle.
The radius R of the intrados is given by the following equation.
R = (S2 + 4r2)/ 8r
Where
E L
S = Span of the arch and r = Rise of the arch
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Thickness of Arch Ring:

Thickness of an arch is empirically calculated based on Trautwyne’s
formula.
Thickness of arch t = [√(R + 0.5S)]/7 + 0.06
E L
For large spans more than 15 m, thickness of the arch ring at the
P T
springing level should be 25-50% higher than the crown level
(usually 1/3 rd of the span).
N
For arches made of brick masonry, thickness calculated must be
increased by 35%.
Bridge Engineering
• Depth of Haunch Filling:

Depth of Haunch Filling of an arch from the springing level is given
by the following equation.
d = (r + t)/ 2
E L
The filing is done tangential to the arch extrados or laid in a slope of
1 in 6.
P T
N
Sometimes, this filling is taken up to the crown level.
This filling serves dual purpose, i.e. it serves as an additional
weight and provides a working platform for construction of face
wall.
Bridge Engineering
• Abutment:
The top width of abutment is empirically calculated based on
Trautwyne’s formula.
a = 0.6 + 0.2 R + 0.1 r
The back batter is given by b = S/ 24r
E L
P T
The length of the abutment should match with the width of the
superstructure. N
Length of Abutment = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width
Bridge Engineering
• Pier:
The top width of pier should not be less than twice of width of the
bearings or arch skewbacks, with clearance between them.
The following thumb rules are available for calculating top width of
pier.
E L
P T
Top width = Higher of (2t + 0.3) or (1/6 to 1/7 of span)
N
Straight sections without batter may be provided for heights less
than 3 m.
For heights more than 3 m, a side batter of 1 in 12 to 1 in 30 may be
given for stability and aesthetics purposes.
Length of Pier = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width
Bridge Engineering
• Return type Wing Wall:

Top Width of Return Type Wing Wall
can be assumed as 0.5 m in general.
Bottom Width of Wing Wall = 0.25 ×
Height of Wing Wall = 0.25 × (Distance
E L
between Road Top Level and Bed
P T
Level)
Return Length of Wing Wall L =
N
Projected Width of Stream Bund +
Clearance + Projected Length of Road
Bund
1 m clearance is provided in general.
Bridge Engineering
• Splayed type Wing Wall:
Top Width of Splayed Type Wing Wall
can be assumed as 0.5 m in general.
Bottom/ Base Width of Wing Wall =
0.4 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.4 ×
E L
(Distance between Springing Level
P T
and Bed Level)
Length of Wing Wall L = Height of
N
Embankment × Slope = (Distance
between Formation Level and
Springing Level) × Slope
Wing Wall ends up at pedestal or newel of size 0.5-1 m.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design a masonry arch bridge and it’s components for the following
design particulars. While designing end connectors, design both
return type and splayed type wing walls.
Span Length = 10 m; No of Spans = 2; Rise to Span Ratio = 1 : 4
L
HFL of Stream = 108 m; Stream Bund Top Level = 108.75 m
E
Bed Level = 105 m; Springing Level = 109 m
Road Top Level = 113 m; Formation Level =P
T
Slope of Formation Embankment = 2 : 1
N 112 m
Stream Bed Width = 25 m; Slope of Stream Bund = 1 : 1

Slope of Road Bund = 2 : 1; Road Width = 2 Lane (7.5 m) with 600
mm wide kerbs; Top width of pier = 1/7 of Span
Bridge Engineering
Design of Superstructure
Span of the Arch S = 10 m
Rise of the Arch Intrados r = Span/ 4 = 10/4 = 2.5 m
Radius of the Arch Intrados R = (S2 + 4r2)/8r = (102 + 4 × 2.52)/(8 ×
2.5) = 6.25 m
E L
P T
Thickness of the Arch by Trautwyne’s formula t = [√(R + 0.5S)]/7 +
N
0.06 = [√(6.25 + 0.5 × 10)]/7 + 0.06 = 0.539 m ≈ 0.55 m
Depth of Haunch Filling d = (r + t)/2 = (2.5 + 0.55)/2 = 1.525 m ≈ 1.6 m
The filling is made tangential to the arch extrados.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Abutment
Top Width of the Abutment by Trautwyne’s formula a = 0.6 + 0.2 R +
0.1 r = 0.6 + 0.2 × 6.25 + 0.1 × 2.5 = 2.1 m
The front face of the abutment is kept vertical and the back face is
provided with a batter.
E L
Back Batter b = S/ 24r = 10/ (24 × 2.5) = 1/6
Height of the Abutment = (109 ‒ 105) = 4 m P
T
N
Base Width of the Abutment at the Bed Level = Top Width + (1/6) ×
Height of the Abutment = 2.1 + (1/6) × (109 ‒ 105) = 2.77 m ≈ 2.8 m
Length of Abutment = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width = 7.5 + 2 × 0.6 =
8.7 m
Bridge Engineering
Design of Pier
Top Width of the Pier = 1/7 of the Span = (1/7) × 10 = 1.429 m ≈ 1.5 m
Height of the Pier = (109 ‒ 105) = 4 m
Since height of the pier is more than 3 m, a batter of 1 in 24 is
provided to both sides of the pier.
E L
Side Batter of the Pier = 1/24
P T
N
Bottom Width of the Pier = 1.5 + 2 × (1/24) × 4 = 1.83 m ≈ 1.9 m
Length of Pier = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width = 7.5 + 2 × 0.6 = 8.7 m
Bridge Engineering
Design of End Connectors (Return Type Wing Wall)
Top Width of Return Type Wing Wall = 0.5 m
Bottom Width of Wing Wall = 0.25 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.25 ×
(Distance between Road Top Level and Bed Level)
= 0.25 × (113 ‒ 105) = 2 m
E L
P T
Return Length of Wing Wall L = Projected Width of Stream Bund +
Clearance + Projected Length of Road Bund
N
= (108.75 ‒ 105) × 1 + 1 + (113 ‒ 108.75) × 2 = 13.25 m
1 m clearance is provided in return length calculation of wing wall.
Bridge Engineering
Design of End Connectors (Splayed Type Wing Wall)
Top Width of Splayed Type Wing Wall = 0.5 m
Bottom/ Base Width of Wing Wall = 0.4 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.4 ×
(Distance between Springing Level and Bed Level)
= 0.4 × (109 ‒ 105) = 1.6 m
E L
P T
Length of Wing Wall L = Height of Embankment × Slope = (Distance
N
between Formation Level and Springing Level) × Slope
= (112 ‒ 109) × 2 = 6 m
Wing Wall ends up at pedestal or newel of size 1 m.
Bridge Engineering
0.5 m 0.5 m
0.55 m 2.5 m 0.55 m
1.6 m 2.5 m
1.6 m Radius 6.25 m Radius 6.25 m 1.6 m
1.5 m
10 m 10 m
2.1 m
L
2.1 m
Springing Level 109 m
T E
2.8 m
Bed Level 105 m
1.9 m N P 2.8 m
Front Elevation of Masonry Arch Bridge
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
 D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 16: Concrete Arch Bridges
E L
 Analysis Methodology P T
 Numerical Example
N
Topic of Discussion
 Analysis Methodology
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• An arch is a structural member curved in a vertical plane and

the loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly
through direct axial thrusts on the supports.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Reinforced Concrete Arch bridges are adopted when girder

bridges are found uneconomical.
• With increase in span, the section of girder increases to such

an extent that the self weight of girders becomes a substantial
part of total loads.
E L
P T
• Reinforced Concrete Arch bridges are considered economical
N
as the bending moments generated from dead loads are almost
negligible if the arch bridge is properly designed.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The shear forces and bending moments generated in arches are

relatively small compared to the girders. In girders, under action
of external loading only positive bending moments are
generated.
L
• On the other hand, arches experience positive bending moment
E
T
due to external loading and negative bending moment from the
P
•
N
horizontal thrusts to balance the positive moment.
Consequently, the design bending moment is much less in

arches in comparison with the girders requiring a smaller
section for arches.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

Location of Deck with respect to Arch Ribs
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

Supporting Arrangement
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Circular Arch
In circular arch, OA = OB = OC = OP = R (Radius of arch).

x and y are coordinates of P from Origin D.
AB = L (Span of the arch).
CD = r (Rise of the arch).
In the right angled triangle OEP,
E L
OP2 = OE2 + EP2
P T
Or, R2 = (R ‒ r + y)2 + x2 N
x = OP Sinθ = R Sinθ
y = OE ‒ OD = R Cosθ ‒ R Cosα = R (Cosθ ‒ Cosα)
Cosα = OD/OA = (R ‒ r)/R and Sinα = AD/OA = (L/2)/R = L/2R
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Circular Arch
In triangle ODA, OA2 = OD2 + DA2

Or, R2 = (R ‒ r)2 + (L/2)2
Or, R2 = R2 ‒ 2Rr + r2 + L2/ 4
Or, 2Rr ‒ r2 = L2/ 4
Or, 2R = L2/ 4r + r
E L
Or, R = L2/ 8r + r/2
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Parabolic Arch
In parabolic arch, AB = L (Span of

the arch).
CD = r (Rise of the arch).
x and y are coordinates of P from
Origin A.
E L
P T
N
Equation of Parabola: y = Kx (L ‒ x) where K is a constant.
At x = L/2, y = r. So, r = KL/2 × (L ‒ L/2) = KL2/4 Or, K = 4r/L2
Equation of parabola: y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x)
Slope of the arch rib = tanθ = dy/dx = 4r/L2 (L ‒ 2x)
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Components of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges
Bridge Engineering
The Primary Design Parameter for Reinforced Concrete Arch

bridges is Rise to Span Ratio (r/L). The ratio varies from 1/6 - 1/10
depending on site conditions and surroundings. Greater is the
ratio, lesser is the horizontal thrust on the supports.
L
To achieve economy, the centre of pressure under external
E
T
loading should coincide with the centre line of the arch.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
The moment M at any section x of an arch is given by:
M = M1 ‒ H × y
Where M1 = Moment considering the arch as a simply supported

beam;
E L
T
H = Horizontal Force at the Springing Level;
P
Springing Level.
N
y = Vertical Ordinate of the arch centre at section x from the
Assuming M = 0, y = M1/ H
Bridge Engineering
• Arches may be fixed, hinged or tied at the supports. Due to the

curved shape of an arch, horizontal forces are developed at the
supports in addition to vertical forces both in the fixed and
hinged arches. For fixed arches, fixed end moments are also
generated at the supports.
E L
•
P T
The horizontal forces produce negative moments at all the
sections of the arches and reduce
N the positive moments
resulting in reduced cross-sectional dimensions of arches in
comparison with girders.
Bridge Engineering
• In two and three hinged arches, only axial forces are

transmitted to the supports or abutments and there is no
bending moment in the arch at the springing level or in the
abutments.
•
E L
In fixed arches, forces and moments are generated both due
T
to rotation and displacement of the supports. So, fixed arches
P
N
are constructed in places where absolute unyielding foundation
conditions can be achieved.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Forces and Moments of RC Arch Bridges
• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads
• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation
• Forces and Moments due to Arch Rib Shortening
• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete

E L
P T
• Forces and Moments due to Plastic Flow/ Creep of Concrete
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation:
Temperature variation causes thrust and moment in the reinforced

concrete arch. For reinforced concrete arches, the effective
temperature variation is generally taken as 2/3rd of the actual
temperature variation.
E L
P T
N
• Forces and Moments due to Arch Rib Shortening:
Arch Rib Shortening is caused due to compressive strain of the

arch concrete by direct axial thrust in the rib due to external loading
on the arch rib. This phenomenon releases part of the horizontal
thrust produced by the dead and superimposed loads.
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete:
The volumetric changes of concrete structures due to the loss of

moisture by evaporation is termed as shrinkage of concrete.
Shrinkage of concrete shortens the length of arch rib.
E L
Shrinkage of concrete is maximum at the initial stage and this
P T
phenomena reduces with elapse of time when concrete is hardened.
N
Shrinkage can be minimized by adopting high grade concrete in
arches.
Shrinkage can further be reduced by pouring concrete in arch ribs

in sections leaving gaps at the crown and springing levels which are
concreted later on.
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Plastic Flow/ Creep of Concrete:
Plastic flow/ creep of concrete is a phenomenon which causes a

permanent strain in the concrete when loaded for a long time.
Similar to shrinkage strain, creep strain is maximum at the initial
E L
stage and this phenomena reduces with elapse of time.
P T
N
Plastic flow of concrete causes pull and additional moments in the
hinged and fixed arches.
Plastic flow/ creep can be minimized by adopting high grade

concrete in arches.
Bridge Engineering
Analysis of RC Arch Bridges
• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads:

 Two Hinged Arches:
A two-hinged arch has four unknown reaction components at the
two supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
E L
From statics, three
equations of equilibrium
P T
can be employed i.e. ∑H = N
0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Therefore, two-hinged arch

is statically indeterminate
to first degree.
Bridge Engineering
From ∑H = 0, HA + HB = 0 Or, HA = ‒ HB = H
From ∑V = 0, VA + VB ‒ W = 0 Or, VA + VB = W
From ∑M = 0 about point A, VB × L ‒ W × a = 0 Or, VB = Wa/L
VA = W ‒ VB = W ‒ Wa/L = W(1 ‒ a/L)

E L
Moment at any section of
P T
the arch rib is given by M =
M1 ‒ Hy
N
We are required to
determine the magnitude
of H.
Bridge Engineering
The fourth equation can be derived from the displacement

consideration using Castigliano’s first theorem.
Castigliano’s first theorem states that the partial derivative of the

total strain energy in any structure with respect to the applied force
L
or moments gives the displacement or rotation respectively at the
E
T
point of application of the force or the moment in the direction of
P
the applied force or moment.
N
Bridge Engineering
Neglecting the strain energy due to direct thrust which is quite

small, total strain energy due to bending moment U will be
U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hy)2/2EI ds
If the supports do not yield, δU/ δH = 0
E L
T
L
Or, δU/ δH = ∫0 (M1 ‒ Hy)(‒ y)/EI ds = 0
[(y ds)/EI] = ∫ (MP

Or, H = ∫0L [(M1 yds)/EI]/ ∫0L 2
0 N yds)/ ∫
L
1 0
L
(y2ds)
If the supports yield, δU/ δH = ‒ δ
Or, δU/ δH = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hy)(‒ y)/EI ds = ‒ δ
Or, H = ∫0L [(M1 yds)/EI ‒ δ]/∫0L [(y2ds)/EI] = ∫0L (M1yds ‒ EIδ)/∫0L (y2ds)
Bridge Engineering

 Three Hinged Arches:
A three-hinged arch has four unknown reaction components at the
two supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
E L
From statics, three
equations of equilibrium P T
can be employed i.e., N
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Since three-hinged arch has a third hinge at the crown C, moment

at C is zero. So, the fourth equation would be Mc = 0
Bridge Engineering
With four unknowns and four equations available, three-hinged arch

is a statically determinate structure.
From ∑H = 0, HA + HB = 0
Or, HA = ‒ HB = H
From ∑V = 0, VA + VB ‒ W = 0
E L
Or, VA + VB = W
P T
From ∑M = 0 about point A,
N
VB × L ‒ W × a = 0 Or, VB = Wa/L
VA = W ‒ VB = W ‒ Wa/L = W(1 ‒ a/L)
Bridge Engineering
Moment at third hinge at the crown C is zero.
From Moment about point C MC = 0, it can be written that
MC = M1 ‒ Hr = 0
Or, H = M1/r
E L
Here r is rise of the arch.
P T
Where N
M1 = VA × L/2 ‒ W × (L/2 ‒ a)
= W(1 ‒ a/L) × L/2 ‒ W × (L/2 ‒ a)
= W × L/2 ‒ W × a/2 ‒ W × L/2 + W × a = W × a/2
Bridge Engineering

 Fixed Arches:
A fixed arch has six unknown reaction components at the two
supports, HA, VA and MA at support A and HB, VB and MB at support
B.
E L
From statics, three
P T
equations of equilibrium
can be employed i.e.,
N
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Therefore, fixed arch is statically indeterminate to third degree.
Bridge Engineering
Three additional equations can be formulated by considering the

total strain energy U of the arch as: U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds
a) No horizontal displacement of the abutments:
δU/ δH = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δH) ds = 0
E L
T
b) No vertical displacement of the abutments:
P
δU/ δV = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δV) ds = 0
N
c) No rotation of the abutments:
δU/ δM = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δM) ds = 0
Bridge Engineering

 Tied Arches:
Tied arches are modified two-hinged arches where the horizontal
thrusts are resisted by a tie provided at the springing level.
E L
Due to external loading, the
springing level of the arch tends P T
to move in outward direction N
which is prevented by the tie
partially.
Bridge Engineering
The tie being in tension is subjected to tensile deformation which

allows one end of the arch provided with rollers to move such that
the outward force of the arch at the springing level balances the
tension force in the tie.
E L
T
For the stability of the tied
arches, one end of the arch is
provided with a hinge and the N P
other end with a roller.
Bridge Engineering
Tied arches have four unknown reaction components at the two

supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
From statics, three equations of

equilibrium can be employed i.e.
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
E L
Therefore, tied arch is statically P T
indeterminate to first degree. N
In tied arches δU/ δH ≠ 0 as the arch end moves.
The fourth equation will be: δU/ δV = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δV) ds = 0
Bridge Engineering
• Temperature Effect in Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges:
If L is the span of the arch, support B if can be free to move due to

temperature effect, will go to B′ horizontally such that BB′ = Lαt.
Where α is thermal expansion

coefficient of arch material and
E L
t is temperature change.
P T
Bending moment M at an
height y from the springing
N
level is: M = Ht y
Here Ht is the horizontal thrust due to prevention of expansion of
arch due to temperature change.
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal increase in span δL of the arch is given by: δL = δU/ δHt

Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (Ht y)2/2EI ds
δU/ δHt = ∫0L 2Ht y2 /2EI ds = (1/EI) ∫0L Ht y2 ds
L
Also, Horizontal increase in span δL of the arch due to temperature
E
change δL = Lαt
P T
Hence, we can write:
Lαt = δL = δU/ δHt

N
Or, Lαt = (1/EI) ∫0L Ht y2 ds
Or, Ht = EI Lαt / ∫0L y2 ds
Bridge Engineering
• Effect of Arch Rib Shortening in Reinforced Concrete Arch

Bridges:
Arch Rib Shortening is caused due to compressive strain of the

arch concrete by direct axial thrust in the rib due to external
loading on the arch rib.
E L
This phenomenon releases
P T
part of the horizontal thrust
produced by the dead and
N
superimposed loads.
Horizontal thrust generated in arch due to arch rib shortening is Ha
Bridge Engineering
Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Ha y)2/2EI ds
Change in Length due to Arch Rib Shortening, δL is represented

by: δL = δU/ δHa = δ/ δHa[ ∫0L (M1 ‒ Ha y)2/2EI ds]
= ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hay)(‒ y)/EI ds
Arch Rib Shortening would cause reduction of E

L
L
P T rib length equal to
‒∫ H ds/AE
0 a
L
a
L
N
Now, ‒∫ H ds/AE = ∫ (M ‒ H y)(‒ y)/EI ds
1 a
0 0
Or, Ha = ∫0L (M1 yds/ EI)/ [∫0L (y2ds / EI) + ∫0L (ds/AE)]
Bridge Engineering
• Effect of Shrinkage and Plastic Flow in Reinforced Concrete

Arch Bridges:
Hs is the horizontal thrust due to shrinkage of arch rib and Cs is the

shrinkage strain.
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = LCs

E L
P T
N
Bending moment due to shrinkage at an height y from the
springing level is: M = Hs y
Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (Hs y)2/2EI ds
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = δU/ δHs = ∫0L 2Hs y2/2EI ds

= (1/EI) ∫0L Hs y2 ds
Bridge Engineering
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = LCs = (1/EI) ∫0L Hs y2 ds

Or, Hs = EI LCs / ∫0L y2 ds
Effect of plastic flow of concrete can be incorporated by modifying

E to half of the instantaneous value in calculation of thrust due to
E L
temperature variation and shrinkage including plastic flow.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
A two hinged parabolic arch of 40 m span is loaded with 120 kN load
at 10 m interval, as shown in figure. Rise of the arch is 5 m. Find the
forces and moments considering the effect of temperature variation,
arch shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow of concrete.
L
α = 11.7 × 10‒6/ ºC, Cs = 4 × 10‒4, E = 31.2 × 104 kg/cm2, t = 18ºC, A =
E
30 cm × 150 cm, I = 8.5 × 106 cm4.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Equation of parabolic arch rib is y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x)
y = 4rx/L2 × (L ‒ x) = 4 × 5x/ 402 × (40 ‒ x) = x/ 80 (40 ‒ x)
Considering the parabolic arch as a simply supported beam, VA = VB

= (3 × 120)/ 2 = 180 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For 0 < x < 10 m, Moment from A to C = 180x kNm
For 0 < x < 20 m, Moment from C to D = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) = (60x +

1200) kNm
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For 0 < x < 30 m, Moment from D to E = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) ‒ 120(x ‒
20) = (3600 ‒ 60x) kNm
For 0 < x < 40 m, Moment from E to B = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) ‒ 120(x ‒

20) ‒ 120(x ‒ 30) = (7200 ‒ 180x) kNm
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Thrust H = ∫0L (Mydx)/ ∫0L (y2dx)
Section A to C:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫010180x × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫010(90x2 ‒ 9x3/4) dx = (30x3 ‒
9x4/16) 010 = 24375 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section C to D:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫1020 (60x + 1200) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫1020(30x2 ‒ 3x3/4 +
600x ‒ 15x2) dx = ∫1020(15x2 ‒ 3x3/4 + 600x) dx
= (5x3 ‒ 3x4/16 + 300x2) 1020 = 96875 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section D to E:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫2030 (3600 ‒ 60x) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫2030(1800x ‒ 45x2 ‒
30x2 + 3x3/4) dx = ∫2030(1800x ‒ 75x2 + 3x3/4) dx = (900x2 ‒ 25x3 +
3x4/16) 2030 = 96875 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section E to B:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫3040 (7200 ‒ 180x) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫3040(3600x ‒ 90x2
‒ 90x2 + 9x3/4) dx = ∫3040(3600x ‒ 180x2 + 9x3/4) dx = (1800x2 ‒ 60x3 +
9x4/16) 3040 = 24375 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Total ∫0L (Mydx) = (24375 + 96875 + 96875 + 24375) = 242500 kN-m3
∫0L (y2dx) = ∫040 [(x/80) × (40 ‒ x)]2 dx = ∫040(x/2 ‒ x2/80)2 dx = ∫040(x2/4 ‒

x3/80 + x4/6400) dx = (x3/12 ‒ x4/320 + x5/32000) 040 = 533.33 m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Thrust H = ∫0L (Mydx)/ ∫0L (y2dx) = 242500 kN-m3 / 533.33 m3
= 454.69 kN
Moment at A = Moment at B = 0
y at C and E = (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) = (10/80) × (40 ‒ 10) = 3.75 m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Moment at C = Moment at E = (VA × x ‒ HA × y) = (180 × 10) ‒ (454.69
× 3.75) = 94.91 kN-m
Moment at D = [VA × x ‒ 120 (x ‒ 10) ‒ HA × y] = [(180 × 20) ‒ 120 (20 ‒

10) ‒ (454.69 × 5)] = 126.55 kN-m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Effective temperature variation = 2/3rd of the actual temperature
variation = 2/3 × ± 18 = ±12º C
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature change, Ht = EI Lαt / ∫0L y2 dx
Ht = (31.2 × 104 kg/cm2 × 8.5 × 106 cm4 × 4000 cm × 11.7 × 10‒6/ ºC × ±

12 ºC) / (533.33 × 106) cm3 = ± 2792.57 kg = ± 27.387 kN
E L
P T
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N
Horizontal Thrust due to arch rib shortening, Ha = ∫0L (My dx)/ [∫0L
(y2dx) + ∫0L (I dx/A)]
∫0L (My dx) = 242500 kN-m3; ∫0L (y2dx) = 533.33 m3
A = (30 cm × 150 cm) = 4500 cm2 = 0.45 m2
Bridge Engineering
I = 8.5 × 106 cm4 = 0.085 m4
∫0L (I dx/A) = (I/A) ∫0L dx = (0.085/0.45) ∫040 dx = (0.085/0.45) × 40 = 7.56

m3
Ha = ∫0L (My dx)/ [∫0L (y2dx) + ∫0L (I dx/A)] = 242500/ (533.33 + 7.56) =
448.34 kN
E L
P T
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Shrinkage strain Cs = 4 × 10‒4 N
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage, Hs = EI LCs / ∫0L y2 dx
∫0L (y2dx) = 533.33 m3
Hs = (31.2 × 104 kg/cm2 × 8.5 × 106 cm4 × 4000 cm × 4 × 10‒4)/ (533.33
× 106) cm3 = 7956.05 kg = 78.025 kN
Bridge Engineering
Effect of Plastic Flow of Concrete can be incorporated by modifying
E to half of the instantaneous value in calculation of thrust due to
temperature variation and shrinkage including plastic flow.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Summary of Results
Horizontal Thrust due to external loads, H = 454.69 kN
Horizontal Thrust due to arch rib shortening, Ha = 448.34 kN
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage, Hs = 78.025 kN (‒ ve)
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature variation, HE

L
P T = ± 27.387 kN
t
H = 39.01 kN (‒ ve)
s
N
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage including plastic flow = 50% of
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature variation including plastic flow

= 50% of Ht = ± 13.69 kN
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Horizontal Thrust inclusive of temperature variation, arch
rib shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow = Hmax = 448.34 kN ‒ 39.01
kN + 13.69 kN = 423.02 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Minimum Horizontal Thrust inclusive of temperature variation, arch
rib shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow = Hmin = 448.34 kN ‒ 39.01
kN ‒ 13.69 kN = 395.64 kN
Moment at A = Moment at B = 0
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Moment at C = Maximum Moment at E = (VA × x ‒ Hmin × y)
= (180 × 10) ‒ (395.64 × 3.75) = 316.35 kN-m
Maximum Moment at D = [VA × x ‒ 120 (x ‒ 10) ‒ Hmin × y] = [(180 ×

20) ‒ 120 (20 ‒ 10) ‒ (395.64 × 5)] = 421.8 kN-m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 17: Suspension Bridges
E L
 Aerodynamic Instability P T
 Cable Sag and Cable Tension
N
Topic of Discussion
 Aerodynamic Instability

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300

metres. Suspension bridges of lesser spans are also
constructed for aesthetic reasons. For spans exceeding 600
metres, stiffened suspension bridges are adopted.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Suspension bridges consist of one main span and two side

spans. The ratio of side span to main span generally varies from
0.17 to 0.50.
• Two groups of cables run from one end of the bridge to the
L
other passing over two towers. The ends of the cables are
E
anchored into the ground.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The bridge deck supported over stiffening truss is suspended

from the cables by suspenders and hence, this type of bridge is
named as suspension bridge.
• The ratio of side span to main span is 0.17-0.50 in general.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• A suspension bridge has the following structural components:
a) Towers, b) Cables, c) Anchorages

d) Suspenders, e) Stiffening Truss
f) Bridge Deck, g) Foundation
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The loads from the stiffening truss are carried by the

suspenders which in turn transfer the load to the cables.
• Since the cables of suspension bridge are very flexible, they do

not take any bending moment and are subjected only to tensile
forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The cables which are

subjected to tensile
forces transfer the
loads to the towers.
• Foundations, either
E L
separate or combined
P T
is provided below the
towers for ultimate
N
transfer of the loads to
the soil strata beneath.
Bridge Engineering
• Stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distribute the deck live
loads to the cables otherwise the cables would have subjected
to local sag due to concentrated live load causing local angle
change in deck system. Stiffening trusses are hinged at the
L
towers and suspended at node points from suspenders.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Vertical suspenders are generally used in many bridges but

diagonal suspenders have the advantage of improving the
aerodynamic stability of the bridge.
• The cables should

be cold-drawn wires,
E L
not heat-treated as
P T
the latter is
susceptible to failure
N
due to alternate
stresses even at low
loads.
Bridge Engineering
The following structural arrangements can be made for

suspension bridges.
• Loaded or Unloaded Side Span

• Self-anchored or Externally Anchored Back Stay
• Various Configurations of Stiffening Trusses
E L
• Various Ratios of Side to Main Spans
P T
N
• Various Ratios of Span to Sag of Cable
• Various Ratios of Span to Depth of Stiffening Trusses
• Tower Arrangement
• Hanger Arrangement
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Aerodynamic Instability
• Tacoma Narrows Bridge I of span length 853 m, world’s third

longest bridge of that time was made open to traffic on July 1,
1940.
• To make the bridge slender, span to depth ratio was considered
L
as 350, which used to be around 90 during that time. Span to
E
T
deck width ratio was 72 against the conventional value of 35.
P
•
N
The bridge became extremely flexible as a result.
Use of solid yet shallow plate girders for stiffening the deck for
visual enhancement, rendered the bridge aerodynamically
unstable.
• The bridge was oscillating vertically under moving loads.
Bridge Engineering
• On November 7, 1940, a stiff breeze of around 68 km/hr created

the vertical oscillation of the bridge combined with the violent
twisting motion. Soon, the whole deck twisted itself into pieces
and fell into the Narrows.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The Tacoma Narrows disaster emphasized the need to study

the aerodynamic stability of bridges.
• Wind tunnel tests on models and analysis were initiated by

researchers across the world soon.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The wind exerted on a structure may cause the static and

dynamic instability depending on the shape and cross-section
of the deck and the angle of wind incidence.
• The following conditions are required to be explored.
E L
a) Lift and Drag Forces: Lift force acts perpendicular to the wind
P T
direction while drag force acts parallel to the wind direction.
N
b) Vortex formation: Vortices can be described as a swirling air
mass with an annular cylindrical shape. The rotary speed at
the periphery is at its minimal, but the rotary speed increases
inversely with the radius so that its speed near the centre is at
maximum.
Bridge Engineering
c) Flutter: Flutter is the oscillation of the bridge deck in a mode

including both transverse movements and torsional rotations.
Flutter becomes critical when the wind acting on a structure

reaches a critical velocity that triggers a self-excited unstable
condition.
E L
P T
It may occur where the ratio of natural frequencies of the torsional
N
mode and translational (vertical) mode is equal to unity i.e. Nθ/Nv =
1 where Nθ = torsional frequency and Nv = vertical frequency.
The lowest frequencies generate vertical and torsional movements

at the centre of the main span.
Bridge Engineering
d) Buffeting: Buffeting is the shaking due to gusts. Buffeting

affects the fatigue performance of the bridge and causes
disturbances to the users. Wind blowing slightly upwards
under the deck generally cause maximum disturbances.
L
e) Cable vibrations: Cables of long span suspension bridges are
E
T
vulnerable to wind-induced vibrations. This can be mitigated
P
N
by increasing the damping at the cable ends, by altering the
natural frequency of the cables by reducing cable lengths with
use of spacers or cross cables and by changing the cable
characteristics by increasing the surface roughness.
Bridge Engineering
• In order to mitigate the adverse effects of wind-induced

disturbances, it is necessary to set up eddies or turbulence in
the wind and to increase the rigidity of the structure.
• Diagonal suspenders may be used in place of vertical hangers
L
and artificial damping devices may be installed in the structure.
E
P T
• Additionally, increase in the depth of stiffening truss and width
N
of the deck have also been found effective in this regard.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
• Cable sag would influence the design of a suspension bridge

considerably as a smaller cable sag increases the cable tension
but reduces the height of towers and lengths of hangers.
• If the unit cost of towers and hangers is higher than the unit
L
cost of cables, smaller cable sag is adopted and vice versa.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
• A reduced cable sag increases the cable stiffness as well as the

total stiffness of the structure resulting in higher natural
frequency and reduced susceptibility to aerodynamic
instability.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
Let us consider a point P on the cable having coordinates x and y

with B as origin. The suspension cable hangs in the shape of a
parabola, equation of which is given by:
y = kx(L ‒ x) where k is constant and L is main span.
L
At x = L/2, y = yc i.e. the cable sag at centre of main span.
E
Therefore, y = (4yc/L2) x (L ‒ x)
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Tension
Considering the main span loaded with uniformly distributed load

of intensity w, vertical reaction on tower RB = RD = wL/2 = R
The cable being flexible can not take any moment and thus,
moment at mid span of the cable is zero.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Tension
Considering moment of the forces in the left hand side about C,
RB × L/2 = H × yc + wL/2 × L/4 Or, H = wL2/8yc
Maximum tension in cable at B, T = √(H2 + R2)
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
• The suspension cable of the main span is supported on two

towers on both sides of the main span. The suspension cable
after passing over the supporting tower is generally anchored
down into an anchorage system. The cable of the side span is
L
thus termed as “anchor cable” or “back-stay cable”.
E
cables over the towers from the main P
T
• There are two arrangements generally made for passing the
a) Guide Pulley Support

N span to the side span.
b) Roller Support
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
a) Guide Pulley Support: The main cable is taken over a

frictionless guide pulley fixed on the top of the supporting
tower to the side span and then anchored. Since the cable
passes through a frictionless pulley, cable tension on both the
sides is the same.
E L
Vertical reaction on the
P T
tower due to cable tension
RT = T cosα + T cosθ
N
Horizontal force on the
top of the tower H = T sinα
– T sinθ
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
b) Roller Support: The main cable and the anchor cable are
attached to a saddle supported on rollers placed at the top of
the tower. Since the saddle is at rest, the horizontal force
component of both the main and anchor cables must be the
same.
E L
Horizontal force on the
P T
top of the tower H = T1
sinα = T2 sinθ
N
Vertical reaction on the
tower due to cable tension
RT = T1 cosα + T2 cosθ
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
A suspension bridge having a main span of 100 meters has a cable
sag of 10 metres at centre. Angle of anchor cable α = 60°.
Calculate the maximum tension in the cables when the deck is
carrying a uniformly distributed loading in the main span of 50 kN
per meter length.
E L
P T
Find the vertical reaction on the tower (a) if the cable passes over a
on rollers. N
friction less pulley and (b) if the cable passes over a saddle resting
Bridge Engineering
1. Given Data:
Main span length L = 100 m
Cable sag at center yc = 10 m
Uniformly distributed loading in the main span w = 50 kN/m
Angle of anchor cable α = 60°
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
2. Maximum Cable Tension:
Vertical reaction on tower RB = RD = R = wL/2 = R = (50 × 100)/2 =
2500 kN
Let us consider the horizontal pull on the cables as H.
L
The cable being flexible can not take any moment and thus,
E
moment at mid span of the cable is zero.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Considering moment of the forces in the left hand side about C,
RB × L/2 = H × yc + wL/2 × L/4
Or, H = wL2/8yc = (50 × 1002)/(8 × 10) = 6250 kN
Maximum tension in cable at T = √(H2 + R2) = √(62502 + 25002) =
6731.46 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Case (a) The cable passes over a frictionless pulley i.e. for Guide
Pulley Support:
Vertical reaction on the tower due to cable
tension RT = T cosα + T cosθ = T cosα + R
= 6731.46 cos60° + 2500 = 5865.73 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Case (b) The cable passes over a saddle on rollers i.e. for Roller
Support:
Horizontal force on the top of the tower H
= T1 sinα = T1 sin60°
Horizontal force on the top of the tower H
E L
= 6250 kN
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
So, T1 = H/ sinα = 6250/ sin60° = 7216.88 kN
Vertical reaction on the tower due to cable
tension RT = T1 cosα + T2 cosθ = T1 cosα +
R = 7216.88 cos60° + 2500 = 6108.44 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 18: Cable-Stayed Bridges
E L
 Aerodynamic Instability P T
 Optimum Cable Inclination
N
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In cable stayed bridges, cables from the deck are connected to

the main tower by inclined but straight cables. The inclined
cables of cable-stayed bridges are relatively stiff than the
cables of a suspension bridge which are relatively flexible.
E L
P T
N
Cable Stayed Bridges
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The cable stays of cable-stayed bridges act as intermediate

elastic supports in addition to the abutment or tower support.
• Presence of intermediate elastic supports in cable-stayed

bridges reduce deflection of bridge deck as well as the depth of
girders.
E L
P T
N
Cable Stayed Bridges
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• Cable stayed bridge is an innovative structure and is preferred

to conventional steel suspension bridges for long spans mainly
due to the reduction in moments in the stiffening girders
resulting in smaller section of the girders leading to economy in
overall costs.
E L
P T
• The ratio of maximum bending moment in the cable stayed
girder is nearly 1/10th of that of the conventional continuous
girder system. N
• In addition, the moments can be controlled to make them more
uniformly distributed along the girder length resulting in
efficient material utilization even with a very low depth to span
ratio of 1/90.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Various structural components of Cable Stayed Bridges are:

a) Towers or Pylons
b) Deck System
c) Cable System Supporting Deck
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Towers or Pylons
• Towers or Pylons are principal compression members involved

in transmission of loads to foundation.
• Towers can be of different types so as to accommodate

different cable arrangements, site conditions, design features,
aesthetics and economical considerations.
E L
P T
• Generally the arrangement of the cable stays determines the
N
design of both the pylon and the deck.
• The pylons can be arranged to support one axial layer of cable

stays or two lateral layer of cable stays.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Transverse arrangement of Pylons with one axial
layer of cable stays
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Transverse arrangement of Pylons with two axial
layer of cable stays
Bridge Engineering
Transfer of forces from the cable stays to the pylon is achieved by

three different arrangements.
a) A saddle permitting the continuity of the cable stay.
b) The cable stays fixed to the top of the tower may cross each
other inside the pylon.
E L
P T
c) A relay device incorporated into the top of the tower
N
connecting the upper anchorages of the associated cable
stays.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Saddle Crossing of Cable Stays Relay Device
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Cable Stays
The cable stays are made up of high tensile steel of different types
with an ultimate tensile strength in the range of 1500 to 2000
N/mm2.
The different types of cable stays used are:
a) Twisted Cable Stay

E L
b) Parallel Wires Cable Stay P T
c) Parallel Strands Cable Stay
N
d) Locked Coil Cable Stay
e) Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Typical cross sections of different types of cable stays are:
E L
P T
N
Twisted Parallel Wires Parallel Strands
Cable Stay Cable Stay Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Typical cross sections of different types of cable stays are:
E L
P T
N
Locked Coil Cable Stay Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Freyssinet Cable Stay
• The latest types of cable stay, i.e., Freyssinet cable stay
comprises a bundle of parallel strands of 15 mm diameter
which are enclosed in a polyethylene tube.
• This configuration allows the threading and grouting of the

stay.
E L
P T
• A spiral of steel wire inside the polyethylene ensures that
N
proper grout cover is provided around the bundle of strands.
• The cable stay comprises of 3 types of zones, i.e., the free

length zone, the transition zone and the anchorage zone.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Freyssinet Cable Stay
E L
P T
N
General Layout of Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Longitudinal Cable
Arrangement
• The arrangement of cables on the longitudinal direction
depends upon several factors such as clear span, tower
height, spacing of towers and level of approach roads.
L
• The choice of the longitudinal cable arrangement is
E
T
influenced by span, type of loading, number of roadway
P
N
lanes, height of towers, economy and aesthetic
considerations.
• For shorter span lengths, a single forestay and a backstay

with a single pylon is sufficient to satisfy the loading
requirements.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Longitudinal Cable
Arrangement
• Basically there are four types of cable configurations
generally used and they are classified as
(a) Fan type,
(b) Harp type,

E L
(c) Mixed type, and
P T
(d) Star type
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Fan Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Fan Type Cable
Arrangement
• Fan type arrangement is more aesthetic and as a rule the
most economical for a pylon of slenderness ratio (h/L) ≤ 0.3.
• For an equal tower height, the average inclination of the cable

stays is lower.
E L
P T
• The cable stays are longer and converge towards a single
N
point at the top of the tower posing problems of anchoring
arrangement and any subsequent stay replacement is
difficult.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Harp Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Harp Type Cable
Arrangement
• Harp type arrangement is preferred in a double plane system
as it minimizes the intersection of cables when viewed from
an oblique angle.
L
• The motorist may find the harp system more attractive. In the
E
T
harp system the cable connections are distributed
P
N
throughout the height of the tower and hence results in an
efficient tower design in comparison with the fan type.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Mixed Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Mixed Type Cable
Arrangement
• Fan type arrangement increases buckling problems due to
greater effective strut length while harp type arrangement
increases bending moments.
L
• The mixed type arrangement represents a compromise
E
T
between the extremes of the harp and the fan type
P
N
arrangements and it is useful when it becomes difficult to
accommodate all cables at the top of the tower.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Star Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
• Star type arrangement may be preferred due to its unique
aesthetic appearance.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Anchorage System
• The axial force in the stiffening girder depends on the method

of anchoring the cables and the provision of expansion joints
and their location in the structure.
• Basically three different types of anchored systems are

considered such as
E L
a) Self anchored system
P T
b) Fully anchored system
N
c) Partially anchored system
Bridge Engineering
• Self Anchored System:
In the self anchored system, there is no restraint at the supports

to the horizontal components of the cable force. In this case, the
axial force distribution in the girder will vary from zero at the
E L
centre of main span to maximum compression near the towers.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Fully Anchored System:
In the fully anchored system, no provision is made for

movement at the supports but expansion joints are provided at
the towers. The axial force distribution varies from zero force at
E L
the towers to a maximum value at the centre of span.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Partially Anchored System:
In the partially anchored system, the axial forces are considerably

reduced using a combination of the above two systems by
providing horizontal restraint at the abutments with no expansion
E L
joints or expansion joints provided only in the end spans.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Dynamic Behaviour
• The cable stayed bridge with concrete decks and highly

stressed cables has very favourable dynamic behaviour.
• The deflection under live loads are extremely small because the
effective depth of the large cantilever truss formed by the
cables is much larger than for beam girders.
E L
P T
• The main advantage of the multi-cable system being that the
N
increase of amplitude due to resonance oscillation is prevented
by system damping caused by the interference of the multi-
cable system.
Bridge Engineering
• Following geometrical relations can be maintained for

obtaining wind stability in the case of concrete bridge decks
supported with cables in two planes along the edges.
L = Span of bridge deck
B = Width of bridge deck

E L
P T
N
H = Depth of stiffening girder
• The bridge will be safe against wind loads if the following

geometrical relations are satisfied:
a) B ≥ 10H
Bridge Engineering
b) For B < 10H, a wind nose should be provided
c) B ≥ L/30, which indicates that the width of the bridge

should not be too small in relation to the main span length.
• If this ratio gets smaller, then A-shaped towers and wind

shaping of the cross-section must be used.
E L
P T
N
• The A-shaped tower provides a triangular shape of the cable
plane and the deck, which increases the torsional rigidity.
• Bridges supported with cables in one plane along the centre

line have negligible damping for torsional oscillations.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Approximate Structural Analysis
• A cable stayed bridge system is generally many times statically

indeterminate.
• A linear analysis can be made by assuming a suitable statically

determinate system.
E L
• The deflections of the basic system under applied loads may be
P T
determined by applying the classical theory of structures by
N
neglecting the deformations of the system when formulating
the equilibrium conditions.
Bridge Engineering
• For a statically determined basic system, the resulting

equations are linear in the loads and in the internal forces and
linear superposition is valid for the internal forces caused by
different loads or load groups.
L
• If Hooke’s law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition
E
T
applies also to the displacements and therefore to the
P
N
determination of the stresses of the cable stayed bridge
systems. The design process for a cable stayed bridge system
with accepted geometrical layout may be divided into the
following stages.
Bridge Engineering
(a) A preliminary set of sectional properties is assumed for

each member of the system.
(b) The sectional properties assumed in stage (a) are

analysed, applying one of the statical methods of analysis.
L
Stresses and displacements under the given loads on the system
E
T
are determined and compared with the maximum unit stresses
P
N
and maximum displacement span ratios allowed by the
specifications.
(c) A new set of sectional properties is chosen to satisfy the

requirements of the specifications.
Bridge Engineering
The above stages are repeated until we obtain a specifies relation

between the sectional properties assumed in stage (a) and those
obtained in stage (c).
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Approximate structural analysis of cable stayed bridge system

includes the computation of the following basic items:
• Height of tower and length of panels
• Cable forces
E L
• Approximate weight of stiffening girders
P T
• Self-weight of cables
N
• Degree of redundancy
• Optimum inclination of cables
Bridge Engineering
• The number and length of the panels are basically determined

by the bridge system and its structural characteristics.
• It is possible to reduce the moment of inertia of the girder and

for this purpose it is necessary to reduce the panel length.
E L
• However, the reduction of the girder’s depth is limited because
P T
of the connection of the cable to the girder.
N
• Technically it is certainly convenient to have the minimum
number of cable connections to reduce the number of
anchorages and for regulation of forces in the cables.
Bridge Engineering
A comparison of the existing structures indicate the following

optimum values of the panel lengths:
(1) For central spans in the range of 137 to 150 m, panels of

20 m length are recommended.
(2)
E L
For the smaller central spans, the panels should be in the
range of 15 to 17 m.
P T
(3) N
For central spans longer than 170 m, panels should be 30
m in length.
Bridge Engineering
The optimum size of the middle panel is determined under the

assumption of full use of the material of the girder.
Experience indicates that the length of the middle panel may be 20

to 30 percent longer than the other panels.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Cable Inclination
• The height of the tower significantly influences the stiffness of

the bridge system.
• As the angle of inclination of the cable with respect to the

stiffening girder increases, the stresses in the cables decrease,
as does the required cross-section of the tower.
E L
P T
• However, as the height of the tower increases, the length of the
N
cables and therefore their axial deformations also increase, as
well as the amount of metal in the cables.
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Cable Inclination
• The relation between the cable inclination and girder deflection

indicates that the optimum angle of cable inclination is 45°.
• However, it may vary in the reasonable limits of 25°-65°.
• The low values correspond to external cables and the higher
E
values indicate the cable nearest to the tower. L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
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P T
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 19: Balanced Cantilever Bridges
E L
 Articulations P T
 Arrangement of Spans
N
 Shear Variation in Variable Depth Girders
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Balanced cantilever bridges offer unique advantage of

continuity in construction ideally suited for medium to long
span bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The superstructure basically comprises of simply supported,

suspended, cantilever spans combined together so that the
entire structure has the advantage of continuous bridges with
the simplicity of determinate structures for the purpose of
analyses.
Balanced cantilever bridges are among theE

L
•
P T several innovative
second world war. N

types of bridges which were planned and constructed after the
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Advantages:
• Economy in the use of concrete, steel and form work
• Reactions at the piers are vertical permitting slender piers
L
• Balanced cantilever design requires only one bearing at every
E
the width of the pier can be smaller. P T
pier while simply supported design needs two bearings. Hence,
•
N
Fewer expansion bearings are required for the entire structure
resulting in lower initial and maintenance cost.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Diasadvantages:
• Skilled planning and designing with elaborative reinforcement

detailing is required.
• Variation of bending moments in different spans is less

favourable.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
• Cantilever Bridges consist of three or more spans of which the

outer or anchor spans are anchored down to the shore.
Cantilevers carry their loads by tension in upper chords and by
compression in lower chords. Suspended span is rested at the
truss.
E L
cantilever ends and it acts as a simply supported beam or
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The connection between the suspended span and the edge of

cantilever is termed as articulation.
• Articulation is a hinge that permits translation and rotation

avoiding the development of moments.
E L
• The bearings at articulations are normally comprised of the
P T
roller-rocker arrangement, sliding plates or elastomeric bearings.
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The hinges are positioned in the vicinity of low and zero bending
moments under dead load.
• By convenient location of hinges, distribution of dead load

bending moments can be made almost identical to that in the
L
continuous decks of same shape and similar loading conditions.
E
P T
• Heavy loads are transmitted at articulations resulting in
N
development of tension forces and bending moments.
• Thus, the sections near articulation are critical sections in which

detailed analysis of developed forces is required for designing
adequate reinforcements.
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The figure below shows the various critical sections 1, 2, 3 and 4

etc inclined at angles θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 to the vertical and the
moments. Normal thrust and shear developed at these sections
are analysed for designing suitable reinforcements at the
articulations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The beams are supported on steel or concrete rocker or

neoprene pad bearings which permit limited rotations and
translations so as to reduce development of moments and
forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• There are different configurations of typical balanced cantilever

bridges with hinges or articulations at different locations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• There are different configurations of typical balanced cantilever

bridges with hinges or articulations at different locations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Arrangement of Spans
• Typical arrangement of simply supported and cantilever spans

of balanced cantilever bridge is shown below.
E L
P T
•
N
For economy, the main criterion is that the maximum moments
in the beams are the least.
• For this criterion, the dimensions of x and y should be adjusted

accordingly.
Bridge Engineering
• Typical arrangement of simply supported and cantilever spans

of balanced cantilever bridge is shown below.
E L
P T
•
N
Under normal loading conditions, the ratio of (x/y) should be in
between 4 to 5.
• This ratio reduces the bending moment to about 50% of the

moment for a simply supported beam of span (x + 2y).
Bridge Engineering
• The simplest arrangement of balanced cantilever bridge is of

three spans as shown below in the form of double cantilever
bridge.
E L
P T
•
N
The central span can be upto 30 m.
• If the span length of the bridge exceeds, a 5 span arrangement

is selected with a simply supported span at the centre.
Bridge Engineering
• The simplest arrangement of balanced cantilever bridge is of

three spans as shown below in the form of double cantilever
bridge.
E L
P T
•
N
Normally the deck consists of main girders of the tee beam and
slab and the spacing between the beams being arranged
depending on the lanes of the traffic.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Shear Variation in Variable Depth Girders
• Depth of girders in the balanced cantilever bridges are usually

variable with maximum depth at the intermediate supports to
resist the bending moments and with minimum depth at the
centre of the span and the end supports.
L
• The carriageway width is determined based on the traffic lanes
E
T
on the high way and the cross-sectional details are finalized by
P
•
N
selecting the number of main girders spaced at 1.5 – 2.5 m.
Analysis of moments and shear forces in the girders of variable

depth along the span is generally simplified by using influence
lines for all critical sections such as the supports and the
centre of the spans.
Bridge Engineering
In case of beams of varying depth, the net shear force at the

section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 is calculated by the relation given in IS:456-2000 as
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
where 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 = Shear force at the support
E L
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 = Bending moment at the section
P T
𝒅𝒅 = Effective depth at the section
N
𝜷𝜷 = Angle between the top and bottom edges of the beam
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
Net shear force at the section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
The negative sign in the formula applies when the bending

moment 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 increases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth 𝒅𝒅 increases.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
Net shear force at the section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
The positive sign in the formula applies when the bending

moment 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 decreases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth 𝒅𝒅 decreases.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
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Publishing.
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Module 07: Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Composite Bridges

Lecture 20: Prestressed Concrete Bridges
 Important Terminology
E L
 Structural Configurations P T
 Design Example
N
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Prestressed Concrete is a concrete in which internal stresses

of a suitable magnitude and distribution are introduced so that
the stresses resulting from external loads are counteracted to
a desired degree.
L
• In reinforced concrete members, the pre-stress is commonly
E
T
introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement known as
P
•
tendons.
N
Art of prestressing in ancient time: wooden barrel construction
by force-fitting of metal bands and shrink-fitting of metal tyres
on wooden wheels.
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Evolution
• Deficiency in tensile strength of concrete was the driving factor

in development of the composite material known as Reinforced
Concrete (RC).
• Development of early cracks in RC due to incompatibility in the
L
strains of steel and concrete was perhaps the starting point in
E
T
the development of a new material like Prestressed Concrete.
P
N
• In 1904, Eugene Freyssinet from France introduced
permanently acting forces in concrete to sustain the elastic
forces developed under loads and this scheme was later
named as prestressing.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Prestressed concrete is ideally suited for the construction of

medium and long span bridges.
• Prestressed concrete has almost replaced steel for the

construction of bridges due to its inherent advantages of
L
superior durability and ease of maintenance in comparison with
E
T
steel with its basic disadvantages of corrosion under
P
•
N
aggressive environmental conditions and inhibitive costs.
Prestressed Concrete has been widely used throughout the

world for simply supported, continuous, balanced cantilever,
suspension, hammer head and bridle chord type bridges in the
span range from 20 to 500 m.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Prestressed Concrete is ideally used for spans exceeding 50 m.
• Solid slabs are used for the span range of 10 to 20 m.
• Tee beam slab decks are suitable for spans in the range of 20 to
40 m.
E L
• Single or multicell
P T
box girders are
preferred for N
larger spans of
the order of 30 to
70 m.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Prestressed Concrete has distinct advantages when used for

bridge construction.
• The use of high strength concrete and high tensile steel results
in slender sections which are aesthetically superior coupled
with overall economy.
E L
P T
• Prestressed concrete bridges can be designed as class 1 type
N
structures without any tensile stresses under service loads
resulting in a crack free structure.
• In comparison with steel bridges, prestressed concrete bridges

require very little maintenance.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Prestressed concrete is ideally suited for composite bridge

construction in which precast prestressed girders support the
cast in-situ slab deck. This type of construction is very popular
since it involves minimum disruption of traffic.
L
• Post tensioned prestressed concrete finds extensive
E
T
applications in long span continuous girder bridges of variable
P
N
cross section resulting in sleek structures and with
considerable savings in the overall cost of construction.
• In recent years, partially prestressed concrete is preferred for

bridge construction due to considerable savings in the quantity
of costly high tensile steel used in the girder.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Utilization of mild steel in prestressed concrete was not

successful, as a working stress of 120 MPa in mild steel is
more or less completely lost due to elastic deformation, creep
and shrinkage of concrete.
L
• The normal loss of stress in steel is generally about 100 to 240
E
T
MPa and it is apparent that if this loss of stress is to be a small
P
N
portion of the initial stress, the stress in steel in the initial
stages must be very high, about 1200 to 2000 MPa which is
possible only with the use of high-strength steel.
• To offer high resistance in tension, shear, bond and bearing,

high-strength concrete is necessary in prestressed concrete.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In the zone of anchorages, the bearing stresses being higher,

high-strength concrete is invariably preferred to minimize the
costs.
• High strength concrete is less liable to shrinkage cracks, and
L
has a higher modulus of elasticity and smaller ultimate creep
E
T
strain, resulting in a smaller loss of prestress in steel.
P
N
• High-strength concrete results in a reduction in the cross-
sectional dimensions of prestressed concrete structural
elements.
• With a reduced dead-weight of the material, longer spans

become technically and economically viable.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Important Terminology
• Tendon: A steel element, such as a wire, cable, bar, rod or

strand, or a bundle of such elements used to impart prestress
to concrete when the element is tensioned.
• Anchorage: A device used to enable the tendon to impart and
L
maintain prestress in the concrete. Commonly used
E
T
anchorages are the Freyssinet, Magnel Blaton, Gifford-Udall,
P
N
Leonhatdt-Baur, LeeMcCall, Dywidag, Roebling and BBRV
systems.
• Pretensioning: Tensioning the tendons before placing the

concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by bond between
steel and concrete.
Bridge Engineering
• Post-tensioning: Tensioning the tendons against hardened

concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by bearing.
• Full prestressing: Prestressed concrete in which tensile

stresses in the concrete are entirely obviated at working loads
L
by having sufficiently high prestress in the members.
E
P T
• Limited or partial prestressing: The degree of prestress applied
N
to concrete in which tensile stresses to a limited degree are
permitted in concrete under working loads. In this case, in
addition to tensioned steel, a considerable proportion of
untensioned reinforcement is generally used to limit the width
of cracks developed under service loads.
Bridge Engineering
• Bonded prestressed concrete: In bonded prestressed concrete

beams, the tendons are always connected to the surrounding
concrete. The tendons are embedded in pretensioned beams.
The bond reflects the adhesion of cement paste to the steel.
L
In case of post-tensioned beam, after the tendons are
E
P T
tensioned, the grouting (a mixture of cement, water and
admixture injected with pressure) is done. Thus, the bond is
N
obtained after tensioning the wires.
• Non-bonded/Unbonded prestressed concrete: Tendons are not

bonded to the surrounding concrete; tendons may be placed in
ducts formed in the concrete members or they may be placed
outside the concrete sections.
Bridge Engineering
• Axial prestressing: Member in which the entire cross-section of

concrete has a uniform compressive prestress. The centroid of
the tendons coincides with that of the concrete sections.
• Eccentric prestressing: A section in which the tendons are
L
eccentric to the centroid, resulting in a triangular or trapezoidal
E
compressive stress distribution.
P T
N
• Linear prestressing: Application of prestressing in straight
elements. This kind of application is done in beams, slabs,
columns and piles.
Bridge Engineering
• Circular prestressing: Circumferential prestressing is done in

circular tanks, silos and pipes. Tendons are in the forms of
circles. The circumferential hoop compression is induced in
concrete by prestressing counter-balances the hoop tension
developed due to the internal fluid pressure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pre-tensioned Prestressed Concrete Bridges:
• Pretensioned prestressed concrete bridge decks generally

comprise precast pretensioned units used in conjunction with
cast in-situ concrete resulting in composite bridge decks ideally
L
suited for small and medium spans in the range of 20 to 30 m.
E
P T
• In general, pretensioned girders are provided with straight
N
tendons. The use of seven wire strands have been found to be
advantageous in comparison with plain or indented wires.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Typical Cross-Sections of Pre-tensioned Prestressed
Concrete Bridge Decks
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Typical Cross-Sections of Pre-tensioned Prestressed
Bridge Engineering
Post-tensioned Prestressed Concrete Bridges:
• Post tensioned bridge decks are generally adopted for longer

spans exceeding 20 m.
• Bridge decks with precast post-tensioned girders of either Tee
E L
type or box type in conjunction with cast in-situ slab is
P T
commonly adopted for spans exceeding 30 m.
N
• Post tensioning facilitates the use of curved cables which
improve the shear resistance of the girders.
Bridge Engineering
Post-tensioned Prestressed Concrete Bridges:
• Post tensioning is ideally suited for prestressing long span

girders at the site of construction without the need for costly
factory type installations like pretensioning beds.
E L
• Segmental construction is ideally suited for post tensioning
P T
work. In this method a number of segments can be combined by
N
prestressing, resulting in an integrated structure.
• Long span continuous prestressed concrete bridges are

invariably built up of multicelled box girder segments of variable
depth using then post tensioning system.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Typical Cross-Sections of Post-tensioned Prestressed
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Typical Cross-Sections of Post-tensioned Prestressed
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design a post tensioned prestressed concrete slab bridge deck for a National
Highway crossing to suit the following data.
Clear span 10 m
Width of bearing 400 mm
Clear width of Road way 7.5 m with 1 m footpath on either side
Kerbs 600 mm wide by 300 mm deep
Thickness of wearing coat 80 mm
E L
Live load
Type of structure
IRC Class AA tracked vehicle
Class 1 type
P T
Materials
N
M-40 Grade concrete and 7 mm diameter high tensile wires with an
ultimate tensile strength of 1500 MPa housed in cables with 12 wires and
anchored by Freyssinet anchorages of 150 mm diameter.
For supplementary reinforcement, adopt Fe-415 Grade HYSD bars.

Assume compressive strength of concrete at transfer as 35 MPa and loss ratio as 0.8.
The design should conform to the specifications of the codes IRC: 6-2014, IRC: 112-
2011 and IS: 1343-2012.
Bridge Engineering
1. Maximum Permissible Stresses in Concrete and Steel:
Compressive strength of concrete fck = 40 N/mm2
Compressive strength of concrete at transfer fci = 35 N/mm2
L
The permissible compressive stresses in concrete at transfer and
E
T
service loads as recommended in IS 1343: 2012 are as follows:
P
N
Assuming that the compressive stresses are not likely to increase
(Zone-I) (Post tensioned work), Compressive stress at transfer f =
ct
15 N/mm2 < 0.50 fci = (0.50 × 35) = 17.5 N/mm2
Compressive stress at service loads fcw = 12 N/mm2 < 0.39 fck = (0.39
× 40) = 15.6 N/mm2
Bridge Engineering
Permissible tensile stress (Class 1 type structure) = ftt = ftw = 0
Ultimate tensile strength of 12 wires of 7 mm diameter high tensile

cables fp = 1500 N/mm2
Maximum permissible stress in the high tensile strength cable =

1200 N/mm2
E L
P T
N
Assuming the thickness of slab at 50 mm per metre of span for
highway bridge decks, overall thickness of slab = (10 × 50) = 500
mm.
Using effective cover of 55 mm, effective depth = 500 ‒ 55 = 445 mm
Bridge Engineering
Width of bearing = 400 m

(a) Clear Span + Effective Depth = (10 + 0.45) = 10.45 m
(b) Centre to Centre Distance of Bearings = (10 + 0.4) = 10.4 m
Hence, effective span = 10.4 m
E L
P T
N
Cross-Section of Deck Slab
Bridge Engineering
Dead weight of slab = (0.5 × 24) = 12 kN/m2
Dead weight of wearing coat = (0.08 × 22) = 1.76 kN/m2
Total dead load = 13.76 kN/m2

E L
𝒈𝒈
P T
Dead load bending moment (𝑴𝑴 ) = (13.76 × 10.4 )/8
2 = 186.04 kNm
4. Live Load Bending Moments: N

The bending moment due to live load will be maximum for IRC
Class AA tracked vehicle when it is placed symmetrically on the
span as specified in the figure.
Bridge Engineering
Impact factor for Class AA tracked vehicle is 25% for 5 m span,
decreasing linearly to 10% for 9 m span.
So, Impact factor = 1.10 for a span of 10.4 m.
Effective length of load = [3.6 + 2 (0.5 + 0.08)] = 4.76 m
E L
P T
N
Position of load for maximum bending moment
Bridge Engineering
Effective width of slab perpendicular to span 𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌. 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙/𝑳𝑳 + 𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘
𝒙𝒙 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎, 𝑩𝑩 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑩𝑩/𝑳𝑳 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝟓/𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 + 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
For 𝑩𝑩/𝑳𝑳 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗, simply supported slabs, 𝒌𝒌 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
E L
P T
𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒆 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐/𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎
N
minimum clearance as shown in Figure.
Total load of two tracks with impact = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 770 kN
Bridge Engineering
E L
Net effective width of dispersion
P T
Net effective width of dispersion = 8.261 m N
Average intensity of load = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕/ 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟖𝟖. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 19.58 kN/m2
Maximum bending moment due to live load 𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 = �(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 ×
𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐/𝟐𝟐) − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 /𝟖𝟖 � = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Bridge Engineering
5. Shear due to Class AA Tracked Vehicle:
For maximum shear force at support section; IRC Class AA tracked

vehicle is arranged as shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Position of load for maximum shear
Effective width of dispersion is given by 𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌. 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙/𝑳𝑳 + 𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘
where 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎, 𝑩𝑩 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎, 𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
Bridge Engineering
𝑩𝑩/𝑳𝑳 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝟓/𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
For 𝑩𝑩/𝑳𝑳 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗, the value of 𝒌𝒌 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒆 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑/𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒎
E L
P T
N (5360/2)
7355
Net effective width of dispersion
Net effective width of dispersion = 7.355 m
Bridge Engineering
Intensity of live load = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕/ 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒−𝟐𝟐.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Live Load Shear force 𝑽𝑽𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒
Dead load shear = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
6. Check for Minimum Section Modulus :

E L
P T
Dead load moment 𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈 = 186.04 kNm
Live load moment 𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 kNm
N
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐
Section Modulus = 𝒁𝒁𝒕𝒕 = 𝒁𝒁𝒃𝒃 = 𝒁𝒁 = = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 mm3
𝟔𝟔
Bridge Engineering
The permissible stresses in concrete at transfer can be obtained as
𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 N/mm2, 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 N/mm2, 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎,
𝜼𝜼 = Loss Ratio = 0.8, 𝒇𝒇𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 = 𝜼𝜼𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 − 𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝒘𝒘 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎
N/mm2
The minimum section modulus is given by 𝒁𝒁𝒃𝒃 ≥

E L
𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 + 𝟏𝟏−𝜼𝜼 𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈
P T 𝒇𝒇𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃
≥
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
N
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 + 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 × 186.04 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
≥ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 < 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑
Hence the section selected is adequate to resist the service loads

without exceeding the permissible stresses.
Bridge Engineering
7. Minimum Prestressing Force:
The minimum prestressing force required is computed using the
𝑨𝑨 𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 .𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 +𝒇𝒇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 .𝒛𝒛𝒕𝒕
relation 𝑷𝑷 =
𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 +𝒛𝒛𝒕𝒕
Where 𝒇𝒇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒖 −

𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈
= 𝟎𝟎 −
𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
E L
= −𝟒𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔 N/mm2
𝒛𝒛𝒕𝒕 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
T
P= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/mm
N
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖+𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝒇𝒇𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 +𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈
𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = + = 𝟎𝟎 + 2
𝜼𝜼 𝜼𝜼𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖×𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟒𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔

𝑷𝑷 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑵𝑵
𝟐𝟐 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Bridge Engineering
Using Freyssinet cables containing 12 wires 7 mm diameter
stressed to 1200 N/mm2, force in each cable = �𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝝅𝝅/𝟒𝟒 × 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 ×
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏�/𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
So, Spacing of cables = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
L
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓
8. Eccentricity of Cables:
T E
Eccentricity of the cables at the centre of span is obtained as: 𝒆𝒆 =
N P
𝒛𝒛𝒕𝒕 𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 −𝒇𝒇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝟐𝟐 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟒𝟒.𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔
= = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑨𝑨 𝒇𝒇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒛𝒛𝒕𝒕 +𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓×𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 × −𝟒𝟒.𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔+𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
The cables are arranged in a parabolic profile with maximum

eccentricity of 190 mm at centre of span reducing to zero
eccentricity (concentric) at supports.
Bridge Engineering
9. Check for Stresses at Service Loads:
𝑷𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 kN, 𝒆𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 mm

𝑨𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 mm2
𝒁𝒁𝒕𝒕 = 𝒁𝒁𝒃𝒃 = 𝒁𝒁 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 mm3
𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 kNm
E L
T
𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
N P
(𝑷𝑷/𝑨𝑨) = (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 /𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 ) = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 N/mm2
𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷/𝒁𝒁 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎/𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 N/mm 2
𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈 /𝒁𝒁 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 /𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟓 N/mm2
𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 /𝒁𝒁 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 /𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 N/mm2
Bridge Engineering
Stress at transfer:
At top of slab = (3.365 – 7.672 + 4.465) = 0.158 N/mm2
At bottom of slab = (3.365 + 7.672 – 4.465) = 6.572 N/mm2
Stresses at working loads:

E L
P T
At top of slab = 0.8 × (3.365 – 7.672) + 4.465 + 4.484 = 5.503 N/mm2
At bottom of slab = 0.8 × (3.365 + 7.672)

N/mm2
N– 4.465 – 4.484 = – 0.119
The actual stresses developed are within the permissible limits.
Bridge Engineering
The moment of resistance of rectangular sections is evaluated by

using the expression 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 = 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒅𝒅 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖
Where 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = tensile stress in the tendons at failure
E L
𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = effective prestress in tendons
P T
N
𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = area of prestressing tendons in the tension zone
𝒅𝒅 = effective depth to the centroid of the steel area
𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖 = neutral axis depth
Bridge Engineering
For pretensioned and post tensioned members with effective bond,
the values of 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 and 𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖 are interpolated using the values given in
Table 11 of IS: 1343-2012.
The values of the various parameters are computed as,

𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝝅𝝅/𝟒𝟒 × 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 /𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 mm2
E L
𝒅𝒅 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 mm, 𝒃𝒃 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 mm
P T
𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/mm2, 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 N/mm2 N
𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒃𝒃. 𝒅𝒅. 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Bridge Engineering
Table 11 of IS: 1343-2012
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
By linear interpolation, the values of the ratios and 𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖 /𝒅𝒅 can
𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
be obtained as = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 and 𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖 /𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
Hence 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/mm2

And 𝒙𝒙𝒖𝒖 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 mm
E L
Ultimate moment capacity 𝑴𝑴 = 𝒇𝒇 𝑨𝑨 𝒅𝒅 −P
T
𝒖𝒖
N
𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒙𝒙 = [𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ×
𝟔𝟔
𝒖𝒖
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 ] = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N-mm = 727.67 kNm
Required moment of resistance 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖,𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝑴𝑴𝒒𝒒 =

𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 < 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
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Hence the ultimate moment capacity of the designed section is
greater than the required ultimate moment.

Ultimate Shear Force 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑽𝑽𝒈𝒈 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝑽𝑽𝒒𝒒 = [ 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 +
𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 ] = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 kN
E L
P T
The design shear resistance of the support section is calculated by
𝑰𝑰.𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
N
𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹.𝒄𝒄 = 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 ∓ 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼
𝒔𝒔
Where 𝑰𝑰 = Second moment of area of gross cross section
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𝑺𝑺 = First moment of area between centroidal axis and compression
fibre about centroidal axis
𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = Design value of concrete tensile strength = 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 /𝜸𝜸𝒎𝒎
𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 = Constant depending upon transmission length and has a value

of 1 for post tensioned beams
E L
P T
𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = mean compressive stress at centroidal axis = 𝜼𝜼𝑷𝑷/𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄
𝜼𝜼 = loss ratio
N
𝑷𝑷 = prestressing force
𝜽𝜽 = slope of the cable at support section
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𝒃𝒃𝑫𝑫𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟑
𝑰𝑰 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 mm4
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐×𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑺𝑺 = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 mm3
𝟐𝟐
𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 /𝜸𝜸𝒎𝒎 = 𝟑𝟑/𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟐𝟐 since 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟑𝟑 N/mm2 for 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 MPa
𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼/𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 L

E = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 N/mm 2
= 𝟎𝟎.P
T
𝜽𝜽 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒/𝑳𝑳 = 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 / 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
N 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝑰.𝒃𝒃𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹.𝒄𝒄 = 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 ∓ 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼𝜼 = ×
𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∓ 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑 N = 1120.552 kN >

217.72 kN
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The shear resistance of the support section is greater than the
required ultimate shear force.
12. Supplementary Reinforcement:

According to Clause 16.5.1 of IRC: 112-2011, the minimum
longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than that given by the
E L
P T
relation, 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔.𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 /𝒇𝒇𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 𝒃𝒃𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅 but not less than 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒃𝒃𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅
Where 𝒃𝒃𝒕𝒕 = mean width of the tension zone N

𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔.𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟑𝟑/𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 but not less than (𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ×
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒) = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 mm2/m or 578 mm2/m
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Using 10 mm diameter Fe-415 HYSD bars at the top and bottom
faces of the slab, the spacing S = (1000 ast/ Ast) = (2 × 1000 × 78.54/
836) = 187.89 mm
We can provide 10 mm diameter Fe-415 HYSD bars at a spacing of
L
180 mm both at the top and bottom faces of the slab in the
E
longitudinal and transverse direction.
P T
N
13. Check for Serviceability Limit States:
a) Limit State of Deflection
At service loads, deflections due to prestressing force, dead load

and live load are computed as follows:
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Dead load 𝐠𝐠 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 kN/m = 0.014 kN/mm
Live load spread over a length of 4.76 m is assumed as a

concentrated load at a centre of span is computed as 𝑸𝑸 = (𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 ×
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓) = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟐𝟐 kN
E
Effective prestressing force after losses 𝜼𝜼𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 = L
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 kN
P T
𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 kN/mm2 N
𝑰𝑰 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 mm4
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐
Upward deflection due to prestressing force 𝒂𝒂𝒑𝒑 = =
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 𝑰𝑰
𝟓𝟓×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐
= 𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 mm (upwards)
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑× 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗
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𝟓𝟓𝒈𝒈𝑳𝑳𝟒𝟒
Downward deflection due to dead load 𝒂𝒂𝒈𝒈 = =
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 𝑰𝑰
𝟓𝟓×𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒
= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐 mm (downwards)
𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖×𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑× 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗
𝑸𝑸𝑳𝑳𝟑𝟑
Downward deflection due to live load 𝒂𝒂𝒒𝒒 = =
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 𝑰𝑰
L
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗.𝟐𝟐×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑
= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 mm (downwards)
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑× 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗
T E
N P
Maximum deflection due to prestress + self weight + live loads
𝒂𝒂𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂𝒑𝒑 + 𝒂𝒂𝒈𝒈 + 𝒂𝒂𝑸𝑸 = −𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕 mm
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Maximum permissible deflection due to live loads only = =
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 mm > 6.35 mm
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
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Long term deflection considering the effect of creep is limited to

(span/250).
Notional size of cross section = 𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄 /𝒖𝒖 = [ 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 /

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐] = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 mm.
L
Table 6.9 of IRC: 112-2011
Age at
T E
P
t0
(days)
50 150 600
Dry atmospheric conditions (RH 50%) N
50 150 600
Humid atmospheric conditions (RH 80%)
1 5.50 4.60 3.70 3.60 3.20 2.90
7 5.50 4.60 3.70 2.60 2.30 2.00
28 3.90 3.10 2.60 1.90 1.70 1.50
90 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.20
365 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.00
Bridge Engineering
For the notional size of 500 mm at relative humidity of 50% and age
at loading of 28 days, the final creep coefficient 𝜱𝜱 can be
interpolated from Table 6.9 of IRC 112 and obtained as 2.71.
𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄
Effective modulus of elasticity of concrete = 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄,𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = =
E L 𝟏𝟏+𝜱𝜱
T
𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄
=
P
𝟏𝟏+𝟐𝟐.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝟑𝟑.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
Maximum long term deflection =

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 mm
N𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟒𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 <
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b) Limit State of Cracking:
The deck slab has been designed as a Class-1 type structure

without any tensile stresses at service loads. Hence, the
serviceability limit state of cracking is automatically satisfied.
E L
Hence the slab is safe regarding the serviceability limit state of
P T
deflection and cracking according to the specifications of IRC: 112-
2011. N
Bridge Engineering
14. Design of End Block Reinforcement:
At the support section, concentric cables carrying a force of 554 kN

are spaced at intervals of 329 mm.
The end block has to be designed for bursting tension due to the
anchorage force.
E L
P T
N
The bursting tensile force is computed using the Table 13.1 of IRC:
112-2011.
𝐘𝐘𝐩𝐩𝒐𝒐 /𝐘𝐘𝐨𝐨 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
𝐅𝐅𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 /𝐏𝐏𝐤𝐤 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.12
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In the present design problem,
𝑷𝑷𝒌𝒌 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 kN 𝟐𝟐 𝒀𝒀𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 mm 𝟐𝟐 𝒀𝒀𝒐𝒐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 mm
Ratio 𝒀𝒀𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 /𝒀𝒀𝒐𝒐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏/𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
E L
Interpolating the value of 𝑭𝑭𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 /𝑷𝑷𝒌𝒌 for 𝒀𝒀𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 /𝒀𝒀𝒐𝒐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 from Table
13.1 of IRC: 112-2011, 𝑭𝑭𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 /𝑷𝑷𝒌𝒌 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
P T
𝑭𝑭𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 kN N
Using 10 mm diameter Fe-415 HYSD bars as end block
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑
reinforcement, Area of steel required = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 mm2
𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖×𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Bridge Engineering
Using 10 mm diameter Fe-415 HYSD bars, the spacing S = (1000 ast/

Ast) = (1000 × 78.54/ 318) = 246.98 mm
We can provide 10 mm diameter bars at 100 mm centres in the

vertical and horizontal directions as a mesh in front of the
anchorages at 100 and 200 mm respectively.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
#10-180 c/c
190 mm
E L
P T
N
329 329
#10-180 c/c
Cross-Section of Deck Slab at Centre of Span
Bridge Engineering
#10-180 c/c
L
190 mm
#10-180 c/c
T E
N P
Longitudinal Section of Deck Slab
Bridge Engineering
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Module 07: Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Composite Bridges

Lecture 21: Composite Bridges
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Connectors
E L
P T
N
Ø Design Example
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Connectors
Ø Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Composite bridge decks consisting of a reinforced concrete

continuous deck slab cast on steel girders are generally
adopted for bridges in the medium span range of 10 to 20 m.
• This type of bridge deck is not only economical but also
E L
reduces the construction time considerably and facilities early
resumption of traffic on the high way.
P T
• N
In a composite bridge deck comprising steel and reinforced
concrete, the individual materials are utilized efficiently since
concrete is strong in compression and steel is strong in
tension.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The speedy erection of the prefabricated steel girders serves

as supports for cast-in-situ concrete deck with minimum form
work.
• Also the savings in the overall depth of the longitudinal beams
E L
leads to savings in lengths of bridge approaches in the case of
embankments.
P T
• N
The flexural stiffness of a composite beam will be about 2 to 4
times that for a corresponding steel beam resulting in reduced
deflections and vibrations under moving loads.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Economy in the quantity of steel to the extent of 10 to 60

percent against pure steel beam construction.
• Composite bridge decks can also be constructed using precast

prestressed concrete girders supporting a cast-in-situ
reinforced concrete continuous deck slab.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Connectors
Ø Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• Shear connectors are the most important structural elements in

a composite bridge deck, provided at the junction of the
concrete slab and longitudinal steel girders.
• The main function of the shear connector is to prevent the
E L
separation between the steel girder and the in-situ concrete
T
slab by transferring the horizontal shear force along the
P
•
contact surface with slip.
N
In case of composite girder decks, the deflections are
comparatively less than that of non-composite girder decks
due to the increased moment of inertia of the composite
section.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
The most common types of shear connectors used in composite

bridge decks are:
• Rigid Shear Connector: The rigid shear connector comprising

short length bars, stiffened angles, tees or channels welded on
the flange of the steel girders.
E L
P T
In order to prevent the separation of the in-situ from the
N
prefabricated steel girder in the direction perpendicular to the
contact surface, mechanical devices such as U-type hoops are
welded to the shear connectors to provide a rigid connection.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• Rigid Shear Connector:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• Flexible Shear Connector: The flexible connectors consisting

of studs or angles or channels or tees welded on the flange
plates of prefabricated units.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• Anchorage Shear Connector: Anchorage type shear

connectors are provided for composite sections comprising of
precast prestressed concrete girders and cast in-situ
reinforced concrete slab.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• The shear strength of shear connectors depend upon the type

of steel, the cross-sectional dimensions of the connector,
compressive strength of concrete in slab.
• According to IRC:22-2015, the safe shear resistance of high
E L
tensile steel connectors is computed by empirical relations
T
specified in the code depending upon the type of connectors.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
For mild steel shear connectors, the safe shear resisted by each
connector is computed by the following empirical relation.
• For channel, Tee or angle shear connectors of mild steel (𝐟𝐬𝐭 =

420 to 500 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 and 𝐟𝐲= 230 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ),
E L
T
𝐐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕(𝒉𝒇 +0.5t)𝑳 𝒇𝒄𝒌
•
N P
For welded stud connectors of mild steel with 𝒇𝒖= 420 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐
and 𝒇𝒚 = 350 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 and having a ratio of (h/d) less than 4.2.
𝐐 = 48𝒉𝒅 𝒇𝒄𝒌
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
• For welded stud connectors of mild steel having a ratio of (h/d)

equal to or greater than 4.2,
𝐐 = 196𝒅𝟐 𝒇𝒄𝒌
Where
E L
𝐐 = Safe shear resistance of one shear connector (N)
T
𝒇𝒄𝒌 = Characteristic compressive cube strength of
P
concrete (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
N
𝒉𝒇 = Maximum thickness of flange measured at the
faces of the web (mm)
𝑳 = Length of shear connector (mm)
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
𝒉 = Height of stud connector
𝒅 = Diameter of stud (mm)
𝒕 = Thickness of web of shear connector (mm).
L
• When anchorage type shear connectors are used to connect
E
T
the concrete the concrete slab deck with precast prestressed
P
N
concrete girders, the ultimate shear resistance of one
connector is given by the empirical relation,
𝑸𝒖= 𝑨𝒔 . 𝝈𝒖 . 𝟏𝟎+𝟑
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
Where 𝑸𝒖= Ultimate shear resistance of each connector (kN)
𝑨𝒔 = Cross-sectional area of each connector (𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
𝝈𝒖 = Ultimate tensile strength of steel of the anchorage

connector (N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ).
E L
T
The ultimate bond stress at the interface should not exceed 2.1
P
N
N/ 𝐦𝐦𝟐 and the interface should be roughened for effective
bonding.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
The spacing of the shear connector is computed by the relation,
∑𝐐 ∑ 𝐐𝐮
𝐩=( ) or( )
𝐕𝐋 𝐕𝐋𝐮
Where 𝒑 = Spacing of the shear connector (mm)
E L
𝑸 = Safe shear resistance of one connector (kN)
P T
N
𝑸𝒖= Ultimate shear resistance of one connector (kN)
𝑽𝑳 = Longitudinal working shear per unit length.
𝑽𝑳𝒖 = Ultimate longitudinal shear per unit length.
Bridge Engineering
Shear Connectors
The longitudinal shear (working or ultimate) is computed using

4
𝑽𝑨𝒄 .𝒀 4
𝑽𝒖 𝑨𝒄 𝒀
the equations, 𝑽𝑳 = ( ) and 𝑽𝑳𝒖 = ( )
𝑰 𝑰
𝑽 = Vertical shear due to dead load placed after composite section
L
is effective and working live load with impact.
T E
𝑽𝒖 = Vertical shear due to ultimate loads computed with load
N P
factors of 1.5 for dead load and 2.5 for live load.
𝑨𝒄 = Transformed compressive area of concrete above the neutral

axis of the composite section
I = Second moment of area of the whole transformed composite

section.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Shear Connectors
Ø Design Example
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design the shear connectors of a composite road bridge consisting
of reinforced concrete slab and steel plate girders.
Span length is 18 m.
Depth of slab is 300 mm.
Total shear force at the junction is 204 kN.
E L
Horizontal shear per unit length is 408 N/mm.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Total shear force at junction = 204000N
Using 20 mm diameter mild steel studs, capacity of one shear

connector is given by
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝒅𝟐 𝒇𝒄𝒌
E L
T
Where Height of the stud 𝑯 = 𝟓𝒅 = (5 × 20) = 100 mm for 𝒅 = 20 mm
P
𝒇𝒄𝒌 = 20 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐
N
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔×𝟐𝟎𝟐 𝟐𝟎 = 350615 N
Number of studs required in one row = (204000/350615) <1
Provide a minimum of 2 mild steel studs in a row.
Bridge Engineering
Pitch of shear connectors 𝒑 = [𝑵𝑸/(𝑭𝝉)]
Where 𝑵 = Number of shear connectors in a row = 2
𝑸 = Capacity of one shear connector = 350615 N
𝝉 = Horizontal shear per unit length = 408 N/mm

E L
𝑭 = Factor of safety = 2
P T
N
𝒑 = [(2 × 350615)/ (2 × 408)] = 859 mm.
Bridge Engineering
Maximum permissible pitch is the least of
(i) Three times the thickness of slab = (3 × 300) = 900 mm.
(ii) 4 times the height of the stud = (4 × 100) = 400 mm.
(iii) 600 mm.

E L
P T
Hence we can adopt a pitch of 400 mm in the longitudinal direction.
N
The arrangement of shear connectors is shown in the schematic
diagram.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
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Module 08: Rigid Frame Bridges and Continuous Girder Bridges

Lecture 22: Rigid Frame Bridges
 Advantages
E L
 Design Criteria P T
N
Topic of Discussion
 Advantages
 Design Criteria
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Rigid frame bridge structure generally comprises of a

horizontal member referred to as transom serving as the deck
and it is supports at the ends by columns rigidly connected at
the junction resulting in a statically indeterminate structure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The column supports are generally hinged so that the cross-

section required is smaller since there are no ends.
• For larger spans in the range of 20 to 30 m, rigid frames

comprising beams or ribs spaced 3 to 4 m intervals connected
by a slab is more economical.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Rigid frame bridges do not require separate abutments since

the vertical columns retain the earth and serve as retaining
walls thus eliminating the construction of abutments and their
foundations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The use of double barrel type rigid frames eliminate the use of
separate central pillars since the central column serves as a
median between the up and down traffic lanes.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Typical Structural Elements of a Solid Barrel
type Rigid Frame Bridge
Bridge Engineering
General Features
E L
P T
N
Typical Structural Elements of a Beam and
Slab type Rigid Frame Bridge
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Advantages
 Design Criteria
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
Reinforced concrete rigid frame bridges have the following unique

advantages in comparison with the other traditional types of
bridges.
• Rigid frame bridge comprising a portal frame being a
L
monolithic structure, eliminates the use of separate abutments.
E
T
The vertical sides of the rigid frame serve as retaining walls to
P
•
N
retain earth in road crossings of embankments.
Slab type rigid frame bridges can be easily cast in-situ since
plain moving form work can be used for rapid construction
work.
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• Rigid frame bridges can be advantageously adopted in fly over

crossings where roads criss-cross at different levels.
• Rigid frame bridges have high stability against lateral forces

like wind, earthquake and soil pressure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• Rigid frame bridges do not require any separate bearings since
hinged supports can be provided to serve requisite structural
functions.
• Rigid frame bridges are aesthetically superior and consume
L
less quantity of materials compared to R.C.C beam and slab
E
T
bridges due to variable depth of the members.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Advantages
 Design Criteria
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Selection of Preliminary Sections of Structural Elements:
The selection of dimensions at salient points in the frame is based

on empirical relations developed on the basis of past practical
experience.
E L
The typical dimensions at the crown and junction of horizontal and
P T
vertical members can be expressed in terms of the clear span. The
N
Figure shown in next slide presents the rigid frame bridge with the
salient dimensions expressed in terms of the clear span.
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Selection of Preliminary Sections of Structural Elements:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
• Computation of Frame Constants:
The rigid frame is divided into a number of discrete elements with

the origin at the left hand column base as shown in Figure. The
centroid of each element from the origin along the y-axis is
L
computed along the moment of inertia of each of the elements.
E
P T
The frame constant ∑(y2 ds/I) is computed as the summation for all
the elements, N
Where y = distance of the centroid of the elements from origin
ds = Length of elements
I = Second moment of inertia of each element
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
The rib shortening effect is computed as (L/Ac) where
L = Length of transom or horizontal member
Ac = Cross-sectional area of crown section.
E L
The value of ∑ (MF.y.ds/I) is computed for the entire frame,
P T
Where MF = Bending moment due to unit load at the centroids of
the various elements N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Influence Line Diagram for the Horizontal Thrust:
The influence line ordinates for the horizontal thrust at the hinged
support is computed by the relation,
𝐇𝐇 =
∑(𝑴𝑴𝑭𝑭 .𝐲𝐲.𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝/𝐈𝐈)
𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 .
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑳𝑳
E L
T
+
𝑰𝑰 𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄
NP
The influence line diagram for horizontal thrust will be useful in
computing the horizontal thrust developed due to the dead and live
loads.
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Earth Pressure Computations:
The earth pressure developed due to earth filling against the sides
of the columns is computed by assuming a suitable distribution of
earth pressure which depends upon the density of soil, height of
filling and the angle of internal friction.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Horizontal Thrust due to Temperature Changes:
The change of temperature is likely to influence the span length

which in turn induces the horizontal thrust similar to a two hinged
arch.
E
The magnitude of the horizontal thrust induced is given by the L
relation,
P T
N
𝐇𝐇 = 𝛂𝛂 𝐭𝐭. 𝐋𝐋. 𝑬𝑬 �∫ 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐. 𝐝𝐝 𝒔𝒔⁄𝑰𝑰
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Here L = Span length

𝛂𝛂 = Coefficient of linear expansion of concrete
generally having a value of 6.5×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔
𝐇𝐇 = Horizontal thrust
𝐭𝐭 = Temperature change in degrees
E L
P T
𝐄𝐄 = Modulus of elasticity of concrete computed by the
empirical relation 5700 𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 N
𝒇𝒇𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete.
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Dead load Computations:
The dead loads of the various elements are computed assuming

the density of concrete for unit length of deck for computations of
bending moments due to dead load. The dead loads are assumed
to act at the centroids of each element.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Influence lines for Bending Moment at Various Salient Sections:
Using the influence line ordinates of horizontal thrust and the

reactions developed at the hinged supports, influence line
ordinates are computed for salient sections like the crown, mid
L
height of column and the junction of column and beam elements.
E
P T
Using the influence lines for bending moments, the dead load
N
bending moments and maximum live load bending moments due to
moving loads are computed.
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Design of Sections:
The reinforcements in the various salient sections are designed for

the maximum bending moment and thrust using interaction charts
of SP-16, design aids for reinforced concrete structures.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Criteria
Design of Hinged Footings:
The reinforcements for the hinged footing is designed for the

maximum reaction developed at the supports assuming the safe
bearing capacity of the soil at site.
E L
Suitable curved mating surfaces are provided at the junction of the
P T
column and footing to facilitate rotation at the column ends.
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
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Lecture 23: Continuous Girder Bridges
Ø General Features
Ø Advantages and Disadvantages

E L
P T
N
Ø Selection of spans and profile of girders
Ø Analysis and Design Principle

Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Reinforced concrete continuous girder bridge decks supported

on piers and abutments are ideally suited for long spans where
good sub soil is available without any settlements.
• The bridge deck generally comprises of solid slab and tee
E L
beam or box girders continuous over several spans.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Continuous solid slab bridge decks are economical for shorter

spans while tee beam and slab type is preferred for longer
spans in the range of 10 to 35 m.
• For spans exceeding 40 m, single or multi-celled box girder

types are more economical.
E L
P T
N
• The bending moments and shear forces at various critical
sections are determined by constructing influence lines for
these forces at the required sections.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In the case of continuous beams, the negative bending

moments developed at the supports due to dead and live loads
renders the top slab of a Tee beam deck ineffective.
• Also the magnitude of bending moments at the support is

larger than at the centre of spans.
E L
P T
N
• In view of this, the girders are usually of variable cross section
with the depth gradually increasing from the centre to the
supports.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In addition to this, the support section is strengthened with

compression reinforcement together with the provision of
thickened webs and a cross beam.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In the case of continuous slab decks, the thickness of the slab

at support sections is increased approximately 1.3 to 1.8 times
the minimum thickness at mid span and the length of
haunches will be about 0.2 to 0.25 times that of the span.
•
E L
In continuous girder bridges extending over several spans, it is
P T
important to provide for movements of the super structure due
to temperature changes.
N
• To facilitate the movements suitable bearings are invariably
provided at the supports.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Generally all but one of the bearings should be of the

expansion type to take care of the longitudinal movements of
the bridge due to temperature effects.
• Continuous bridges are adopted as units of three, four or five
E L
spans. The three span continuous bridge is the most common
P T
type generally adopted for highway bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• In comparison with simply supported bridges, the bending

moments developed in continuous bridges are considerably
less and consequently smaller sections can be adopted
resulting in economy of steel and concrete.
•
E L
The ultimate moment capacity of continuous bridge deck is
T
greater than that of simply supported decks due to the
P
N
phenomenon of redistribution of moments in continuous
structures.
• Since longer spans can be adopted, the number of piers

required are less.
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• Continuous beams require less number of expansion joints

and bearings, thus resulting in lesser initial and maintenance
costs.
• Generally the continuous girders are of variable cross-section
E L
so that the moment of inertia of the girder section is
T
proportional to the bending moments developed at the section.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Disadvantages
• The main disadvantages of continuous girder designs are that

uneven settlements may lead to the failure of the structure.
• The detailing and placing of the reinforcements require extra

care and skilled workmanship.
•
E L
Continuous bridge deck being a statically indeterminate
P T
structure, the analysis is more complicated than the simply
supported beams. N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Selection of spans and profile of girders
• In continuous span bridges, the exterior spans are made

shorter than the interior spans. This will result in the reduction
of moments in the end spans.
• Generally the end spans are made about 16 to 20 percent

smaller than the intermediate spans.
E L
•
P T
The bending moments at the interior supports will in general be
N
larger and hence the depths of girder at intermediate supports
should be larger than at centre of spans.
• The girder depth at supports is generally 1.5 to 2.5 times the

minimum thickness at mid span.
Bridge Engineering
Selection of spans and profile of girders
• A parabolic profile is generally adopted with maximum depth at

intermediate supports and minimum depth at mid spans as
shown in Figure below.
E L
P T
N
Fig 1: Typical Profile of Three Span Continuous Bridge
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Analysis and Design Principle
Analysis of Continuous Girder Bridges:
• The given vehicle loads are positioned on the respective

influence lines drawn for bending moments and shear forces at
critical sections to evaluate the live load moments.
•
E L
The dead load moments are computed using the influence lines
P T
and the dead loads of the member divided into a number of
parts along the span. N
• The service load moments comprising the dead and live loads
are determined for all the critical sections like the supports and
the mid sections.
Bridge Engineering
• The design ultimate loads are evaluated by applying appropriate

load factors, as specified in relevant design guidelines, for
service load moments and shear forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Influence Lines for Girders of variable cross-section:
The procedure for drawing the influence line for bending moment
and shear at a given section of the girder is outlined as follows:
L
• For the continuous girder ABCD shown in Fig 1, the carry over
E
factors 𝑪𝑨𝑩, 𝑪𝑩𝑨, 𝑪𝑩𝑪 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑪𝑪𝑩 etc. are read out from the curves
T
shown in Fig 2.
N P
• The distribution factors 𝑫𝑩𝑨, 𝑫𝑩𝑪 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑫𝑪𝑩 etc. are computed
using the relationship 𝐃 = (𝐊/ ∑ 𝑲) = (𝐤. 𝑰𝒄 /𝐋)/ ∑(𝐤. 𝑰𝒄 )𝐄)/𝐋
Where k = Stiffness coefficient of joint end of members (𝑲𝑨𝑩, 𝑲𝑩𝑨)

obtained from the curves shown in Fig 3.
Bridge Engineering
𝐋 = Span Length of members
𝑰𝒄 = Moment of inertia at centre of the members.
𝐄 = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
𝐊 = Stiffness of the member

E L
•
P T
The fixed end moments 𝑴𝑨𝑩 and 𝑴𝑩𝑨 for different positions of
N
the load in the span is read out form Fig 4 to 12.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Fig 2: Carry Over Factors Fig 3: Stiffness Coefficients
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Using the following notations, the final moments at supports are

computed in terms of fixed end moments.
𝐌𝐀𝐁, 𝐌𝐁𝐀, 𝐌𝐁𝐂 , etc. = Fixed end moments
𝐂𝐀𝐁, 𝐂𝐁𝐀, 𝐂𝐁𝐂 , etc. = Carry over factors

E L
𝐃𝐀𝐁, 𝐃𝐁𝐀, 𝐃𝐁𝐂 , etc. = Distribution factors
P T
𝐌𝟏 = 𝐌𝐁𝐀 − 𝐂𝐀𝐁. 𝐌𝐀𝐁 N
𝐌𝟐 = 𝐌𝐁𝐂 − 𝐂𝐂𝐁. 𝐌𝐂𝐁
𝐌𝟑 = 𝐌𝐂𝐃 − 𝐂𝐃𝐂 . 𝐌𝐃𝐂
Bridge Engineering
𝐔 = 𝐂𝐁𝐂 . 𝐂𝐂𝐁. 𝐃𝐁𝐂 . 𝐃𝐂𝐁
𝐕 = 𝐂𝐁𝐂 . 𝐃𝐁𝐂 . 𝐃𝐂𝐃
𝐖 = 𝐂𝐂𝐁. 𝐃𝐂𝐁. 𝐃𝐁𝐀
L
Using these notations, the support moments 𝑴𝑩and 𝑴𝑪 in a three
E
T
span continuous beam for loads in different spans are given by the
P
relations:
(1) Load in Span AB

N
𝑴𝑩 = [(𝟏 − 𝑫𝑩𝑨 − 𝑼)/(𝟏 − 𝑼]𝑴𝟏
𝑴𝑪 = [𝑽/(𝟏 − 𝑼)] 𝑴𝟏
Bridge Engineering
(2) Load in span BC
𝐌𝐁 = [(𝑫𝑩𝑨. 𝑴𝑩𝑪 − 𝑾. 𝑴𝑪𝑩)/(𝟏 − 𝑼)]
𝑴𝑪 = [(𝑫𝑪𝑫. 𝑴𝑪𝑩 − 𝑽. 𝑴𝑩𝑪)]/(𝟏 − 𝑼)]
(3) Load in Span CD

E L
P T
𝐌𝐁 = [(𝑾/(𝟏 − 𝑼]𝑴𝟑
𝐌𝐂 = [(𝟏 − 𝐃𝐂𝐃 − 𝑼)/(𝟏 − 𝑼]𝑴𝟑

N
Bridge Engineering
• Influence lines for support moment 𝑴𝑩 for different position of

unit load is obtained by placing the load at successive points
along each span.
• The influence line for support moment is used to derive the
E L
influence line for moment at any other section within the span by
the method of superposition.
P T
N
• For continuous beam ABCD of three spans shown in Fig 13
below the influence line for the support moment 𝑴𝑩 is first
drawn.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Fig 13: Influence Line for Bending Moments
Bridge Engineering
• The influence line for bending moment at 𝑷, ‘𝒙𝑳’ far from A can
be obtained by superposition.
𝑴𝑷 = 𝑴𝑺 + (𝑴𝑩/𝑳)(𝒙𝑳)
L
Where 𝑴𝑺 = simple bending moment at the section due to unit load
located anywhere in span AB.
T E
N P
If the load crosses the span AB, the bending moment at the section
P is obtained as 𝑴𝑷= (𝑴𝑩/𝑳)(𝒙𝑳).
In this manner, a table can be prepared for calculating the influence

line ordinates at any desired section.
Bridge Engineering
• Influence lines for shear at a given section is derived by

superposing the influence line ordinates at B and C and the
simple beam under shear component.
Thus if 𝑴𝑩 = Influence line ordinate at support B
𝑴𝑪 = Influence line ordinate at support C

E L
P T
𝝁 = Shear ordinate
N
For a given position of load along the span, the influence line
ordinate for shear is obtained as, [𝝁 + (𝑴𝑪 − 𝑴𝑩)/𝑳]
Bridge Engineering
Computation of Design moments and Shear forces:
• The given vehicle loads are positioned on the influence lines

such that maximum live load moment is obtained at each of the
sections.
E L
• The dead load moments are computed using the influence lines
P T
and the dead load of the member divided into a number of parts
between the sections. N
• The live load and dead load moments and shear force are
combined to obtain the design moments and shears at each of
the sections.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Critical Sections of Bridge Deck:
• According to the latest IRC guidelines, the reinforced concrete

sections of a bridge deck should be designed by using the
principles of limit state design.
•
E L
The designed sections should conform to the limit state of
ultimate strength and serviceability.
P T
• N
Using the given grade of concrete and type of steel
reinforcements, the empirically assumed depths at critical
sections are checked for flexural and shear strength.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Critical Sections of Bridge Deck:
• For long span girders, the reinforcements required being larger,

the bars are arranged in 2 to 3 rows on tension side.
L
• The sections are checked for ultimate shear strength and
E
sufficient shear reinforcements are designed comprising of two
T
or four legged stirrups.
N P
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 24: Design Example of Continuous Girder Bridges
Ø Design Example
E L
P T
N
A three span reinforced concrete continuous bridge with girders

of variable cross section is required for the crossing of a National
High way. Design the deck slab and main girders of the bridge to
suit the following data:
Total length of the bridge = 70 m

E L
Central span = 30 m
P T
End spans = 20 m N
Width of carriage way =7.5 m
Loading: IRC Class AA tracked vehicle
Kerbs: 600 mm on either side
Bridge Engineering
Spacing of main girders = 2.9 m

Spacing of cross girders = 4 m
Materials: Concrete of M-20 Grade, Fe-415 HYSD bars
L
Design the bridge deck and draw typical sections showing the
E
T
details of reinforcement in the deck slab and girders. The design
2011. N P
should conform to the specification of IRC 6-2014 and IRC 112-
Bridge Engineering
• Selection of Dimensions of Girders:
The longitudinal elevation showing the main girders of the three

span AB, BC and CD is shown in Figure 1.
E L
P T
N
Figure 1: Longitudinal Elevation of Main Girder
Bridge Engineering
Assuming a parabolic profile girders, depth of girder at A = 1/20

𝟏
span, 𝐡 = 𝟐𝟎
× 𝟐𝟎 =𝟏𝐦
Depth of girder at B = (𝐡 + 𝟐𝐡) = 𝟑𝐡 = 𝟑 𝐦
𝒓=𝟐
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Thickness of deck slab = 250 mm
Width of girders = 500 mm
Spacings of girders = 2.9 m
Thickness of wearing coat = 80 mm

E L
P T
Kerbs 600 mm wide by 300 mm deep are provided on either side.
N
Cross girders are provided at 4 m intervals in end spans and 6 m
intervals in central span.
Width of cross girder = 300 m.
Bridge Engineering
The cross-section of the deck showing the dimension of the

various structural components is shown in Figure 2.
E L
P T
N
Figure 2: Cross-Section of Bridge Deck
Bridge Engineering
• Design of Deck Slab
(a) Live Load Bending Moments
Live load is class AA tracked vehicle. One wheel is placed at the

centre of panel as shown in Figure 3.
E L
P T
N
Figure 3: IRC Class AA wheel load on slab deck
Bridge Engineering
𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 + 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 𝐦
𝐯 = 𝟑. 𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 𝐦
(𝐮/𝐁) = (1.01/2.7) = 0.348 and (𝐯/𝐋) = (3.76/ 4.0) = 0.94
𝑲 = (𝑩/𝑳) = (2.94/4.0) = 0.725

E L
P T
Referring to Pigeaud’s curves, 𝒎𝟏 = 0.09, 𝒎𝟐 = 0.035
N
𝑴𝑩 = 𝑾×(𝒎𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟐 ) = 350 × (0.09 + 0.15 × 0.035) = 33.32 kN-m
Design B.M including impact and continuity factor is given by

𝑴𝑩,𝑳𝑳 = (1.25 × 0.8 × 33.32) = 33.32 kN-m
Similarly, 𝑴𝑳,𝑳𝑳 = 350 × (0.035 + 0.15 × 0.09) = 16.975 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
b) Dead Load Bending Moments
Dead Weight of Slab = (1 × 1 × 0.25 × 24) = 6.00 kN/𝒎𝟐

Dead Weight of Wearing Coat = (0.08 × 22) = 1.76 kN/𝒎𝟐
Total Dead Load of Deck = 7.76 kN/𝒎𝟐
E L
T
Total load on one panel = (4 × 2.9 × 7.76) = 90 kN
P
N
(𝐮/𝐁) = (𝐯/𝐋) = 1 as panel has uniformly distributed dead load
𝑲 = (𝑩/𝑳) = (2.9/4.0) = 0.725
From Pigeaud’s curves, 𝒎𝟏 = 0.048 and 𝒎𝟐 = 0.025
𝑴𝑩 = 90 × (0.048 + 0.15 × 0.025) = 4.65 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑳 = 90 × (0.025 + 0.15 × 0.048) = 2.88 kN-m
Taking Continuity into effect
𝑴𝑩,𝑫𝑳 = (0.8 × 4.65) = 3.726 kN-m
𝑴𝑳,𝑳𝑳 = (0.8 × 2.88) = 2.304 kN-m

E L
P T
Design Ultimate load moments are derived by applying suitable
N
load factors to the service load moments as per principles of limit
state design and IRC Code specifications.
Short span: 𝑴𝒖 = [1.35 𝑴𝒈 + 1.5𝑴𝒒 ] = [(1.35 × 3.726) + (1.5 × 33.32)]

= 45.0 kN-m
Bridge Engineering
Long span: 𝑴𝒖= [1.35 𝑴𝒈 + 1.5𝑴𝒒 ] = [(1.35 × 2.304) + (1.5 × 16.975)]

= 28.5 kN-m
c) Design of Section
L
𝑴𝒖 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
Effective depth of slab required = 𝒅 = = =
E
𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 .𝒇𝐜𝐤 .𝒃
T
𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 × 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
P
127.6 mm
N
Adopt effective depth 𝒅 = 200 mm and overall depth D = 250 mm
𝑴𝒖 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
For short span, = = 1.12, using M-20 grade concrete
𝐛𝒅𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
and Fe-415 HYSD bars
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑨𝒔𝒕
From Table 2 of SP 16: 1980 Design Aids, 𝒑𝒕 = 0.335 =
𝒃𝒅
𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎

Solving, 𝑨𝒔𝒕 = = 670 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎
For short span, we can provide 12 mm diameter bars at 150 mm

centre to centre distance. (𝑨𝒔𝒕 provided = 754 𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
E L
P T
N
For long span, we can provide 10 mm diameter bars at 150 mm
centres
The reinforcements in the deck slab are shown in Figure 4.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 4: Cross-section of Deck Slab
Bridge Engineering
• Stiffness and Distribution Factors
The stiffness and distribution factors depend upon the

dimensions, length and support conditions of the members using
the principles of Structural analysis.
E L
Referring to Figure 1, the values of 𝒓𝑩 and 𝒓𝑪 = 2.0, 𝒓𝑨= 𝒓𝑫= 0.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For these values, the stiffness coefficients are obtained as

follows.
𝑲𝑩𝑨 = 13.5 𝑲𝑩𝑪 = 22.8
Carry over factors are, 𝑪𝑨𝑩 = – 1.01, 𝑪𝑩𝑪 = – 0.78 𝑪𝑪𝑫 = – 0.40
E L
𝑪𝑨𝑩 = – 0.40, 𝑪𝑩𝑪 = – 0.78 𝑪𝑪𝑫 = – 1.01
P T
N
The end A is simply supported. Hence the stiffness factor 𝑲𝑩𝑨 is
modified by using the equation,
Modified value of 𝑲′𝑩𝑨 = (𝟏 − 𝑪𝑩𝑨. 𝑪𝑨𝑩) 𝑲𝑩𝑨 = (1 – 1.4 × 1.01) × 13.5

= 8.046
Bridge Engineering
The distribution factors are calculated using the following

equations.
𝑫𝑩𝑨 = (𝑲/ ∑ 𝑲) = [(𝒌 𝑰𝑪 𝑬)/𝑳]/[∑ 𝒌 𝑰𝑪 𝑬)/𝑳]
= (8.046/20)/ [(8.046/20)] + [(22.8/30)] = 0.3468 = 𝑫𝑪𝑫
E L
𝑫𝑩𝑪 = (1 – 0.3468) = 0.6532 = 𝑫𝑪𝑩
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Moments at Supports B and C
The final moments at support B and C in terms of fixed end

moments are calculated as follows.
(a) Load in Span AB:
E L
𝑴𝑩 = [(𝟏 − 𝑫𝑩𝑨 − 𝑼)/(𝟏 − 𝑼]× 𝑴𝟏
P T
N
Where 𝐔 = 𝑪𝑩𝑪. 𝑪𝑪𝑩. 𝑫𝑩𝑪. 𝑫𝑪𝑩 = (– 0.78) × (– 0.78) × 0.6532 × 0.6532 =
0.2595
𝑴𝑩 = [(1 – 0.3468 – 0.2595)/ (1 – 0.2595)] × 𝑴𝟏 = 0.5316 𝑴𝟏
𝑴𝑪 = [𝑽/(𝟏 − 𝑼)] × 𝑴𝟏
Bridge Engineering
𝑽 = 𝑪𝑩𝑪. 𝑫𝑩𝑪. 𝑫𝑪𝑫 = (– 0.78 × 0.6532 × 0.3468) = – 0.1766
𝑴𝑪 = [(– 0.1766)/ (1– 0.2595)] × 𝑴𝟏 = – 0.2384 𝑴𝟏
(b) Load in Span BC:
E L
T
𝑴𝑩 = [(𝑫𝑩𝑨. 𝑴𝑩𝑪 − 𝑾. 𝑴𝑪𝑩)/(𝟏 − 𝑼)]
N P
𝐖 = 𝑪𝑪𝑩. 𝑫𝑪𝑩. 𝑫𝑩𝑨 = (− 0.78 × 0.6532 × 0.3468) = − 0.1766
𝑴𝑩 = [(𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟖. 𝑴𝑩𝑪 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟔. 𝑴𝑪𝑩)/ (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟓)]
= (𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟑. 𝑴𝑩𝑪 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟒. 𝑴𝑪𝑩)
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑪 = [(𝑫𝑪𝑫. 𝑴𝑪𝑩 − 𝑽. 𝑴𝑩𝑪)]/(𝟏 − 𝑼)]
= [(𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟖. 𝑴𝑪𝑩 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟔 . 𝑴𝑩𝑪)]/(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟓)]
= (𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟑. 𝑴𝑪𝑩 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟒 . 𝑴𝑩𝑪)
(c) Load in Span CD:

E L
P T
𝑴𝑩 = [(𝑾/(𝟏 − 𝑼]𝑴𝟑 = [(− 0.1766)/ (1 − 0.2595)] 𝑴𝟑 = − 0.2384 𝑴𝟑
𝑴𝑪 = [(𝟏 − 𝑫𝑪𝑫 − 𝑼)/(𝟏 − 𝑼)]𝑴𝟑 N

= [(1 − 0.3468 – 0.2595)/ (1 − 0.2595)] 𝑴𝟑 = 0.5316 𝑴𝟑
Also, 𝑴𝟏 = 𝑴𝑩𝑨 − 𝑪𝑨𝑩 . 𝑴𝑨𝑩
𝑴𝟑 = 𝑴𝑪𝑫 − 𝑪𝑫𝑪 . 𝑴𝑫𝑪
Bridge Engineering
• Influence Line Coefficients for Moments at Support B:
The influence line coefficients for bending moment at support B is

calculated for incremental positions of load in spans, AB and BC
and CD respectively as compiled in Table 1.
Table 1. Coefficients for influence line for Moment at support B

E L
Load
P T Load in Load in Load in
N
𝐌𝐀𝐁 𝐌𝐁𝐀 𝐌𝟏 𝐌𝐁𝐂 𝐌𝐂𝐁 𝐌𝐂𝐃 𝐌𝐃𝐂
𝐌𝟑
position span AB 𝐌𝐁 span BC 𝐌𝐁 span CD 𝐌𝐁
0.1 -0.0755L -0.0230L -0.0990L -0.0950L -0.0040L -0.0970L -0.0010L -0.0980L -0.0526𝐋𝟏 -0.0453𝐋𝟐 +0.0233𝐋𝟑
0.2 -0.1100L -0.0800L -0.1910L -0.1740L -0.0200L -0.1840L -0.060L -0.1900L -0.1015𝐋𝟏 -0.086𝐋𝟐 +0.0452𝐋𝟑
0.3 -0.1120L -0.1550L -0.268L -0.2220L -0.0550L -0.2500L -0.0160L -0.2660L -0.1424𝐋𝟏 -0.1170𝐋𝟐 +0.0634𝐋𝟑
0.4 -0.0950L -0.2250L -0.3240L -0.2250L -0.1120L -0.2805L -0.0380L -0.3230L -0.1722𝐋𝟏 -0.1320𝐋𝟐 +0.0770𝐋𝟑
0.5 -0.0660L -0.2750L -0.3410L -0.1810L -0.1810L -0.2750L -0.0660L -0.3410 -0.1812𝐋𝟏 -0.1278𝐋𝟐 +0.0812𝐋𝟑
0.6 -0.0380L -0.2850L -0.3230L -0.1120L -0.2250 -0.2250L -0.0950L -0.3200 -0.1717𝐋𝟏 -1060𝐋𝟐 +0.0762𝐋𝟑
0.7 -0.0180L -0.2510L -0.2690L -0.0550L -0.2220L -0.1550L -0.1150 -2700 -0.1430𝐋𝟏 -0.0770𝐋𝟐 +0.0643𝐋𝟑
0.8 -0.0052L -0.1840L -0.1890L -0.0200L -0.1740L -0.0820L -0.1100L -0.1920L -0.1004𝐋𝟏 -0.057𝐋𝟐 +0.0457𝐋𝟑
0.9 -0.0010L -0.0970L -0.0980L -0.0040L -0.0950L -0.0230L -0.0755L -0.098L -0.0520𝐋𝟏 -0.0244𝐋𝟐 +0.0233𝐋𝟑
Bridge Engineering
In this table the coefficients are in terms of the length ‘L’. The span
lengths of the design problem, 𝑳𝟏 = 20 m, 𝑳𝟐 = 30 m, 𝑳𝟑 = 20 m. The
coefficients for M are multiplied by the respective span lengths
depending upon the position of the load on span and influence line
coefficients are derived.
E L
T
The influence line ordinates for bending moment at support B is
P
N
derived by multiplying the respective lengths of the spans𝑳𝟏 , 𝑳𝟐
and 𝑳𝟑 depending upon the load position from 0.1 to 3.0. The
influence line ordinates are compiled in Table 2 and the influence
line plotted on the span is shown in Figure 5.
Bridge Engineering
Table 2. Influence Line Ordinates for Bending
Moment at support B
Load Position Influence Line Coefficient Influence Line Ordinate
0.1 -0.0526𝐋𝟏 -1.052
0.2 -0.1015𝐋𝟏 -2.030
L
0.3 -0.1424𝐋𝟏 -2.848
E
0.4 -0.1722𝐋𝟏 -3.444
T
0.5 -0.1812𝐋𝟏 -3.624
P
0.6 -0.1717𝐋𝟏 -3.434
N
0.7 -0.1430𝐋𝟏 -2.860
0.8 -0.1004𝐋𝟏 -2.008
0.9 -0.0520𝐋𝟏 -1.040
1.0 0.0 0.0
1.1 -0.0453𝐋𝟐 -1.359
1.2 -0.0861𝐋𝟐 -2.583
1.3 -0.1170𝐋𝟐 -3.510
1.4 -0.1320𝐋𝟐 -3.960
1.5 -0.1278𝐋𝟐 -3.834
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
Table 2. Influence Line Ordinates for Bending
Moment at support B
Load Position Influence Line Coefficient Influence Line Ordinate
1.6 -0.1060𝐋𝟐 -3.180
1.7 -0.0770𝐋𝟐 -2.310
L
1.8 -0.0507𝐋𝟐 -1.521
E
1.9 -0.0244𝐋𝟐 -0.732
T
2.0 0.0 0
P
2.1 +0.0233𝐋𝟑 +0.466
N
2.2 +0.0452𝐋𝟑 +0.904
2.3 +0.0634𝐋𝟑 +1.268
2.4 +0.0770𝐋𝟑 +1.540
2.5 +0.0812𝐋𝟑 +1.624
2.6 +0.0762𝐋𝟑 +1.524
2.7 +0.0643𝐋𝟑 +1.286
2.8 +0.0457𝐋𝟑 +0.914
2.9 +0.0233𝐋𝟑 +0.466
3.0 0 0
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 5. Influence line for bending moment at

section of support B
Bridge Engineering
• Influence Line Ordinates at Various Sections:
Similarly, the influence line ordinates are derived for bending

moment at sections 0.2L, 0.4L, 0.5L, 0.6L, 0.8L, 1.2L, 1.4L and 1.5L
and they are compiled in Tables 3 to 10.
E L
The influence line ordinates for these various sections are shown
in Figures 6 to 13.
P T
N
Similarly, influence line ordinates for shear force at support
sections A and B are compiled in Tables 11 and 12.
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E L
P T
N
Figure 6. Influence line for bending moment at section 0.2L

(4 m from support A)
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E L
P T
N
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E L
P T
N
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E L
P T
N
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E L
P T
N
Figure 10. Influence line for bending moment at section
0.8L (16 m from support A)
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E L
P T
N
1.2L (6 m from support B)
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E L
P T
N
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E L
P T
N
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E L
P T
N
Figure 14. Influence line ordinates for shear force
at support A
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E L
P T
N
Figure 15. Influence line ordinates for shear force
at support B
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Table 3. Influence line ordinates for Bending
Moment at section 0.2L (4 m from Support A)
Load Position Coefficient 𝜇 Coefficient 𝑀! (𝜇 + 𝑀! ) Influence Line Ordinate
0.1 0.08 -0.0105 +0.0695 +1.390
L
0.2 0.16 -0.0203 +0.1397 +2.7940
E
0.3 0.14 -0.0284 +0.1116 +2.2320
T
0.4 0.12 -0.0344 +0.0856 +1.7120
P
0.5 0.08 -0.0362 +0.0638 +1.2760
N
0.6 0.06 -0.0343 +0.0457 +0.9140
0.7 0.04 -0.0286 +0.0314 +0.6280
0.8 0.02 -0.0200 +0.0200 +0.4000
0.9 0 -0.0104 +0.0096 +0.1920
1.0 - 0 0 0
1.1 - -0.0090 -0.0090 -0.2700
1.2 - -0.0172 -0.0172 -0.5160
1.3 - -0.0234 -0.0234 -0.7020
1.4 - -0.0264 -0.0264 -0.7920
1.5 - -0.0255 -0.0255 -0.7650
(Contd.)
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1.6 - -0.0212 -0.0212 -0.6360
L
1.7 - -0.0154 -0.0154 -0.4620
E
1.8 - -0.0101 -0.0101 -0.3030
T
1.9 - -0.0048 -0.0048 -0.1440
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0046 +0.0046 +0.0920
2.2 - +0.0090 +0.0090 +0.1800
2.3 - +0.0126 +0.0126 +0.2520
2.4 - +0.0154 +0.0154 +0.3080
2.5 - +0.0162 +0.0162 +0.3240
2.6 - +0.0152 +0.0152 +0.3040
2.7 - +0.0128 +0.0128 +0.2560
2.8 - +0.0091 +0.0091 +0.1820
2.9 - +0.0046 +0.0046 +0.0920
3.0 - 0 0 0
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0.1 0.06 -0.0210 +0.0390 +0.7800
L
0.2 0.12 -0.0406 +0.0794 +1.5880
E
0.3 0.18 -0.0569 +0.1231 +2.4620
T
0.4 0.24 -0.0688 +0.1712 +3.4240
P
0.5 0.20 -0.0724 +0.1276 +2.5520
N
0.6 0.16 -0.0686 +0.0914 +1.8280
0.7 0.12 -0.0572 +0.0628 +1.2560
0.8 0.08 -0.0401 +0.0399 +0.7980
0.9 0.04 -0.0208 +0.0192 +0.3840
1.0 0 0 0 0
1.1 - -0.0181 -0.0181 -0.5430
1.2 - -0.0344 -0.0344 -1.0320
1.3 - -0.0468 -0.0468 -1.4040
1.4 - -0.0528 -0.0528 -1.5840
1.5 - -0.0511 -0.0511 -1.5330
(Contd.)
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1.6 - -0.0424 -0.0424 -1.2720
L
1.7 - -0.0308 -0.0308 -0.9240
E
1.8 - -0.0202 -0.0202 -0.6060
T
1.9 - -0.0097 -0.0097 -0.2910
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0093 +0.0093 +0.1860
2.2 - +0.0180 +0.0180 +0.3600
2.3 - +0.0253 +0.0253 +0.5060
2.4 - +0.0308 +0.0308 +0.6100
2.5 - +0.0324 +0.0324 +0.6480
2.6 - +0.0304 +0.0304 +0.6080
2.7 - +0.0257 +0.0257 +0.5140
2.8 - +0.0182 +0.0182 +0.3640
2.9 - +0.0093 +0.0093 +0.1860
3.0 - 0 0 0
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0.1 0.05 -0.0263 +0.0237 +0.474
L
0.2 0.10 -0.0507 +0.0493 +0.986
E
0.3 0.15 -0.0712 +0.0788 +1.576
T
0.4 0.20 -0.0861 +0.1139 +2.278
P
0.5 0.25 -0.0906 +0.1594 +3.188
N
0.6 0.20 -0.0858 +0.1142 +2.284
0.7 0.15 -0.0715 +0.0785 +1.570
0.8 0.10 -0.0502 +0.0498 +0.996
0.9 0.05 -0.0026 +0.0024 +0.048
1.0 0 0 0 0
1.1 - -0.0226 -0.0226 -0.678
1.2 - -0.0430 -0.0430 -1.290
1.3 - -0.0585 -0.0585 -1.755
1.4 - -0.0660 -0.0660 -1.980
1.5 - -0.0639 -0.0639 -1.917
(Contd.)
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1.6 - -0.0530 -0.0530 -1.590
L
1.7 - -0.0385 -0.0385 -1.155
E
1.8 - -0.0253 -0.0253 -0.759
T
1.9 - -0.0122 -0.0122 -0.366
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0116 +0.0116 +0.232
2.2 - +0.0226 +0.0226 +0.452
2.3 - +0.0317 +0.0317 +0.634
2.4 - +0.0385 +0.0385 +0.770
2.5 - +0.0406 +0.0406 +0.812
2.6 - +0.0381 +0.0381 +0.762
2.7 - +0.0321 +0.0321 +0.642
2.8 - +0.0229 +0.0229 +0.458
2.9 - +0.0117 +0.0117 +0.234
3.0 - 0 0 0
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0.1 0.04 -0.0315 +0.0085 +0.170
L
0.2 0.08 -0.0609 +0.0191 +0.382
E
0.3 0.12 -0.0854 +0.0346 +0.692
T
0.4 0.16 -0.1033 +0.5067 +1.134
P
0.5 0.20 -0.1087 +0.0913 +1.826
N
0.6 0.24 -0.1030 +0.1370 +2.740
0.7 0.18 -0.0858 +0.0942 +1.884
0.8 0.12 -0.0602 +0.0598 +1.196
0.9 0.06 -0.0312 +0.0288 +0.576
1.0 0 0 0 0
1.1 - -0.0271 -0.0271 -0.813
1.2 - -0.0516 -0.0516 -1.548
1.3 - -0.0702 -0.0702 -2.106
1.4 - -0.0792 -0.0792 -2.376
1.5 - -0.0766 -0.0766 -2.298
(Contd.)
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1.6 - -0.0636 -0.0636 -1.908
L
1.7 - -1.0462 -0.0462 -1.386
E
1.8 - -0.0304 -0.0304 -0.912
T
1.9 - -0.0146 -0.0146 -0.438
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0139 +0.0139 +0.278
2.2 - +0.0271 +0.0271 +0.542
2.3 - +0.0380 +0.0380 +0.760
2.4 - +0.0462 +0.0462 +0.924
2.5 - +0.0487 +0.0487 +0.974
2.6 - +0.0457 +0.0457 +0.914
2.7 - +0.0385 +0.0385 +0.770
2.8 - +0.0274 +0.0274 +0.548
2.9 - +0.0139 +0.0139 +0.278
3.0 - 0 0 0
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0.1 0.02 -0.0420 -0.0220 -0.440
L
0.2 0.04 -0.0812 -0.0412 -0.824
E
0.3 0.06 -0.1139 -0.0539 -1.078
T
0.4 0.08 -0.1377 -0.0577 -1.154
P
0.5 0.10 -1.1449 -0.0449 -0.898
N
0.6 0.12 -0.1373 -0.0173 -0.346
0.7 0.14 -0.1144 +0.0256 +0.512
0.8 0.16 -0.0803 +0.0797 +1.594
0.9 0.80 -0.0416 +0.0384 +0.768
1.0 0 0 0 0
1.1 - -0.0362 -0.0362 -1.086
1.2 - -0.0688 -0.0688 -2.064
1.3 - -0.0936 -0.0936 -2.808
1.4 - -0.1056 -0.1056 -3.168
1.5 - -0.1022 -0.1022 -3.066
(Contd.)
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1.6 - -0.0848 -0.0848 -2.544
L
1.7 - -.0.0616 -0.0616 -1.848
E
1.8 - -0.0405 -0.0405 -1.215
T
1.9 - -0.0195 -0.0195 -0.585
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0186 +0.0186 +0.372
2.2 - +0.0361 +0.0361 +0.0722
2.3 - +0.0507 +0.0507 +1.014
2.4 - +0.0616 +0.0616 +1.232
2.5 - +0.0649 +0.0649 +1.298
2.6 - +0.0609 +0.0609 +1.218
2.7 - +0.0514 +0.0514 +1.028
2.8 - +0.0365 +0.0365 +0.730
2.9 - +0.0186 +0.0186 +0.372
3.0 - 0 0 0
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Moment at section 1.2L (6 m from Support B)
Load Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Influence Line
(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
Position 𝜇 𝑀! 𝑀𝐂 Ordinate
0.1 - -0.0420 +0.0046 -0.0374 -0.748
L
0.2 - -0.0812 +0.0091 -0.0721 -1.442
E
0.3 - -0.1139 +0.0128 -0.1011 -2.022
T
0.4 - -0.1377 +0.0152 -0.1225 -2.450
P
0.5 - -1.1449 +0.0162 -0.1287 -2.574
N
0.6 - -0.1373 +0.0154 -0.1219 -2.438
0.7 - -0.1144 +0.0126 -0.1018 -2.036
0.8 - -0.0803 +0.0090 -0.0713 -1.426
0.9 - -0.0416 +0.0046 -0.0370 -0.7400
1.0 0 0 0 0 0
1.1 0.08 -0.0362 -0.0048 +0.0390 +1.170
1.2 0.16 -0.0688 -0.0101 +0.0811 +2.433
1.3 0.14 -0.0936 -0.0154 +0.0310 +0.930
1.4 0.12 -0.1056 -0.0212 -0.0068 -0.204
1.5 0.10 -0.1022 -0.0255 -0.0277 -0.831
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
Position 𝜇 𝑀! 𝑀𝑪 Ordinate
1.6 0.08 -0.0848 -0.0264 -0.0312 -0.936
L
1.7 0.06 -.0.0616 -0.0234 -0.0250 -0.750
E
1.8 0.04 -0.0405 -0.0172 -0.0177 -0.531
T
1.9 0.02 -0.0195 -0.0090 -0.0085 -0.255
P
2.0 0 0 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0186 -0.0104 +0.0082 +0.164
2.2 - +0.0361 -0.0200 +0.0161 +0.322
2.3 - +0.0507 -0.0286 +0.0221 +0.442
2.4 - +0.0616 -0.0343 +0.0273 +0.546
2.5 - +0.0649 -0.0362 +0.0287 +0.574
2.6 - +0.0609 -0.0344 +0.0265 +0.530
2.7 - +0.0514 -0.0284 +0.0230 +0.460
2.8 - +0.0365 -0.0203 +0.01620 +0.324
2.9 - +0.0186 -0.0105 +0.0081 +0.162
3.0 - 0 0 0 0
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(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
Position 𝜇 𝑀! 𝑀𝐂 Ordinate
0.1 - -0.0315 +0.0093 -0.0222 -0.444
L
0.2 - -0.0609 +0.0182 -0.0427 -0.854
E
0.3 - -0.0854 +0.0257 -0.0597 -1.194
T
0.4 - -0.1033 +0.0304 -0.0729 -1.458
P
0.5 - -0.1087 +0.0324 -0.0763 -1.526
N
0.6 - -0.1030 +0.0308 -0.0722 -1.444
0.7 - -0.0858 +0.0253 -0.0605 -1.210
0.8 - -0.0602 +0.0180 -0.0402 -0.844
0.9 - -0.0312 +0.0093 -0.0219 -0.438
1.0 0 0 0 0 0
1.1 0.06 -0.0271 -0.0097 +0.0232 +0.696
1.2 0.12 -0.0516 -0.0202 +0.0482 +1.446
1.3 0.18 -0.0702 -0.0308 +0.0790 +2.370
1.4 0.24 -0.0792 -0.0424 +0.1184 +3.552
1.5 0.20 -0.0766 -0.0511 +0.0723 +2.169
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
1.6 0.16 -0.0636 -0.0528 +0.0436 +1.308
L
1.7 0.12 -0.0462 -0.0468 +0.0270 +0.810
E
1.8 0.08 -0.0304 -0.0344 +0.0152 +0.456
T
1.9 0.04 -0.0146 -0.0181 +0.0073 +0.219
P
2.0 0 0 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0139 -0.0208 -0.0069 -0.138
2.2 - +0.0271 -0.0401 -0.0130 -0.260
2.3 - +0.0380 -0.0572 -0.0192 -0.384
2.4 - +0.0462 -0.0686 -0.0244 -0.448
2.5 - +0.0487 -0.0724 -0.0237 -0.474
2.6 - +0.0457 -0.0688 -0.0231 -0.462
2.7 - +0.0385 -0.0569 -0.0184 -0.368
2.8 - +0.0274 -0.0406 -0.0132 -0.264
2.9 - +0.0139 -0.0210 -0.0071 -0.142
3.0 - 0 0 0 0
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(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
0.1 - -0.0263 +0.0117 -0.0146 -0.292
L
0.2 - -0.0507 +0.0229 -0.0278 -0.556
E
0.3 - -0.0712 +0.0321 -0.0391 -0.782
T
0.4 - -0.0861 +0.0381 -0.0048 -0.960
P
0.5 - -0.0906 +0.0406 -0.0554 -1.108
N
0.6 - -0.0858 +0.0385 -0.0473 -0.946
0.7 - -0.0715 +0.0317 -0.0398 -0.796
0.8 - -0.0502 +0.0226 -0.0276 -0.552
0.9 - -0.0026 +0.0116 -0.0144 -0.288
1.0 0 0 0 0 0
1.1 0.05 -0.0226 -0.0122 +0.0152 +0.456
1.2 0.10 -0.0430 -0.0253 +0.0317 +0.951
1.3 0.15 -0.0585 -0.0385 +0.0530 +1.590
1.4 0.20 -0.0660 -0.0530 +0.0081 +2.430
1.5 0.25 -0.0639 -0.0639 +0.1222 +3.660
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
(𝜇 + 𝑀! + 𝑀# )
1.6 0.20 -0.0530 -0.066 +0.0081 +2.430
L
1.7 0.15 -0.0385 -0.0585 +0.0530 +1.590
E
1.8 0.10 -0.0253 +0.0430 +0.0317 +0.951
T
1.9 0.05 -0.0122 -0.0226 +0.0152 +0.456
P
2.0 0 0 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.0116 -0.0260 -0.0144 -0.288
2.2 - +0.0226 -0.0502 -0.0276 -0.552
2.3 - +0.0317 -0.0715 -0.0398 -0.796
2.4 - +0.0385 -0.0858 -0.0473 -0.946
2.5 - +0.0406 -0.0906 -0.0050 -0.108
2.6 - +0.0381 -0.0861 -0.0048 -0.960
2.7 - +0.0321 -0.0712 -0.0391 -0.782
2.8 - +0.0229 -0.0507 -0.0278 -0.556
2.9 - +0.0117 -0.0263 -0.0146 -0.292
3.0 - 0 0 0 0
Bridge Engineering
Table 11. Influence line ordinates for shear force at
support A
𝑀!
Load Position Coefficient 𝜇 (𝑀! ⁄𝐋𝟏 ) (𝜇 + 𝑀! ⁄𝐋𝟏 )
A 1.0 0 0 +1.0000
L
0.1 1.0 0 0 +1.0000
E
0.2 0.9 -1.052 -0.0526 +0.8474
T
0.3 0.8 -2.030 -0.1015 +0.6985
P
0.4 0.7 -2.848 -0.1424 +0.5576
N
0.5 0.6 -3.444 -0.1722 +0.4278
0.6 0.5 -3.624 -0.1812 +0.3188
0.7 0.4 -3.434 -0.1717 +0.2283
0.8 0.3 -2.860 -0.1430 +0.1570
0.9 0.2 -2.008 -0.1004 +0.0996
1.0 0.1 -1.040 -0.052 +0.0480
1.1 0 0 0 0
1.2 - -1.359 -0.0679 -0.0679
1.3 - -3.510 -0.1755 -0.1755
1.4 - -3.960 -0.1980 -0.1980
1.5 - -3.834 -0.1917 -0.1917
(Contd.)
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support A
𝑀!
1.6 - -3.180 -0.1590 -0.1590
L
1.7 - -2.310 -0.1155 -0.1155
E
1.8 - -1.521 -0.0760 -0.0760
T
1.9 - -0.732 -0.0366 -0.0366
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.446 +0.0233 +0.0233
2.2 - +0.904 +0.0452 +0.0452
2.3 - +1.268 +0.0634 +0.0634
2.4 - +1.540 +0.0077 +0.0077
2.5 - +1.624 +0.0081 +0.0081
2.6 - +1.524 +0.0076 +0.0076
2.7 - +1.286 +0.0064 +0.0064
2.8 - +0.914 +0.0457 +0.0457
2.9 - +0.466 +0.0233 +0.0233
3.0 - 0 0 0
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support B
𝑀!
A 0 0 0 0
L
0.1 -0.1 -1.052 -0.0526 -0.1526
E
0.2 -0.2 -2.030 -0.1015 -0.3015
T
0.3 -0.3 -2.848 -0.1424 -0.4424
P
0.4 -0.4 -3.444 -0.1722 -0.5722
N
0.5 -0.5 -3.624 -0.1812 -0.6812
0.6 -0.6 -3.434 -0.1717 -0.7717
0.7 -0.7 -2.860 -0.1430 -0.8430
0.8 -0.8 -2.008 -0.1004 -0.9004
0.9 -0.9 -1.040 -0.0520 -0.9520
1.0 -1.0 0 0 0
1.1 - -1.359 -0.0679 -0.0679
1.2 - -2.583 -0.1291 -0.1291
1.3 - -3.510 -0.1755 -0.1755
1.4 - -3.960 -0.1980 -0.1980
1.5 - -3.834 -0.1917 -0.1917
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
support B
𝑀!
1.6 - -3.180 -0.1590 -0.1590
L
1.7 - -2.310 -0.1155 -0.1155
E
1.8 - -1.521 -0.0760 -0.0760
T
1.9 - -0.732 -0.0366 -0.0366
P
2.0 - 0 0 0
N
2.1 - +0.446 +0.0233 +0.0233
2.2 - +0.904 +0.0452 +0.0452
2.3 - +1.268 +0.0634 +0.0634
2.4 - +1.540 +0.0077 +0.0077
2.5 - +1.624 +0.0081 +0.0081
2.6 - +1.524 +0.0076 +0.0076
2.7 - +1.286 +0.0064 +0.0064
2.8 - +0.914 +0.0457 +0.0457
2.9 - +0.466 +0.0233 +0.0233
3.0 - 0 0 0
Bridge Engineering
• Dead load Bending Moments:
a) Self-weight of Deck slab, Wearing coat and Kerbs:
Total dead load of deck slab and wearing coat = 7.76 kN/𝐦𝟐
Load due to kerb, R.C posts etc. = 0.24 kN/𝐦𝟐
E L
Total load = 8 kN/𝐦𝟐
P T
N
Loads transmitted to girders at 0.1L sections are as follows:
In span AB = (8 x 2.9 x 2) = 47 kN
In span BC = (8 x 2.9 x 3) = 70 kN
Load transmitted at A = (8 x 2.9 x1) = 23.5 kN
Load transmitted at A = (8 x 2.9 x 2.5) = 58.0 kN
Bridge Engineering
b) Self-weight of Main Girders:
The self-weight of girders acting at various sections from 0.1L to

1.5L is compiled in Table 13.
The main girders are of varying depth and constant width of 500
mm.
E L
P T
N
The depth of main girder at various sections is shown in Figure 16.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 16: Depth of main girder at various sections
Bridge Engineering
Table 13. Self-weight of Main girder at various
sections
Section Load Calculations Load (kN)
A (0.5 x 1 x 1 x 24) 12.0

0.1 (0.5 x 1.05 x 2 x 24) 25.2
0.2
0.3
(0.5 x 1.1 x 2 x 24)
(0.5 x 1.3 x 2 x 24)
E L
26.4
31.2
0.4
0.5
(0.5 x 1.4 x 2 x 24)
(0.5 x 1.5 x 2 x 24)
P T 33.6
36.0
N
0.6 (0.5 x 1.7 x 2 x 24) 40.8
0.7 (0.5 x 1.9 x 2 x 24) 45.6
0.8 (0.5 x 2.1 x 2 x 24) 50.4
0.9 (0.5 x 2.5 x 2 x 24) 60.0
1.0 (0.5 x 3.0 x 2.5 x 24) 90.0
1.1 (0.5 x 2.2 x 3 x 24) 79.2
1.2 (0.5 x 1.8 x 3 x 24) 64.8
1.3 (0.5 x 1.3 x 3 x 24) 46.8
1.4 (0.5 x 1.1 x 3 x 24) 39.6
1.5 (0.5 x 1 x 3 x 14) 72.0
Bridge Engineering
c) Self-weight of Cross Girders:
Cross girders have the same depth as that of main girders and they
are spaced at 4 m intervals in end spans and 6 m intervals in
central span. Width of cross-girder = 300 mm. The self-weight of
E
cross girder acting at various sections is compiled in Table 14.
L
P T
Table 14. Self-weight of Cross girder at various sections
Section
A
Load Calculations
(0.3 x 1 x 2.9 x 24)
N Load (kN)
20.9
0.2 (0.3 x 1.1 x 2.9 x 24) 22.9
0.4 (0.3 x 1.4 x 2.9 x 24) 29.2
0.6 (0.3 x 1.7 x 2.9 x 24) 35.5
0.8 (0.3 x 2.1 x 2.9 x 24) 43.8
1.0 (0.3 x 3 x 2.9 x 24) 62.6
1.2 (0.3 x 1.8 x 2.9 x 24) 37.6
1.4 (0.3 x 1.1 x 2.9 x 24) 22.9
Bridge Engineering
d) Dead load Bending Moments at various sections:
Total dead load acting at various sections is shown in Table 15.

Table 15. Total Dead Load Acting at Various Sections
L
Section Load due to Deck Slab Load due to Main Girder Load due to Cross girder Total Load (kN)
E
A 23.5 12.0 20.9 57
T
0.1 47.0 25.2 - 72
0.2 47.0 26.4 22.9 96
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
31.2
33.6
36.0
40.8 N P -
29.2
-
35.5
78
110
83
123
0.7 47.0 45.6 - 93
0.8 47.0 50.4 43.8 141
0.9 47.0 60.0 - 107
1.0 58.0 90.0 62.6 211
1.1 70.0 79.2 - 149
1.2 70.0 64.8 37.6 173
1.3 70.0 46.8 - 117
1.4 70.0 39.6 22.9 133
1.5 70.0 72.0 - 142
Bridge Engineering
(i) Section 0.2L (4 m from support A)
Referring to Table 15 and influence line shown in Figure 6, The

bending moment = [72 × (1.39 + 0.092) + 96 × (2.794 + 0.182) + 78 ×
(2.230 + 0.256) + 110 × (1.712 + 0.304) + 83 × (2.276 + 0.324) + 123 ×
E L
(0.194 + 0.308) + 93 × (0.628 + 0.252) + 141 × (0.400 + 0.18) + 107 ×
T
(0.192 + 0.092) – [149 × (0.270 + 0.144) + 173 × (0.516 + 0.303) + 117
P
N
× (0.702 + 0.462) + 133 × (0.792 + 0.636) + 142 × (0.765)] = 647 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(ii) Section 0.4L (8 m from support A)
Referring to the influence line shown in Fig. 7, the bending moment

= [72 × (0.780 + 0.186) + 96 × (1.588 + 0.364) + 78 × (2.462 + 0.514) +
110 × (3.424 + 0.608) + 83 × (2.552 + 0.648) + 123 × (1.828 + 0.616) +
E L
93 × (1.256 + 0.506) + 141 × (0.798 + 0.360) + 107 × (0.384 + 0.186)-
T
[149 × (0.543 + 0.291) + 173 × (1.032 + 0.606) + 117 × (1.404 + 0.924) +
P
N
113 × (1.584 + 1.272) + 142 × (1.533)] = 660 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(iii) Section 0.5L (10 m from support A)

= [72 × (0.474 + 0.234) + 96 × (0.986 + 0.458) + 78 × (1.576 + 0.642) +
110 × (2.278 + 0.762) + 83 × (3.188 + 0.812) + 123 × (2.284 + 0.770) +
E L
93 × (1.57 + 0.634) + 141 × (0.996 + 0.452) + 107 × (0.480 + 0.232)] -
T
[149 × (0.678 + 0.366) + 173 × (1.29 + 0.759) + 117 × (1.755 + 0.155) +
P
N
133 × (1.980 + 1.590) + 142 × (1.917)] = 293 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(iv) Section 0.6L (12 m from support A)

= [72 × (0.170 + 0.278) + 96 × (0.382 + 0.548) + 78 × (0.692 + 0.770) +
110 × (1.134 + 0.914) + 83 × (1.826 + 0.974) + 123 × (2.74 + 0.924) + 93
E L
× (1.884 + 0.760) + 141 × (1.196 + 0.542) + 107 × (0.576 + 0278)] - [149
T
× (0.813 + 0.438) + 173 × (1.548 + 0.912) + 117 × (2.106 + 1.386) + 133
P
N
× (2.376 + 1.908) + 142 × (2.298)] = -190 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(v) Section 0.8L (16 m from support A)
Referring to the influence line shown in Fig. 10, the bending

moment = [(93 × 0.512) + (141 × 1.594) + (107 × 0.768) + (72 × 0.372)
+(96 × 0.73) + (78 × 1.08) + (110 × 1.218) + (83 × 1.298) + (123 × 1.232)
E L
+ (93 × 1.014) + (141 × 0.722) + (107 × 0.372)] - [(72 × 0.444) + (96 ×
T
0.824) + (78 × 1.078) + (110 × 1.154) + (83 × 0.898) + (123 × 0.346)
P
N
+149 × (1.086 + 0.585) + 173 × (2.064 + 1.215) + 117 × (2.88 + 1.848) +
133 × (3.168 + 2.544) + (142 × 3.066)] = -1835 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(vi) Section 1.0L (support section B)

moment = [72 × (0.466 - 1.052) + 96 × (0.914 - 2.030) + 78 × (1.286 -
2.848) + 110 × (1.524 - 3.444) + 83 × (1.624 - 3.624) + 123 × (1.540 -
E L
3.434) + 93 × (1.268 - 2.860) + 141 × (0.904 - 2.008) + 107 × (0.466 -
T
1.040)] - [(149 × (1.359 + 0.732) + 173 × (2.583 + 1.521) + 117 × (3.510
P
N
+ 2.31) + 133 × (3.96 + 3.18) + 142 × (3.834)] = -4443 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(vii) Section 1.2L (6 m from support section B)

moment = [72 × (0.162 - 0.748) + 96 × (0.324 - 1.442) + 78 × (0.46 -
2.022) + 110 × (0.53 - 2.45) + 83 × (0.574 - 2.574) + 123 × (0.546 -
E L
2.438) + 93 × (0.442 - 2.036) + 141 × (0.322 - 1.426) + 107 × (0.164 -
T
0.74) + 117 × (0.930 - 0.750) – (133 × 0.204) – (142 × 0.831) – (133 ×
P
0.836)] = -1030 kN.m
N
Bridge Engineering
(viii) Section 1.4L (12 m from support section B)

moment = [72 × (- 0.444 - 0.142) + 96 × (- 0.854 - 0.264) + 78 × (- 1.194
- 0.368) + 100 × (- 1.458 - 0.462) + 83 × (- 1.526 - 0.474) + 123 × (-
E L
1.444 - 0.448) + 93 × (- 1.210 - 0.384) + 141 × (- 0.844 - 0.260) + 107 ×
T
(- 0.438 - 0.138)] + [149 × (0.696 + 0.219) + 173 × (1.446 + 0.456) + 117
P
N
× (2.370 + 0.810) + 133 × (3.552 + 1.308) + (142 × 2.169)] = 545 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
(ix) Section 1.5L (15 m from support section B)

moment = [72 × (-2 × 0.292) + 96 × (-2 × 0.556) + 78 × (-2 × 0.782) +
110 × (-2 × 0.960) + 83 × (-2 × 1.108) + 123 × (-2 × 0.946) + 93 × (-2 ×
E L
0.796) + 141 × (-2 × 0.552) + 107 × (-2 × 0.288)] + [149 × (2 × 0.456) +
T
173 × (2 × 0.951) + 117 × (2 × 1.590) + 133 × (2 × 2.430) + (142 ×
P
3.660)] = 1740 kN.m
N
Bridge Engineering
• Live load Bending Moments:
a) Reaction Factors:
The main girders are connected rigidly by cross girders and deck
slab. Hence Courbon’s theory for the load distribution is adopted.
E L
T
The IRC Class AA tracked vehicle is arranged for maximum
P
N
eccentricity as shown in Fig 17.
Reaction factor for outer girder 𝑹𝑨 = (𝟐𝑾𝟏 /3) × [1 + (37 × 2.9 × 1.1)/
(27 × 𝟐𝟗𝟐 )] = 1.045 𝑾𝟏
Reaction factor for inner girder 𝑹𝑩 = (𝟐𝑾𝟏 /3) × [1 + 0] = 0.667 𝑾𝟏
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 17. Position for wheel load of maximum eccentricity
Bridge Engineering
If 𝑾 = Axle load = 700kN, 𝑾𝟏 = 0.5𝑾)
𝑹𝑨 = (1.045 × 0.5𝑾) = 0.5225 𝑾
𝑹𝑩 = (0.667 × 0.5𝑾) = 0.3335 𝑾
L
Impact factor for Class AA Tracked Vehicle is 10% for a span up to
E
40 m.
P T
N
The influence lines shown in Figs. 6 to 15, are used to compute the
maximum live load bending moments at various sections.
The load position giving the maximum positive and negative

bending moment is shown on the influence lines drawn for various
sections.
Bridge Engineering
Corresponding to the load position shown, the values of the

bending moments obtained for IRC Class AA tracked vehicle is
compiled in Table 16.
Table 16. Maximum Live load bending moments at various sections
Section Computation of Live load bending moment (kN.m)

E L
Live load B.M (kN.m) Inner girder
+(1.1 x 700) [(2.794 + 2.25)/2] = 1941.9
P T
outer girder (R.F. = 0.5225)
1015
(R.F. = 0.3335)
648
N
0.2
-(1.1 x 700)[(0.792 + 0.765)/2] = 599.4 313 200
+(1.1 x 700) [(3.424 + 2.552)/2] = 2300 1202 768
0.4
-(1.1 x 700)[(1.584 + 1.533)/2] = 1200 627 400
+(1.1 x 700) [(3.188 + 2.284)/2] = 2107 1101 703
0.5
-(1.1 x 700)[(1.980 + 1.917)/2] = 1500 784 500
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
Table 16. Maximum Live load bending moments at various sections

Live load B.M (kN.m) Inner girder
Section Computation of Live load bending moment (kN.m)
outer girder (R.F. = 0.5225) (R.F. = 0.3335)
+(1.1 x 700) [(2.74 + 1.884)/2] = 1780 930 594
0.6
L
-(1.1 x 700)[(2.376 + 2.298)/2] = 1800 940 600
+(1.1 x 700) [(1.594 + 0.768)/2] = 909 475 303
0.8
-(1.1 x 700)[(3.168 + 3.066)/2] = 2400
T E1254 800
P
+(1.1 x 700) [(1.624 + 1.540)/2] = 1218 636 406
N
1.0(B)
-(1.1 x 700)[(3.960 + 3.834)/2] = 3000 1567 1000
+(1.1 x 700) [(2.433 + 1.170)/2] = 1387 725 463
1.2
-(1.1 x 700)[(2.574+ 2.450)/2] = 1934 1010 645
+(1.1 x 700) [(3.552 + 2.370)/2] = 2280 1191 760
1.4
-(1.1 x 700)[(0.526 + 1.444)/2] = 1143 597 381
+(1.1 x 700) [(3.660 + 2.430)/2] = 2345 1225 782
1.5
-(1.1 x 700)[(1.108 + 0.968)/2] = 800 418 267
Bridge Engineering
• Design Bending Moments:
The live load and dead load bending moments at various sections
are compiled in Table 17.
The design bending moments are obtained by combining the dead
E L
load and live load moment for inner and outer girders.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Table 17. Design Service Load Bending Moment

Live Load B.M (kN.m) Dead Load B.M Design B.M (kN.m)
Section Outer Girder Inner Girder (kN.m) Outer Girder Inner Girder
+ - + - - + - + -
0.2 1015 313 648 200 647 - 1662 313 1295 200
L
0.4 1202 627 768 400 660 - 1862 627 1428 400
0.5 1101 784 703 500 293 - 1394
T E 784 996 500
P
0.6 930 940 594 600 - 190 930 1130 594 790
N
0.8 475 1254 303 800 - 1835 475 3089 303 2635
1.0 636 1567 406 1000 - 4443 636 6010 406 5443
1.2 725 1010 463 645 - 1030 725 2040 463 1675
1.4 1191 597 760 381 545 - 1736 597 1305 381
1.5 1225 418 782 267 1740 - 295 418 2522 267
Bridge Engineering
• Maximum Shear force in Main girders:
The load position for maximum shear force in any girder is as

shown in Fig. 18.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Load on girder A = 350 + 350 (0.85/2.90) = 452.5 kN
The total load of 452.5 kN will be acting over a length of 3.6 m.

Using the influence lines shown in Figs. 14 and 15, the maximum
live load shear force at support A and B are computed.
Live Load Shear force at support A:

E L
P T
N
1.1 × 452.5 × (1 + 0.7)/2 = 423 kN
Live load shear force at support B:
1.1 × 452.5 × (1 + 0.9)/2 = - 473 kN
Bridge Engineering
The dead load shear force is computed using the influence lines.
Dead load shear force at A = [(57 × 1) + 72 × (0.847 + 0.023) + 96 ×

(0.698 + 0.045) + 78 × (0.557 + 0.064) + 110 × (0.427 + 0.076) + 83
×(0.318 + 0.081) + 123 × (0.228 + 0.077) + 93 × (0.157 + 0.063) + 141 ×
E L
(0.099 + 0.045) + 107 × (0.048 + 0.023)] – [(149 × (0.067 + 0.036) + 173
T
× (0.129 + 0.076) + 117 × (0.175 + 0.115) + 133 × (0.198 + 0.159) + 142
P
× (0.191)] = 255 kN
N
Bridge Engineering
Dead load shear force at B = [72 × (-0.152 + 0.023) + 96 × (-0.301 +

0.045) + 78 × (-0442 + 0.064) + 110 × (-0.572 + 0.076) + 83 × (-0.681 +
0.081) + 123 × (-0.771 + 0.077) + 93 × (-0.843 + 0.063) + 141 × (-0.900
+ 0.045) + 107 × (-0.952 + 0.023)] – [149 × (0.067 + 0.036) + 173 ×
L
(0.129 + 0.076) + 117 × (0.175 + 0.115) + 133 × (0.198 + 0.159) + 142 ×
E
T
(0.191)] = -705 kN
N P
Design shear force at support A, 𝑽𝑨 = (live load shear + dead load
shear) = (423 + 255) = 678 kN
Design shear force at support B, 𝑽𝑩= (live load shear + dead load
shear) = (- 423 - 705) = 1178 kN
Bridge Engineering
• Design Ultimate Load Bending Moments and Shear Forces at

Critical Sections:
i) Bending Moments:
1) At section 0.5 (Mid span AB)
E L
a) Outer Girder:
P T
N
𝑴𝑼 = [(1.35 𝑴𝒈 + 1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 293) + (1.5 × 1101)] = +2407 kN.m
b) Inner Girder:
𝑴𝑼= [(1.35 𝑴𝒈+ 1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 293) + (1.5 × 703)] = +1450 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
2) At section 1 (Support B)
a) Outer Girder
𝑴𝑼= [(1.35 𝑴𝒈+1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 4443) + (1.5 × 1567)] = -8348 kN.m
b) Inner Girder
E L
P T
𝑴𝑼= [(1.35 𝑴𝒈+1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 4443) + (1.5 × 1000)] = -7498 kN.m
N
Bridge Engineering
3) At section 1.5 (Mid span of BC)
a) Outer Girder
𝑴𝑼= [(1.35 𝑴𝒈+ 1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 1740) + (1.5 × 1225)] = +4186 kN.m
b) Inner Girder
E L
P T
𝑴𝑼= [(1.35 𝑴𝒈+ 1.5𝑴𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 1740) + (1.5 × 782)] = +3522 kN.m
N
Bridge Engineering
ii) Shear Forces
1) Shear Force at Support B
𝑽𝑼= [(1.35 𝑽𝒈+1.5𝑽𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 705) + (1.5 × 423)] = 1586 kN.m
2) Shear Force at Support A

E L
P T
𝑽𝑼= [(1.35 𝑽𝒈+1.5𝑽𝒒 )] = [(1.35 × 255) + (1.5 × 423)] = 1009 kN.m
N
Bridge Engineering
• Design Beam Sections:
M-20 Grade Concrete and Fe-415 HYSD reinforcements

(1) At Section 0.5 (Mid span AB)
L
Overall depth = D = 1500 mm
Effective depth = d = 1350 mm
T E
Width of beam = b = 500 mm
N P
𝑴𝑼= + 2047 kN.m
𝑴𝒖 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
Effective depth required d = 𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒄𝒌 .𝒃
= 𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 × 𝟐𝟎× 𝟓𝟎𝟎
= 1217 mm <
1350 mm
Bridge Engineering
𝐌𝐮 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
=[ ] = 2.2,
𝐛𝐝𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟐
Using M-20 grade concrete and Fe-415 HYSD bars, from Table 2 of
SP: 16 Design Aids,
𝒑𝒕 = 0.717 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐀𝐬𝐭
E L
T
𝐛𝐝
Solving, 𝑨𝒔𝒕 =
𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟕 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
N P
= 4840 𝐦𝐦𝟐
We can provide 12 mm bars of 25 mm diameter (𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 5890𝐦𝐦𝟐 ).
Bridge Engineering
(2) At Section 1 (Support B)
Overall depth = D = 3000 mm
Effective depth = d = 2850 mm
Width of beam = b = 500 mm

E L
𝑴𝑼= - 8348 kN.m
P T
Effective depth required d =
𝑴𝒖
N
=
𝟖𝟑𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
= 2549 mm <
𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒄𝒌 .𝒃 𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟖 × 𝟐𝟎× 𝟓𝟎𝟎
2850 mm
Bridge Engineering
𝐌𝐮 𝟖𝟑𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
= = 2.0,
𝐛𝐝𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟐
Using M-20 grade concrete and Fe-415 HYSD bars, from Table 2 of
SP: 16 Design Aids,
𝒑𝒕 = 0.640 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐀𝐬𝐭
E L
T
𝐛𝐝
Solving, 𝑨𝒔𝒕 =
𝟎.𝟔𝟒𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ×𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 NP
= 9120 𝐦𝐦𝟐
We can provide 12 mm bars of 32 mm diameter (𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 9651 𝐦𝐦𝟐 ).
Design Shear Force at B = 𝑽𝑼 = 1586 kN
Bridge Engineering
𝑽𝒖 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟔 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
Nominal shear stress = 𝝉𝒗 = = = 1.11 < 𝝉𝐜 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 2.8
𝒃𝐰.𝒅 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟎
N/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑨𝒔𝒕 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟏)

𝒑𝒕 = = = 0.67
L
𝒃𝒅 (𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟎)
T
For 𝒑𝒕 = 0.67, interpolate 𝝉𝒄 from Table 19 of IS: 456-2000 as 𝝉𝒄 = E
0.52 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐
N P
Since 𝑽𝑼 > 𝑽𝑪, shear reinforcements are required.
Balance shear force 𝑽𝒖𝒔 = (1586 - 741) = 845 kN
Bridge Engineering
Using 10 mm diameter 4- legged vertical stirrups, the spacing is

obtained as
𝟎.𝟖𝟕 𝒇𝒚 𝑨𝒔𝒗 𝒅 𝟎.𝟖𝟕 × 𝟒𝟏𝟓 × 𝟕𝟗 × 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟎

𝑺𝑽 = = = 384 mm
𝑽𝒖𝒔 𝟖𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
We can provide the vertical stirrups at a spacing of 300 mm

E L
increased to 300 mm throughout the span.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
(3) At Section 1.5 (Mid span BC)
The section will be designed as tee beam with flange thickness of

250 mm
𝑴𝑼 = 4186 kN.m, 𝐛𝐰 = 500 mm, 𝐛𝐟. = 2900 mm, 𝑫 = 1000 mm, 𝒅 = 850
mm, 𝐃𝐟. = 250 mm
E L
P T
N
The ultimate moment capacity of the flange section alone is
computed assuming 𝒙𝑼 = 250 mm
𝐌𝐮𝐟 = [ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝐟𝐜𝐤 × 𝐛𝐟 ×𝐃𝐟 ×(𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 𝐱 𝐮)]
= [0.36 × 20 × 2900 × 250 × (850 – 0.42 × 250)]/𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 3888 kN.m
Bridge Engineering
The area of tensile steel to resist this moment is given by
𝑴𝒖𝒇 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔

𝑨𝒔𝒕𝒇 = = = 14454 𝐦𝐦𝟐
𝟎.𝟖𝟕 × 𝒇𝒚 × (𝒅O𝟎.𝟒𝟐× 𝑫𝒇) 𝟎.𝟖𝟕× 𝟒𝟏𝟓 × (𝟖𝟓𝟎 O 𝟎.𝟒𝟐 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎
Balance moment = (4186 - 3888) = 298 kN.m
E L
T
Steel required to resist this moment is computed as (assuming 𝒙𝒖=
𝑫𝒇 )
N P
𝐌𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕×𝐟𝐲 ×𝑨𝒔𝒕 (𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 𝐱 𝐮)
298 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = (0.87 × 415 × 𝑨𝒔𝒕 ) × (850 - 0.42 × 250)
Solving 𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 1107 𝐦𝐦𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Total area of tensile steel = (1454 + 1107) = 15561 𝐦𝐦𝟐
We can provide 16 bars of 36 mm diameter (𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 16286 𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
Nominal shear reinforcements of 10 mm 4- legged stirrups at a
L
spacing of 300 mm are provided throughout the span.
T E
N P
Bridge Engineering
• Cross Girders:
Cross girders 300 mm wide are provided at regular intervals of 4 m

connecting the main girders.
Four bars of 32 mm diameter at top and bottom with 10 mm
E L
diameter 4-legged stirrups are provided in the cross girders to
P T
improve the structural integrity of the bridge deck.
•
N
Details of Reinforcements in Bridge Deck:
The reinforcement details in the main girders provided according to

the specifications of SP:34-1987 are shown in Figs. 19 to 21.
Bridge Engineering
The reinforcement details in the main girders provided according to

the specifications of SP:34-1987 are shown in Figs. 19 to 21.
E L
P T
N
Figure 19: Reinforcement detailing in end span AB
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 20: Reinforcement detailing in central span
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Figure 21: Cross-section of Main Beams
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
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N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
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Publishing.
E L
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N
Module 09: Piers, Abutments and Foundations

Lecture 25: Bridge Piers
 Types of Piers
E L
 Design of Piers P T
 Stability Analysis of Piers
N
Topic of Discussion
 Types of Piers
 Design of Piers

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Substructures of a bridge typically comprises the piers and

abutments which are located below the level of the bearings
and rest above the foundations.
• The bridge superstructure is supported by the bridge
L
substructure which in turn rests on the foundation located
E
below the ground level.
P T
• N
The piers and abutments generally built up of brick, stone
masonry or concrete are supported on foundations like spread
footings, piles, wells or caissons.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The superstructure comprising the slab or beams transmit the

reactions to the piers and abutments through the bridge
bearings and bed blocks.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Bed Block:
• A reinforced concrete bed block resting over the top of the

piers and abutments is generally provided to evenly distribute
the dead and live loads on the piers and abutments.
•
E L
The bed block is generally cast with M15 grade concrete.
• P T
The bed block is reinforced with steel bars of area equal to
N
0.3% of the cross-sectional dimensions and distributed as
mesh reinforcement near the top and bottom surfaces of the
bed block.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Bed Block:
The cross-section and plan of a typical reinforced concrete bed

block used in major bridges are shown below.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Materials for Piers and Abutments:
• Mass concrete of M10 grade corresponding to mix proportions

of 1:3:6 with 40 mm maximum size aggregates.
• Reinforced concrete of M15 grade corresponding to mix

proportions of 1:2:4.
E L
• P T
Coursed rubble masonry in cement mortar of proportions 1:4.
•
N
Brick masonry in cement mortar of proportions 1:6.
• Prestressed concrete for piers particularly in viaducts with tall

piers. M30 and M40 grade concrete is the minimum
requirement for prestressed concrete piers.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Maximum Permissible Stresses in Various Materials used for

Substructure:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Types of Piers
 Design of Piers

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
Depending on type, size and dimensions of the superstructure,

various types of piers are used in general.
• Solid Type Pier
• Trestle Type Pier
E L
• Hammer-Head Type Pier
P T
• Cellular Type Pier
N
• Framed Type Pier
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Solid Type Pier:
Solid type pier is generally built using brick or stone masonry or

concrete.
This type of pier with cut and ease water is widely used for river
bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Trestle Type Pier:
Trestle type pier comprises of a number of reinforced concrete

columns with a connecting cap at the top.
This type of pier is widely used in flyovers and elevated roadways

generally used for crossings in city roads.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Hammer-Head Type Pier:
Hammer-Head type pier consists of a massive single pier with

cantilever caps on opposite sides resembling the head of a
hammer.
E L
This type of pier is generally suitable for elevated roadways and
P T
when used in river bridges, there is minimum restriction of
waterway. N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Hammer-Head Type Pier:
E L
P T
• Cellular Type Pier: N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Cellular Type Pier:
For the construction of massive piers carrying multi-lane traffic, it

is economical to use celluar type of reinforced concrete pier
which results in savings of concrete.
E L
However, cellular piers require costly shuttering and additional
labour of placing of reinforcements.
P T
N
For tall piers, slip forming work can be adopted for rapid
construction.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Framed Type Pier:
Reinforced concrete framed type piers are aesthetically superior

and rigid due to the monolithic joints between the vertical, inclined
and horizontal members.
E L
This type of piers are ideally suited to reduce the span length of
P T
main girders on either side of the centre line of the piers resulting
N
in savings in the cost of superstructure.
However, this type of construction requires two expansion joints

at closed intervals with increase in maintenance costs.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Piers
• Framed Type Pier:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Types of Piers
 Design of Piers

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of Piers
Forces acting on Piers:
 Dead Load of superstructure and pier
 Live load of vehicles moving on bridge
 Effect of eccentric live load

E L
 Impact effect of loads
P T
N
 Buoyancy effect on the submerged part of pier
 Water current induced forces
 Forces due to wave action

(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
Design of Piers
Forces acting on Piers:
 Longitudinal forces due to tractive effort of vehicles
 Longitudinal forces due to braking of vehicles
 Longitudinal forces due to resistance in bearings

E L
 Seismic loads
P T
N
 Effect of Wind loads on moving vehicles and superstructure
 Forces due to collision for piers in navigable rivers.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Piers
• Height
The top level of pier is fixed at 1-1.5 m above the highest flood
level. Depending on depth of water on the upstream side, sufficient
gap between the highest flood level and the top of the pier is
L
essential to protect the bridge bearings from flooding.
E
P T
• Pier Width
N
The top width of pier should be sufficient to accommodate the two
bearings. It is usually kept at a minimum distance of 600 mm more
than the outer to outer distance of the bearings.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Piers
• Pier Batter
The sides of pier are provided with a batter of 1 in 12 to 1 in 24.

Short piers have vertical sides. The increased bottom width is
required to restrict the stresses developed under loads within the
permissible limits.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of Piers
• Cut and Ease Waters
The pier ends are shaped for streamlining the passage of water.
Normally, the cut and ease waters are either shaped circular or
triangular.
E L
Semi-circular Ends
P T
N
Angular Ends
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Types of Piers
 Design of Piers

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Stability Analysis of Piers
The stability analysis for the piers are generally performed by

considering some of the critical forces which will have significant
effect on the stresses developed in the piers.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Stability Analysis of Piers: Numerical Example
A pier shown in figure supports the deck forming a major highway.

Dead and Live loads
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The various forces acting on the pier are listed below.
Dead loads from each span = 2000 kN
Reaction due to live load on one span = 1000 kN
Braking forces = 140 kN

E L
Wind pressure on pier = 2.4 kN/m2
P T
Material of pier = 1:3:6 cement concreteN
Height of pier = 10 m
Density of concrete = 24 kN/m3
Bridge Engineering
Calculate the stress developed at the base of the pier due to the
following cases:
(1) Dead load and self-weight of pier
(2) Effect of buoyancy
E L
(3) Due to eccentricity of live load
P T
(4) Due to longitudinal braking forces
N
(5) Due to wind pressure
Estimate the maximum and minimum stresses developed at the

base of pier due to the critical combinations of the various loads.
Bridge Engineering
Design Computations:
(1) Stresses due to dead loads and self-weight of pier
Dead load from superstructure = (2 × 2000) = 4000 kN
L
Self-weight of pier = 8.5 × 0.5 × (2 + 3) × 10 × 24 = 5100 kN
E
Total Direct load = (4000 + 5100) = 9100 kN
P T
Compressive stress at base of pier = N
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑
= 356.86 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
(2) Effect of buoyancy
Width of pier at H.F.L = 2 m
Submerged volume of pier = 8.5 × 0.5 × (2 + 3) × 9 = 191.25 m3
Reduction in weight of pier due to buoyancy = (191.25 × 10) =

E L
1912.5 kN
P T
N
Tensile stress at base due to buoyancy = −
𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗.𝟓𝟓
𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑
= – 75 kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
(3) Stresses due to eccentricity of live load
Reaction due to Live load from one span is 1000 kN acting at an

eccentricity of e = 0.5 m
Moment about base 𝑴𝑴 = (1000 × 0.5) = 500 kN-m
E L
Section modulus Z =
𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐
= 12.75 m3
P T
N
𝟔𝟔
Stresses developed at the base of the pier due to eccentricity of

𝑷𝑷 𝑴𝑴 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
the live load = ± = ± = (39.2 ± 39.2) kN/m2
𝑨𝑨 𝒁𝒁 𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝝈𝝈𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 78.4 kN/m2 and 𝝈𝝈𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 0
Bridge Engineering
(4) Stresses due to longitudinal braking forces
Braking forces at bearing level = 140 kN
Moment about base of pier 𝑴𝑴 = (140 × 10) = 1400 kN.m
Stresses at base = ±
𝑴𝑴
=±
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= ± 109.8 kN/m2
E L
T
𝒁𝒁 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
N P
Bridge Engineering
(5) Stresses due to wind pressure

𝟐𝟐+𝟑𝟑
Total wind pressure on pier = (Area) × (wind intensity) = × 10 ×
𝟐𝟐
2.4 = 60 kN
Assuming the wind to act at mid-height of the pier,

E L
Moment about base of pier = (60 × 5) = 300 kN.m
P T
Modulus of section at base Z =
𝟑𝟑 × 𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐 N
= 36.125 m3
𝟔𝟔
𝑴𝑴 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Stress developed at base due to wind loads ± =± = ± 8.30
𝒁𝒁 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓
kN/m2
Bridge Engineering
The maximum and minimum stress developed are computed by

combining the stresses due to the various load combinations.
Sl Stress (kN/m2)
Type of Load
No When Dry During Floods
1 Dead Load and Self-Weight + 356.80
E L + 356.8
2 Buoyancy –
P T – 75
N
3 Eccentric Live Load + 78.40 + 78.4
4 Braking Forces ± 109.80 ± 109.8
5 Wind Pressure + 8.30 + 8.30
Maximum Stress 553.30 478.30
Minimum Stress 333.70 258.70
Bridge Engineering
The material of the pier being 1:3:6 cement concrete, the maximum
permissible compressive stress in concrete is 2 N/mm2 or 2000
kN/m2.
Hence, the stresses developed at the base of the pier are within
safe permissible limits.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
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Lecture 26: Bridge Abutments
 Components of Abutments
E L
 Design of Abutments P T
 Stability Analysis of Abutments
N
 Wing Walls and Approaches
Topic of Discussion
 Design of Abutments

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Substructures of a bridge typically comprises the piers and

abutments which are located below the level of the bearings
and rest above the foundations.
• The bridge superstructure is supported by the bridge
L
substructure which in turn rests on the foundation located
E
below the ground level.
P T
N
• The piers and abutments generally built up of brick, stone
masonry or concrete are supported on foundations like spread
footings, piles, wells or caissons.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The superstructure comprising the slab or beams transmit the

reactions to the piers and abutments through the bridge
bearings and bed blocks.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Abutments are end supports to the superstructure of a bridge

and they retain earth on their back side which serves as an
approach to the bridge.
• In the case of river bridges, the abutment also protects the

embankment from scour of the stream.
E L
P T
• Abutments are generally built using solid stone, brick masonry
or concrete. N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Materials for Piers and Abutments:
• Mass concrete of M10 grade corresponding to mix proportions

of 1:3:6 with 40 mm maximum size aggregates.
• Reinforced concrete of M15 grade corresponding to mix

proportions of 1:2:4.
E L
P T
• Coursed rubble masonry in cement mortar of proportions 1:4.
•
N
Brick masonry in cement mortar of proportions 1:6.
• Prestressed concrete for piers particularly in viaducts with tall

piers. M30 and M40 grade concrete is the minimum
requirement for prestressed concrete piers.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Maximum Permissible Stresses in Various Materials used for

Substructure:
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Components of Abutments
Bed Block:
• A reinforced concrete bed block resting over the top of the

piers and abutments is generally provided to evenly distribute
the dead and live loads on the piers and abutments.
E L
• The bed block is generally cast with M15 grade concrete.
P T
• The bed block is reinforced with steel bars of area equal to
N
0.3% of the cross-sectional dimensions and distributed as
mesh reinforcement near the top and bottom surfaces of the
bed block.
Bridge Engineering
Bed Block:
The cross-section and plan of a typical reinforced concrete bed

block used in major bridges are shown below.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
An abutment comprises three distinct structural components.
• The breast wall which directly supports the dead and live loads
of the superstructure and retains the earth filling on the rear
side.
E L
• The wing walls which act as extensions of the breast wall,
P T
retains the earth fill without resisting any loads from the
superstructure. N
• The back wall is a small retaining wall located just behind the
bridge seat and it prevents the earth fill from flowing into the
bridge seat and bearings.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design of Abutments
The various forces to be considered in the design of abutments are

as follows.
 Dead Load due to superstructure
 Live load on the superstructure
E L
 Self-weight of the abutment
 Longitudinal forces due to tractive effortP

T
N and braking
 Forces due to temperature variation
 Earth pressure due to backfill
The abutment should be designed to resist all these forces.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Abutments
Typical forces acting on an abutment and the resulting stress

distribution at the base of the abutment is shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N Sv
Bridge Engineering
Typical Forces
Design of Abutments
• Height
The top level of abutment is fixed at 1-1.5 m above the highest

flood level. Depending on depth of water on the upstream side,
sufficient gap between the highest flood level and the top of the
L
abutment is essential to protect the bridge bearings from flooding.
E
T
The height of abutment is kept equal to that piers.
P
• Width
N
The top width should provide enough space for bridge bearings
and bottom width is dimensioned as 0.4 to 0.5 times the height of
the abutments.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Abutments
• Abutment Batter
The water face is kept vertical or a small batter of 1 in 24 to 1 in 12

is given. The earth face is provided with a batter of 1 in 3 to 1 in 6
or it may be stepped down.
E L
• Length of Abutment
P T
the bridge.
N
The length of the abutment must be at least equal to the width of
• Abutment Cap:
The bed block over the abutment is similar to the pier cap with a
thickness of 450 to 600 mm.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Stability Analysis of Abutments
The stability analysis for the abutments are generally performed by

considering some of the critical forces which will have significant
effect on the stresses developed in the abutments.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Stability Analysis of Abutments: Numerical Example
A stone masonry abutment used for a highway bridge together

with the forces acting per unit length of abutment is shown below.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Safe bearing capacity of soil = 150 kN/m2.
Coefficient of friction between masonry and soil = 0.5
Density of stone masonry = 25 kN/m3.
L
Compute the stresses developed at the base and check for the
E
stability of the abutment.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Analysis of forces
Total vertical forces = 𝑾𝑾
𝑾𝑾 = 𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 + 𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐 + 𝑾𝑾𝟑𝟑 + 𝑾𝑾𝟒𝟒
Where 𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 = Weight of rectangular portion of abutment

E L
= (1 × 3 × 25) = 75 kN
P T
N
𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐 = Weight of triangular portion of abutment
= (0.5 × 1 × 3 × 25) = 37.5 kN
𝑾𝑾𝟑𝟑 = Live and dead loads = 20 kN
𝑾𝑾𝟒𝟒 = Vertical load due to earth = 15 kN
Bridge Engineering
Total vertical forces 𝑾𝑾 = (75 + 37.5 + 20 + 15) = 147.5 kN
Considering the moments

of all forces about the toe
A, we have
E L
𝑴𝑴 = (95 × 0.5) + (37.5 ×
P T
1.33) + (15 × 1.67) – (20 × 1)
= 102.43 kN-m N
Bridge Engineering
Position of resultant R from A:

𝑴𝑴 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟑𝟑
𝒁𝒁 = = = 0.695 m
𝑾𝑾 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓
𝒃𝒃
Eccentricity 𝒆𝒆 = – z
L
𝟐𝟐
= (1 – 0.695) = 0.305 m
T E
But (b/6) = (2/6) = 0.33 m
N P
Since e < (b/6), the stresses are compressive at both heel and toe,
𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Maximum and Minimum stress = × (1 ± )
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝟔𝟔×𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
= × (1 ± ) = 73.75 × [1 ± 0.915]
𝟐𝟐 ×𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
Bridge Engineering
𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Maximum and Minimum stress = × (1 ± )
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓 𝟔𝟔×𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
= × (1 ± )
𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
= 73.75 × [1 ± 0.915]
𝝈𝝈𝑨𝑨 = 73.75 × (1 + 0.915) = 141.23 kN/m2

E L
P T
𝝈𝝈𝑩𝑩 = 73.75 × (1 − 0.915) = 6.27 kN/m2
N
The maximum stress 𝝈𝝈𝑨𝑨 is less than
the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
Hence the stresses are within safe Stress Distribution at the
permissible limits. Base of Abutment
Bridge Engineering
Check for safety against Sliding
Total vertical forces 𝑾𝑾 = 147.5 kN
μ𝑾𝑾 = (0.5 × 147.5) = 73.75 kN
Factor of safety =
𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
= 3.69 > 2.00
E L
T
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
P
Hence, the abutment has sufficient factor of safety against sliding.
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Wing Walls
• The main function of wing wall is to retain the earth-fill without

resisting any load from the superstructure.
• Wing walls are designed as retaining walls similar to the same

of the abutments.
E L
• The wing wall dimensions are generally fixed as follows.
P T
Thickness at top = 0.5 m
Thickness at bottom = 0.45 to 0.5 h
N
Where h = height of the wing wall
Face batter = 1 in 12
Back batter = 1 in 6
Bridge Engineering
Wing Walls
There are two types of wing walls depending on the type of

embankment and approaches to the bridge.
• Return or Box Type Wing Wall
When approaches to the bridge are for small embankment, return

type wing wall is provided.
E L
P T
N
Length of return type wing wall is dependent on slope of the
embankment and side slopes of the stream.
Bridge Engineering
Wing Walls
Return Type Wing Wall
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Wing Walls
• Splayed Type Wing Wall
For bridges with heavy approach embankments, splayed type wing

wall is provided.
The thickness of splayed type wing wall is maximum at the
E L
junction of the abutment and gradually reduces to 300-500 mm
towards the bottom of the embankment.
P T
N
The splayed type wing walls prevent the flow of soil towards the
vent way under the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Wing Walls
Splayed Type Wing Wall

Splayed type
wing wall
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Approaches
• Approaches are generally provided at both ends of the bridge.
• As per IRC specifications, the approaches should have a

minimum straight length of 15 m on either side of the bridge.
• For heavy embankments, the slopes should be gradual so that
E L
the visibility of the vehicles approaching from the opposite side
is not affected.
P T
N
• Preferably the approaches should be in line with the longitudinal
centre line of the bridge and in no case, they should be curved
at the entrance and exit of the bridge structure.
Bridge Engineering
Approaches
A typical approach to a major bridge on a National Highway is

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
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Lecture 27: Pile Foundations for Bridges
 Types of Foundations
E L
 Pile Foundations P T
N
 Pile Foundations: Numerical Example
Topic of Discussion
 Pile Foundations

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Design of bridge foundation is an integral part of the overall

design of a bridge.
• The cost of foundations depends on the type of soil at site,

span of the deck, type of foundation and it significantly
influences the overall cost of the bridge.
E L
P T
• Design of bridge foundation depends on various factors like,
a) Maximum Scour Depth N

b) Minimum Grip Length required
c) Soil Pressure at Base
d) Stresses in Structural components
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Foundations
• The foundation generally used for bridge piers and abutments

are classified as:
(a) Shallow Foundations and (b) Deep Foundations.
• Shallow foundations involving open excavation are suitable for
E L
small span bridges constructed on hard gravelly soil and rocky
strata.
P T
N
• Shallow foundations transfer the load from the superstructure
and sub-structure to the ground by bearing at the bottom of
foundations.
Bridge Engineering
• The maximum compressive stresses developed at the base

due to dead and live loads should not exceed the permissible
bearing pressure of the soil at the site.
• For major bridges, deep foundations are generally adopted.

Deep foundations are further classified as
E L
(a) Pile Foundations,
P T
N
(b) Well Foundations or Open Caissons,
(c) Pneumatic Caissons.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• Piles can be made up of (i) timber, (ii) steel, (iii) reinforced

cement concrete and (iv) prestressed concrete.
• Timber piles are used only for temporary structures such as

jettys and not for bridge foundations. Nowadays, R.C.C piles are
L
the most common types used in major bridge foundations.
E
P T
• Concrete piles are further classified as (a) Cast in-situ piles and
(b) Precast piles. N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• In cast in-situ piles, a steel shell is driven first to the required

depth and concreting is done after placing the reinforcement
cage in the hole.
• If the shell is left in place, than it is done after placing the

reinforcement cage in the hole.
E L
P T
• If the shell is left in place, it is called a shell pile. If the shell is
N
removed, it is referred to as shell less pile.
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• During 1950 to 1960, cast in-situ piles were commonly adopted

since the technique of precasting was not well developed.
• With the introduction of better quality cement and precasting

techniques, now-a-days precast piles are invariably preferred in
place of cast in-situ piles.
E L
P T
• The primary reason for preferring precast piles is that bridge
N
structures generally involve foundations under water or in soils
with a high water table.
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• Precast piles can be made with a high degree of quality control

regarding dimensions and strength and hence, have superior
structural properties in comparison with cast in-situ piles.
• Precast piles can be cast to various shapes such as: (i) circular,
(ii) square (iii) rectangular and (iv) octagonal.
E L
P T
• Generally square and circular section piles are preferred to
other shapes. N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• During the last three decades, prestressed concrete piling has

been extensively used as versatile foundation solution for major
national highway bridge structures.
• The main advantage of prestressed concrete piles over the

traditional reinforced concrete piles are:
E L
1. High load moment carrying capacity.
P T
N
2. Standardization in design for mass production
3. Excellent durability under adverse environmental conditions.
4. Ease of handling, transporting and driving
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
5. Crack free characteristics under handling and driving
6. Overall economy in production and installation
Prestressed concrete piles have been used widely for the

foundations of a number of bridges constructed in India under
Golden Quadrilateral scheme.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
Typical details of reinforcements in a precast concrete pile are

shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• A bridge sub structure may require several piles to support the

loads. In such cases, groups of piles are used and they are
combined by a pile cap which supports the sub structure.
• The typical shapes of pile cap are shown in figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations
• Piles are designed as compression members conforming to the

National codes. Typical reinforcement details in pile caps are
shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Pile Foundations: Numerical Example
The pier of a major fly over bridge transmits a load of 8400 kN at

the foundation level. Design the number of precast R.C.C piles and
a suitable cap using the following data:
Width of the pier = 1 m, Length of pier = 9 m.
E L
Size of piles = 300 mm by 300 mm, Spacing of piles = 1.5 m
P T
N
Materials: M-20 Grade concrete and Fe-415 HYSD bars.
Hard strata is available at a depth of 6 m below the ground level at

bridge site.
Bridge Engineering
1. Arrangement of Piles and Piles Cap
Fourteen piles are arranged at a spacing of 1.5 m as shown in

Figure.
Load on each pile = (8400/14) = 600 kN.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
2. Pile Reinforcement
(a) Longitudinal Reinforcement
Length of pile above ground level = 0.6 m.
Total length of pile = (6 + 0.6) = 6.6 m

E L
Size of pile = 300 mm by 300 mm
P T
N
L = 6.6 mm and B = 0.3 m; (L/B) = (6.6/0.3) = 22 >12
Hence the pile is designed as a Long column.

𝐋𝐋 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Reduction Coefficient = (1.25 – ) = (1.25 – ) = 0.792
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑩𝑩 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Bridge Engineering
Safe permissible stress in concrete 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = (0.792 × 5) = 3.96 N/mm2
Load carrying capacity of the pile is expressed as (IS: 456-2000)
𝑷𝑷 = 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝝈𝝈𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
600 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 = 3.96 × [(300 × 300) – 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ] + 150 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

E L
Or, 146.04 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = (600 – 356.4) × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑
P T
Solving 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 1668 mm2 N
According to IRC: 78-1983, the longitudinal reinforcement 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ≰
1.25% of gross cross-section for piles with a length less than 30
times the least width.
Bridge Engineering
Hence, 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ≰ (0.0125 × 300 × 300) ≰ 1125 mm2
We can adopt 8 bars of 20 mm diameter providing an area of 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =

2513 mm2 with a clear cover of 40 mm.
(b) Lateral Reinforcement
In the body of the pile, the lateral reinforcement E

L
P T should be not less
than 0.2 % of the gross volume.
N
Using 8 mm diameter ties, volume of tie = 50 × [4 × (300 – 80)] =
44000 mm3
If 𝒑𝒑 = pitch of the ties, volume of pile per pitch length = (300 × 300 ×
p) = 90000 p mm3
Bridge Engineering
Hence equating, we have 44000 = (0.002 × 90000 p)
Or, 𝒑𝒑 = 244.44 mm
Maximum permissible pitch = (0.5 × 300) = 150 mm
L
Hence, we can provide 8 mm diameter ties at 150 mm centres as
E
lateral reinforcement in the pile.
P T
N
(c) Lateral Reinforcement near Pile Head
Lateral reinforcement is of particular importance is resisting

driving stresses near pile head provided for a length of 𝟑𝟑B = (3 ×
300) = 900 mm.
Bridge Engineering
Spiral reinforcement provided near pile head using 8 mm diameter

helical ties (𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔 = 50.26 mm2).
𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔
Volume of spiral per mm length = × [(300 × 300 × 1)] = 540 mm3
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
If 𝒑𝒑 = pitch of the spiral, 𝒑𝒑 =

𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 × 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔
E L
T
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Providing a clear cover of 40 mm to the main longitudinal

reinforcement of 20 mm diameter bars and using 8 mm diameter N P
spiral ties inside the main reinforcements,
Diameter of spiral = [300 – (2 × 40) – (2 × 20) – 8] = 172 mm.
Bridge Engineering
𝝅𝝅×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
𝒑𝒑 = = 50 mm
𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎
We can adopt 8 mm diameter spirals at a pitch of 50 mm for a

length of 900 mm at the top of pile.
(d) Lateral Reinforcement near Pile Ends

E L
P T
Lateral reinforcement of 0.6 percent of gross volume is provided in
N
the form of ties for a distance of 3 times the least lateral dimension
both at top and bottom of the pile.
Volume of the ties = 0.6% of gross volume for a length of (3 × 300) =

900 mm
Bridge Engineering
Using 8 mm diameter ties,
Volume of each tie = 50 × [4 × (300 – 80)] = 44000 mm3
If p = pitch of the ties,
L
Volume of piles per pitch length = (300 × 300 × p) = 90000 p
E
44000 = (
𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔
× 90000 p)
P T
Or, p = 81.48 mm
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
N
We can adopt 8 mm diameter ties at 80 mm centres for a length of
900 mm from the ends of the pile both at top and bottom.
The longitudinal and cross section of the pile with reinforcement

details is shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
3. Pile Cap
The arrangement of piles with the pile cap is shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The maximum bending moment in the pile cap is computed as,
𝑴𝑴𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 = (𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝑾𝑾 × 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒘𝒘 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑾𝑾 kN.m
Where 𝑾𝑾 = (2 × 600) = 1200 kN
𝑴𝑴𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 = (0.375 × 1200) = 450 kN.m

E L
The effective depth required is given by 𝒅𝒅 = T
N P 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= 586 mm
We can adopt d = 600 mm and overall depth = 650 mm
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = = 3623 mm2 per 1.5 m width
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗 × 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Bridge Engineering
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Using 25 mm diameter bars, spacing 𝒔𝒔 = = 203 mm
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
We can provide 25 mm diameter bars at 200 mm centres.
Distribution reinforcement = 0.12% of gross area
= (0.0012 × 650 × 1000) = 780 mm2 per m

E L
We can adopt 16 mm diameter bars at 250 mm centres as P T
distribution steel. N
Maximum shear force 𝑽𝑽 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 kN
𝑽𝑽 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑
Shear stress 𝝉𝝉𝒗𝒗 = = = 0.667 N/mm2
𝒃𝒃 𝒅𝒅 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Bridge Engineering
From Table 17 of IS 456: 2000, 𝝉𝝉𝒄𝒄 = 0.28 N/mm2

𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Balance Shear Force 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 = 𝑽𝑽 − 𝝉𝝉𝒄𝒄 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 = 600 – = 348
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
kN
Using 10 mm diameter 8 legged stirrups, spacing is given by

E L
𝒔𝒔𝒗𝒗 =
𝟖𝟖 × 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
= 251 mm
P T
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑
N
We can adopt 10 mm diameter stirrups at 200 mm centres in a
width of 1500 mm.
The reinforcement details in the pile cap is shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 28: Well and Pneumatic Caisson Foundations for Bridges
E L
 Well Foundations P T
N
 Well Foundations: Numerical Example
 Pneumatic Caisson Foundations
 Differential Support Settlement

Topic of Discussion
 Well Foundations

E L
P
 Pneumatic Caisson FoundationsT
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Design of bridge foundation is an integral part of the overall

design of a bridge.
• The cost of foundations depends on the type of soil at site,

span of the deck, type of foundation and it significantly
influences the overall cost of the bridge.
E L
P T
• Design of bridge foundation depends on various factors like,
a) Maximum Scour Depth N

b) Minimum Grip Length required
c) Soil Pressure at Base
d) Stresses in Structural components
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P
N
Bridge Engineering
• The foundation generally used for bridge piers and abutments

are classified as:
(a) Shallow Foundations and (b) Deep Foundations.
• Shallow foundations involving open excavation are suitable for
E L
small span bridges constructed on hard gravelly soil and rocky
strata.
P T
N
• Shallow foundations transfer the load from the superstructure
and sub-structure to the ground by bearing at the bottom of
foundations.
Bridge Engineering
• The maximum compressive stresses developed at the base

due to dead and live loads should not exceed the permissible
bearing pressure of the soil at the site.
• For major bridges, deep foundations are generally adopted.

Deep foundations are further classified as
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
• Well foundations also referred to as open caissons are the most

common type of foundations generally adopted for major
bridges crossing rivers in India, where the soil strata comprises
of sand or stiff clay.
L
• The foundation comprises of singles large diameter well or a
E
T
group of smaller wells of circular shape or double-D, square or
P
•
rectangular shapes.
N
The circular shaped well is generally preferred due to its
simplicity for construction and sinking operations.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
• In case of foundations for large span cantilever, suspension or

cable stayed bridges, large rectangular wells with multiple
dredge holes of square shape are commonly used.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
• Typical shapes of wells used are shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
• The size and shape of well for a particular foundation depends

upon the various factors such as (a) size of pier (b) depth of
foundation (c) nature of soil at site and the possibility of
pneumatic sinking.
L
• The dredge holes should be large enough to permit easy
E
T
dredging. According to IRC: 78-1983, the minimum dimension of
P
N
a dredge hole should not less than 2 m.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
A typical well foundation comprises of the following structural

components.
(1) Steining
(2) Well Curb
(3) Bottom and Top Plugs
E L
(4) Well Cap
P T
(5) Sand filling N
(6) Cutting Edge
The elevation of a typical well foundation with its various structural

components is shown in this figure.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
E L
P T
N
Typical well foundation with its
various structural components
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
(1) Well Steining
The minimum thickness of well steining should not be less than

500 mm and satisfy the following empirical relation,
L
𝒉𝒉 = 𝑲𝑲 𝒅𝒅𝒄𝒄 𝑳𝑳
Where 𝒉𝒉 = Minimum thickness of steining

T E
N
𝒅𝒅𝒄𝒄 = External diameter of circular well (m)
P
𝑳𝑳 = Depth of well below low water level or ground level whichever
is higher (m)
𝑲𝑲 = a constant depending upon the type of soil and material of

well.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
The value of 𝑲𝑲 as outlined in IRC: 78-1983 for different types of

wells are compiled in Table 1.
Predominant Type of Soil

Type of Shape of Well Material of Well
Sandy Soil
L
Clayee Strata
E
Single Circular or Dumb-bell type
Cement
concrete
P
0.030
T 0.033
Single Circular or Dumb-bell type
Twin D-type Wells

Brick Masonry
Cement
N
0.047
0.039
0.052
0.043
concrete
Twin D-type Wells Brick Masonry 0.062 0.068
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
• The stresses developed in the well steining at any level under

various conditions of loading during sinking and service should
be within safe permissible limits.
• For plain concrete wells, vertical reinforcement in the steining

L
should not be less than 0.12 percent of the gross cross
E
T
sectional area while for R.C.C wells, the minimum vertical
P
N
reinforcement distributed on both faces should not be less than
0.2 percent of the cross-sectional area.
• The transverse reinforcement in the form of hoops should not

be less than 0.04 percent of the volume per unit length of the
steining.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
(2) Well Curb
The well curb should be strong enough to be able to transmit

superimposed loads from the steining to the bottom plug.
The curb is generally of reinforced concrete having a wedge
E L
shaped with the grade of concrete not leaner than M-20.
P T
N
Minimum reinforcement in curb = 72 kg/m3 excluding bond rods.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
(3) Bottom and Top Plugs
The bottom plug of concrete is provided with its top not lower than
300 mm in the centre above the top of the curb.
The bottom of the plug is generally curved and it should be below

the level of the cutting edge.
E L
P T
N
The concrete mix in the bottom plug should have a minimum
cement content of 330 kg/m3 and a slump of about 150 mm to
permit easy flow of concrete through tremie to fill up all cavities.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
If grouting is used the cement mortar mix should be not leaner

than 1:2 and the rate of pumping should be controlled so that the
grout fills all the interstices up to the top of the plug.
The top plug comprising of 1:3:6 cement concrete is generally

L
provided for a thickness of 500 mm below the well cap.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
(4) Well Cap
Reinforced concrete well cap connecting multiple wells should be

provided with its bottom preferably laid as low as possible taking
into account the low water level and the longitudinal bars from the
well steining are anchored into the well cap.
E L
P T
The depth of the well cap should be designed to withstand the
N
forces transmitted from the pier or abutment.
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations
(5) Sand Filling
The well is filled with sand or excavated material free of organic

matter if considered necessary between the bottom and top plugs.
E L
(6) Cutting Edge
P T
N
A cutting edge comprising of mild steel angle firmly anchored to
the curb is generally provided to facilitate sinking of the well
through the soil strata. The quantity of steel in the cutting edge
should preferably be not less than 40 kg.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Well Foundations: Numerical Example
Design a well foundation for the pier of a major highway bridge to

suit the following data:
Internal diameter of well = 2.5 m.
Type of soil strata: Clayey Soil (𝑲𝑲 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)
E L
Depth of well = 25 m below bed level
P T
Materials: M-20 Grade Concrete
N
Fe-415 Grade HYSD bars
Bridge Engineering
(1) Thickness of Steining

Minimum thickness of steining is given by
𝒉𝒉 = 𝑲𝑲 𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳 = 𝑲𝑲 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 + 𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝑳𝑳
Where 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 = internal diameter of well = 2.5 m
E L
𝒉𝒉 = Thickness of steining
P T
L = Length of steining
𝑲𝑲 = Constant for Clayee soil = 0.033
N
𝒉𝒉 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Solving 𝒉𝒉 = 0.558 m = 558 mm
We can adopt a steining of 600 mm.
Bridge Engineering
(2) Reinforcement in Steining
For R.C.C wells, Minimum longitudinal reinforcement 𝑨𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
= 0.2 percent of gross cross-sectional area
=
𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐
×
𝝅𝝅
× (𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 – 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
E L
T
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒
= 11687 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 or 5844 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 for each face

N P
Here, external diameter of well 𝒅𝒅 = 𝒅𝒅 + 𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝒆𝒆 𝒊𝒊
= 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 = 3.7 m
We can use 16 mm diameter bars at 300 mm centres on both faces.
Bridge Engineering
Hoop reinforcement ≮ 0.04 percent of volume/unit length

𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝅𝝅
≮ × × (𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 – 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐 )]
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒
≮ 0.002337 𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 /m
≮ 0.002337 × 7200 kg/m

E L
≮ 16.826 kg/m P T
N
Using 10 mm diameter bars as hoop with average diameter = 3.1 m,
Average circumference of the hoop = (𝝅𝝅 × 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏) = 9.734 m
Weight of one hoop = (0.62 × 9.734) = 6.035 kg
Bridge Engineering
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟖𝟖
Number of one hoops per metre = = 2.8
𝟔𝟔
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Spacings of hoops = = 357 mm
𝟐𝟐.𝟖𝟖
We can use 10 mm diameter hoops at 600 mm centres on both faces.
E L
(3) Well Curb
P T
Minimum reinforcement = 72 kg/𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 N
We can provide a curb, 1000 mm deep with a bottom and inside width
of 150 mm.
Bridge Engineering
𝝅𝝅
Volume of concrete in curb = × (𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 – 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐 ) – (0.5 × 0.45 × 0.85 𝝅𝝅 ×
𝟒𝟒
2.65) = 4.25 𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑
Total quantity of steel in curb = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 × 𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 kg
Using hoops of average diameter = 3.1 m,
𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏E
Weight of one hoop of 20 mm diameter = 𝝅𝝅 × T
L
Weight of one hoop of 16 mm diameter N
P × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
= 𝝅𝝅 × 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Weight of one tie of 8 mm diameter = 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Bridge Engineering
Adopting a spacing of 300 mm for ties,

𝝅𝝅 × 𝟑𝟑.𝟏𝟏
Number of ties required = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑
Weight of ties = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Weight of 8 hoops of 20 mm diameter = 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

E L
P T
Weight of 6 hoops of 16 mm diameter = 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
N
Total quantity of steel provided in the curb = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 =
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 > 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
The details of reinforcements in the well and curbs is shown in

Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Pneumatic Caisson Foundations
• Pneumatic caisson foundations consisting of steel cutting base

and concrete pier is adopted for deep foundations in watery
situations.
• Pneumatic caisson consisting of a working chamber and an air

lock is used.
E L
P T
• The curb portion constitutes the working chamber and this is
made up of steel sections. N
• Air locks made of steel are attached to the working chambers.
Bridge Engineering
• The pressure inside the air lock can go up to 3.5 atmospheres

above normal (limit of human endurance).
• This pressure is reached at a depth of 40 m. Hence it is not

convenient to go beyond 40 m depths with pneumatic caisson
L
and the cost will be prohibitive for larger depths.
E
P T
• Two air locks are generally used, one for men and the other for
removing the excavated muck. N
• When the final foundation level is reached, the working chamber
is filled with concrete and the air pressure is maintained until
the concrete has attained the desired strength.
Bridge Engineering
The sequence of operations in sinking caissons is shown in

Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The sectional elevation showing the typical details of a pneumatic

caisson used for the foundations of a major bridge in India is
shown in Figure in next slide.
The working chamber must be sufficiently strong to support the

weight of the pier and it should also be air tight.
E L
P T
Two air locks made of steel are provided for transportation of men
and excavated muck. N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Differential Support Settlement
• Major causes of bridge approach settlement are deformation of

backfill, deformation of foundations soils and poor drainage.
• Differential settlement at the roadway/bridge interface typically

results in an abrupt ground profile change causing driver
L
discomfort, impairing driver safety, and exerting a potentially
E
T
excessive impact on traffic loading on the abutment.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Differential Support Settlement
• Bridge approach slabs are used to keep the effects of

differential settlement within tolerable limits.
• In many cases, the amount of settlement exceeds the working

range of an approach slab, necessitating costly roadway and
slab repairs.
E L
P T
• The potential causes for this problem are purely site specific.
N
Hence this settlement problem may not have a unique solution.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N
Module 10: Bridge Bearings, Joints and Appurtenances

Lecture 29: Bridge Bearings
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Bearings
E L
P T
N
Ø Design Principles of Bearings
Ø Design Example of Bearings

Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Bearings are structural components provided at the top of the

piers and abutments to support the girders of the
superstructure and to accommodate the movements of the
superstructure.
•
E L
The main function of the bearings is to accommodate the
movements of the superstructure.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
The movements of the superstructure are induced due to the

various reasons as listed below:
• Translational movement of the superstructure like expansion

and contraction due to the variations in the temperature at the
bridge site.
E L
•
P T
Rotational movements due to the vertical deflections of the
N
superstructure arising out of highway loads.
• Vertical movements due to the sinking of supports.
• Movements due to shrinkage of the superstructure
• Movements due to prestressing or creep.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Thermal movement of bridge decks depend upon the

coefficient of linear expansion of the material and temperature
range at bridge site.
• Typical coefficient of linear expansion of concrete is of the

order of 6.5 × 10–6/°C.
E L
•
P T
If the span of the bridge is 30 m and the temperature at site
N
changes from a minimum of 10° C to a maximum of 40° C, the
change in length δL of the bridge deck is computed as:
δL = L α t = 30000 × 6.5 × 10–6 × (40 – 10) = 5.85 mm
• Hence suitable provision for the movement of the deck should

be made by providing bearings at the supports.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In addition to horizontal movements, bridge girders rotate near

the supports. The magnitude of rotation at support depends on
the magnitude of deflection at centre of span and the span
length.
𝜽 = Rotation of the girder at the supports

E L
L = Span Length, 30 m
P T
N
e = Maximum deflection at the centre of the span, 60 mm.
Assuming the deflection profile of the beam to be parabolic,

𝟒𝒆 𝟒 × 𝟔𝟎
rotation at the supports of the girder 𝜽 = 𝑳
= 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟑
Radians = (8 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟑 × 180)/ 𝝅 = 0.46 Degrees
Bridge Engineering
General Features
For the purpose of preliminary estimates, Long has suggested

that the maximum movement due to all causes expressed as a
function of the span of the girders may be assumed as given
below depending upon the type of bridge deck:
(a) In-situ Reinforced Concrete = 9 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒

E L
(b) Precast Reinforced Concrete= 7 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
P T
N
(c) In-situ Prestressed Concrete = 16 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
(d) Precast Prestressed Concrete = 11 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
(e) Steel = 9 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
(f) Composite Steel and Concrete = 8 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Primary functions of bridge bearings are:
• To transmit the end reaction to the abutment and/or piers and to

distribute it uniformly, so that the bearing stress does not
exceed the allowable bearing stress of the materials
•
E L
To allow free movement in the longitudinal direction (expansion
P T
and contraction) due to change in temperature and stresses
• N
To allow rotations at the ends when the bridge girders are
loaded and deflections take place
• Some bearings may be used to reduce the effect of impact due

to live loads, to damp off structural vibrations or to limit the
transmission of sound waves
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Generally bearings are classified as
(a) Fixed bearings and
(b) Expansion bearings
•
L
Fixed bearings permit rotations while, preventing expansion.
E
•
P T
Expansion bearings accommodate both horizontal movements
and rotations.
N
• The type of bearing to be selected depends upon the type of
super structure, type of supports and also the span length.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• A simply supported span is generally provided with a fixed

bearing at one end and an expansion bearing at the other
support.
• For a two span continuous girder, a fixed bearing is provided at
E L
the central support and expansion bearings at the end
supports.
P T
• N
In the case of major bridges, the cost of bearings are in the
range of 10 to 15 percent of the total cost of the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• For the culverts with reinforced concrete slab of small spans,

no special bearings are required.
• However a thick layer of Kraft paper is provided between the

slab and the bed block.
•
E L
In the case of girder bridges, different types of bearings are
invariably adopted.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
1. Expansion type bearings
(a) Sliding plate bearing.
(b) Sliding cum Rocker bearing
(c) Steel Roller Rocker bearing

E L
(d) R.C Rocker cum roller bearing
P T
(e) Elastomeric Bearing N
2. Fixed type bearings
(f) Steel Rocker bearing
(g) R.C hinge (rocker) bearing
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Sliding Plate Bearing
This is the simplest form of expansion bearing used for girder

bridges of spans up to 20 m.
When the contact surfaces are flat, Teflon coating should be used
E L
to prevent the development of frictional resistant and to facilitate
smooth movement due to expansion.
P T
N
The current practice is to provide a curved shape to the top plate
to reduce the contact area and frictional resistance.
Typical details of a sliding plate bearing is shown in a Figure in

next slide.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Sliding Plate Bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Sliding Cum Rocker Bearing
In the case of bridges with curved alignment, the bearings

provided should permit sliding movement and also rotation in
different directions. Hence, sliding cum rocker bearing are
adopted for supporting curved decks.
E L
P T
Essentially the bearing comprises a sliding and tilting plate with a
pressure pad and base plate. N
The mating surfaces should be coated with Teflon to reduce the
frictional resistance.
Typical details of a sliding cum rocker bearing is shown in a

Figure in next slide.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Sliding Cum Rocker Bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Steel Roller Cum Rocker Bearing
Generally roller cum rocker bearings permit longitudinal

movement by rollers and rotational movements by the rocker.
For long span bearings cast steel roller bearings are generally
used.
E L
P T
N
Rollers of diameter 100 to 150 mm are generally preferred.
Single or two large diameter rollers are preferred to a nest of small

rollers.
Typical details of a steel roller cum rocker bearing is shown in a

Figure in next slide.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Steel Roller Cum Rocker Bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• R.C. Rocker Cum Roller Bearing
This type of bearing, used to support RC decks, are designed as

compression members with sufficient reinforcements to support
the axial loads from bridge decks.
E L
RC rocker bearings are less expensive in comparison with steel
rocker bearings.
P T
N
A typical RC rocker cum roller bearing comprises of rigid
reinforced concrete block with lead sheets provided at the top and
bottom of the pedestal.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
The length of the lead sheet coincides with that of the girder width
while its breadth should be sufficient to limit the stresses on the
sheet within permissible limits.
E L
RC pedestal is designed as short column to support the reaction
from the girder.
P T
N
Mild steel dowel bars are used to resist the shear forces. The lead
sheet permits the girder to rotate.
Both rotations and longitudinal movements of the girder are

permitted by this type of bearing.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
For rotation, the girder compresses the lead sheet along the
inside edge and the block tilts inside.
For longitudinal movements, the lower lead sheet is compressed
E L
along the outside edge making the block tilt inside.
P T
N
If the height of the concrete rocker is more, a smaller angular
compressive load is sufficient to accommodate the desired
longitudinal expansion.
Typical details of a reinforced concrete rocker cum roller bearing

used in Dimni bridge is shown in Figure in next slide.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Elastomeric Bearing
The present trend is to use elastomeric bearings in preference to

metallic bearings which are expensive in terms of initial cost as
well as maintenance cost.
E L
Elastomeric bearings occupy a smaller space and are easy to
maintain and to replace when damaged.
P T
N
Chloroprene rubber termed as Neoprene is the most commonly
used elastomer in elastomeric pad and pot bearings.
Typical details of an elastomeric pad and pot bearings are shown

in Figures in next slides.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Elastomeric Pad Bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Elastomeric Pot Bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Steel Rocker Fixed bearing
Steel rocker bearings are generally used for longer spans

exceeding 15 m.
A typical steel rocker bearing comprises a top portion with a
E L
curved contact surface rocking over the bottom plate which has
flat contact surface.
P T
N
The rocker pin is designed to resist the horizontal shear.
A typical steel rocker bearing is shown in Figure in next slide.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• Steel Rocker Fixed bearing
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
• R.C. Rocker Fixed bearing
RC rocker fixed bearings are also referred as linear concrete

hinges.
These bearings are simple and less expensive to produce, but
E L
require proper detailing and care during construction.
P T
N
This type of bearing permits large rotations if constructed
properly and accurately with correct design dimensions.
This type of bearing is usually built in with the super and sub
structure and require no maintenance and has a long life.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
A narrow throat and a very low height of hinge with circular

curved faces all-round are provided to ensure a three-dimensional
confinement of concrete.
E L
This region of confined concrete in the throat can resist
P T
compressive stresses nearly 7 times that of standard 28 day
N
strength of concrete since the concrete in the throat is in a state
of triaxial compression.
Cracking developed due to rotation heals itself due to creep under

the high compressive stress.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
These type of hinges rarely require any reinforcements crossing

the throat unless the horizontal shear exceeds about one-eighth
of the co-existing vertical load and or transverse moment on the
hinge.
E L
P T
However, reinforcements are provided above and below the throat
in the form of hair pin loops. N
Experimental investigations have indicated that a throat plain
section 150 mm by 700 mm under a working load of 4500 kN can
tolerate rotations up to 0.012 radians under 37 million rotational
loadings without showing any signs of cracking or distress.
Bridge Engineering
Types of Bearings
A typical linear concrete hinge capable of rocking (rotating) about

its longitudinal axis is shown in figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principles of Bearings
Design Principles of Steel Rocker and Roller Bearings:
The design principles of metallic bearings using different types of

steels like mild steel and high tensile steels are given Indian
standard code IRC: 83-1999.
E L
The permissible stresses in the various structural parts of the
P T
metallic bearings specified in the code are compiled in the Table 1.
N
Bridge Engineering
Table 1. Permissible stresses in Steel (IRC: 83-1982)
No Description Mild Steel High Tensile
(N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ) Steel (N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
1 Part in bending (tensile or compression) on effective
sectional area for extreme fiber stress.
(a) For plates, flats, rounds, square and similar sections. 160 200
(b) For pins.
E
205
L 295
2 Parts in Shear
P T
N
(a) maximum shear stress on plates. 105 140
(b) Maximum shear stress for turned and fitted bolts and 100 0.43𝐟𝐲 where 𝐟𝐲
pins. is the yield stress
(c) Maximum shear stress in black bolts and rocker pins 85 0.37𝐟𝐲
3 Parts in Bearings
(a) On flat surface 185 240
(b) Knuckle pin and black bolts 200 0.87𝐟𝐲
Bridge Engineering
For cylindrical rollers on flat surfaces, the allowable working load

per unit length of roller shall be:
(a) For mild steel
L
(i) Single and double rollers, 8𝒅𝟏 N per mm length.
T
(ii) Three or more rollers, 5𝒅𝟏 N per mm length. E
(b) For High tensile steel
N P
(i) Single and Double rollers, 10𝒅𝟏 N per mm length.
(ii) Three or more rollers, 7𝒅𝟏 N per mm length.
Where 𝒅𝟏 = diameter of roller expressed in mm.
Bridge Engineering
The minimum diameter of the roller shall not be less than 75 mm.
The ratio of the length of the roller to its diameter shall normally be
not more than 6, but not more than 10 in any case.
L
The gap between the rollers shall not be less than 50 mm in the
case of multiple full rollers.
T E
N P
Bridge Engineering
Design Principles of Elastomeric Pad Bearing:
Elastomeric pad bearings comprise of synthetic rubber and

neoprene pads which are elastic in nature to provide both
translation and rotation.
E L
These type of bearings are widely used for bridges due to their
economy and negligible maintenance costs.
P T
N
Neoprene pad bearings are compact, weather and fire resistant.
Hence, now a days elastomeric bearings have more or less
completely replaced the metallic bearings.
Bridge Engineering
Chloroprene is the raw material prescribed to be used by Indian

Roads Congress Code IRC: 83-1987 (Part II) for the manufacture of
elastomeric pad bearings.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The elastomer used for the bearings pads should have the
following properties:
• Hardness values should be in the ranger of (60 ∓ 5) IRHD

(international rubber hardness scale).
•
E L
This scale extends from 0 to 10. Hardness values for an eraser
is 30 and for a car tyre is 60.
P T
• N
The minimum ultimate tensile strain at failure should not be less
than 400 percent.
• The shear modulus of the elastomeric bearing should not be

less than 0.8 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 , not greater than 1.20 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 .
Bridge Engineering
The basic deformational characteristics of the elastomeric bearing

under loads are shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
The guidelines specified for the designer of elastomeric pad

bearings as per IRC: 83 (Part II) – 1987 are as follows:
1 Standard plan dimensions compiled in Table 2 are to be

preferred. However interpolation is permitted provided the design
criteria is satisfied.
E L
P T
2. The bearing area of the pad should be such that the compressive
N
stresses developed in concrete are within specified limits.
3. The design vertical load 𝑵𝒅 should be within the limits of 𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙

and 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒏 specified in Table 2.
Bridge Engineering
Table 2. Standard plan dimensions for Elastomeric Bearings (IRC: 83-part II- 1987)
Size 𝐛𝐨 𝐋𝐨 𝐀. 𝟏𝟎"𝟒 𝐍𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐍𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐡𝐢 𝐧𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐧𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐡𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐡𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝐛𝐢.𝒎𝒂𝒙
Index (𝐦𝐦) (𝐦𝐦)
No (𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) kN kN (mm) x 𝟏𝟎"𝟑
1 160 250 3.5 350 70 8 3 1 32 16 8.0

2 160 320 4.6 460 90 8 3 1 32 16 7.0
3 200 320 5.8 580 120 8 4 2 40 24 4.0
4 200 400 7.3 730 150 8 4 2
E
40
L 24 3.5
T
10 4 2 50 30 3.0
P
5 250 400 9.2 920 180
12 3 1 48 24 3.5
6 250 500 11.6 1160 230

10
12
10
N 4
3
5
2
1
2
50
48
60
30
24
30
3.0
5.5
2.0
7 320 500 15.0 1500 300
12 4 2 60 36 3.0
10 5 2 60 30 1.5
8 320 630 19.5 1900 380
12 4 2 66 36 2.5
9 400 630 23.9 2400 480 12 6 3 84 48 1.5
10 400 800 30.6 3100 600 12 6 3 84 48 1.3
Bridge Engineering
4. The ratio of overall length to breath should be equal to or less

than 2.
5. The overall thickness of the bearing should be in the range of 1/5

and 1/10 of the overall breath.
E L
6. The thickness of the internal layer of elastomer 𝒉𝒊 , the thickness
P T
of the laminate 𝒉𝒔 , and the elastomer cover at the top and
N
bottom 𝒉𝒆 should correspond to the following dimensions:
𝒉𝒊 (mm) 8 10 12 16
𝒉𝒔 (mm) 3 3 4 6
𝒉𝒆 (mm) 4 5 6 6
Bridge Engineering
7. The side cover of elastomer for the steel laminates is 6 mm.
8. The thickness of the elastomeric pad bearing should be

adequate to limit the shear strain to horizontal load and
movements due to creep, shrinkage and temperature to a value of
E L
less than 0.7. In the absence of more accurate analysis,
P T
The shear strain ∆𝒃𝒅 due to creep, shrinkage and temperature can
N
be computed assuming a total strain of 5 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒 for common
reinforced bridge decks.
9. The shape factor S should be greater than 6 and less than 12.
10. The number of elastomer layers provided shall satisfy the

relation: 𝜶𝒅 = 𝜷. 𝒏. 𝜶𝒃𝒊.𝒎𝒂𝒙
Bridge Engineering
Where 𝜶𝒅 = angle of rotation, (400𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑳)/EI × 𝟏𝟎)𝟑
n = number of elastomer layers
𝜷 = (𝝈𝒎)/( 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙)
Where 𝝈𝒎,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 10 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐

E L
𝝈𝒃𝒊,𝒎𝒂𝒙= (0.5𝝈𝒎.𝒉𝒊 )/b.𝒔𝟐
P T
N
11. Under critical, loading conditions, the following limit shall be
satisfied to ensure adequate friction:
Shear strain ≤ 0.2 + 0.1 𝝈𝒎
10 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 ≥ 𝝈𝒎 ≥ 2 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Bridge Engineering
12. The total shear stress due to normal and horizontal loads and
rotation should be less than 5 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Shear stress due to normal load 𝝉𝒄 = (1.5𝝈𝒎/S) N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Shear stress due to horizontal load 𝝉𝒓 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
E L
T
Shear stress due to rotation 𝝉𝜶 = 0.5 (b/𝒉𝒊 ) 𝜶𝒃𝒊 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
P
N
13. Standard plan dimensions and design data specified in IRC: 83
is compiled in Table 2.
Bridge Engineering
Design Principles of Elastomeric Pot Bearing:
Elastomeric pot bearings are generally preferred for use in Long

span bridge deck to transmit very heavy loads to the sub structure.
L
These type of bearing permit large translations and rotations
E
associated with heavy loads and aggressive temperature
T
variations.
N P
Freyssinet spherical bearings (tetron type S-3 type range) are
available in the form of fixed and sliding bearings.
Bridge Engineering
The Indian Roads Congress code IRC: 83-2002 (Part III) covers the
specifications of various types of Pot, Pot cum PTFE, Pin and
Metallic guide bearings for use in Bridges.
The bearings comprise the following materials:
E L
(a) Tetron S-3 bases and rockers made of maintenance free
aluminium alloy.
P T
N
(b) Sliding plates are made of mild steel faced with high quality
stainless steel.
(c) Sliding surfaces are lined with PTFE conforming to BS: 3784-
specifications
Bridge Engineering
(d) Pins for side restraints are special spring steel with minimum
yield strength of 1100 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .
(e) All exposed steel surfaces are corrosion protected with a

metallic zinc rich epoxy coating followed by chlorinated rubber
paint.
E L
P T
(f) The average base contact stress of the bearings is of order of
17.5 N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 . N
A typical Tetron disc pot bearing of the fixed type is shown in
Figure in the next slide. The principal dimensions of the bearings
together with maximum sustainable vertical and horizontal loads
are compiled in Table 3.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Table 3. Details of Tetron D3T Fixed Type Pot Bearing
Bearing Principal Dimensions (mm) Maximum Maximum
Type Vertical Horizontal
Load (kN) Load (kN)
A B C D E F G K
D3T-50 58 235 170 195 120 170 130 M12 500 100
L
D3T-80 75 340 235 280 155 235 175 M20 800 150
D3T-100 80 355 250 295 170 250 190
T
M20
E 1000 150
D3T-120
D3T-160
83
92
375
395
270
290
315
335
190
210
270
290
NP
210
230
M20
M20
1250
1600
190
220
D3T-200 97 460 335 385 240 335 260 M20 2000 250
D3T-250 97 485 360 410 270 360 285 M20 2500 280
D3T-325 116 575 410 475 280 410 310 M20 3250 300
D3T-400 127 615 450 515 330 450 350 M24 4000 360
(Contd.)
Bridge Engineering
Table 3. Details of Tetron D3T Fixed Type Pot Bearing
Bearing Principal Dimensions (mm) Maximum Maximum
Type Vertical Horizontal
Load (kN) Load (kN)
A B C D E F G K
D3T-500 132 680 515 580 390 515 410 M30 5000 500
L
D3T-650 141 770 570 645 420 570 440 M30 6500 600
D3T-800 156 835 635 710 490 635
T
510 M30
E 8000 650
D3T-1000
D3T-1250
175
179
950
1015
710
785
805
870
540
620
710
785
N P
560
640
M30
M30
10000
12500
700
900
D3T-1600 203 1140 870 970 680 870 700 M30 16000 1000
D3T-2000 203 1260 985 1090 780 985 800 M36 20000 1300
D3T-2500 232 1425 1100 1220 875 1100 895 M42 25000 1600
D3T-3000 257 1550 1230 1350 1000 1230 1030 M42 30000 2000
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Bearing

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example of Steel Rocker Bearings
Design a steel rocker bearing for transmitting a vertical reaction of

1000 kN and a horizontal reaction of 100 kN at the support of a
bridge girder, assuming the following permissible stresses
according to IRC: 83-1994.
E L
Permissible compressive stress in concrete bed block = 4 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
P T
Permissible bending stress in steel plate = 150 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
N
Permissible bearing stress in steel plate = 185 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Permissible shear stress in steel = 105 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Sketch the typical details of the rocker bearing.
Bridge Engineering
1. Bed plate
Vertical reaction = 1000 kN
Area of bed plate = (1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/4 = 25 × 104 𝐦𝐦𝟐

E L
P T
We can provide a bed plate of overall size 400 × 650 × 40 mm and
N
top plate of overall size 400 × 600 × 40 mm.
2. Rocker Diameter
Let R = Radius of rocker surface in contact with the flat surface of

bottom plate.
Bridge Engineering
𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝑹𝟐 𝝈𝒖 𝟑
Vertical design load per unit length ≯
𝑬𝟐
Where 𝝈𝒖 = Nominal ultimate tensile strength of material (250

N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
R = radius of rocker spherical surface

E L
P T
E = Modulus of elasticity of material (200 kN/𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
N
Design load per unit length = (1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/𝟔𝟓𝟎 = 1538 N/mm
Hence, 1538 = (𝟏𝟕𝟎 × 𝑹𝟐 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟑 )/ (𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )𝟐
Solving, R = 152 mm
We can provide a radius of 200 mm for the rocker surface.
Bridge Engineering
3. Rocker Pin
Providing 2 rocker pins, the horizontal shear force to be resisted

by each pin (100/2) = 50 kN
E L
If 𝒅 = diameter of rocker pin,
P T
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝟒
× 105 = 50 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 N
𝒅 = 24.6 mm
We can adopt a tapering pin with a top diameter of 25 mm and

bottom diameter of 30 mm and height 55 mm.
Bridge Engineering
4. Thickness of Base Plate
Maximum bending moment about central axis in base plate = (500 ×

𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 100) = 5 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 N-mm.
L
If 𝒕 = thickness of base plate required,
Section Modulus 𝒁 = (𝒃. 𝒕𝟐 /𝟔) = (𝑴⁄𝝈𝒕)

T E
NP
𝟔𝐌 𝟔 × 𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝐭= = = 55.47 mm
𝐛𝛔𝐭 𝟔𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓𝟎
We can provide an overall thickness of 72 mm for the central

portion of the base plate.
Bridge Engineering
5. Check for Bearing Stress
Assuming 50 percent contact area between top and bottom plates,
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
Bearing stress = = 15.38 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 < 185 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
𝟔𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

E L
P T
N
Hence, bearing stresses are within safe permissible limits.
The dimensional details of the rocker bearing is shown in figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example of Steel Rocker-Roller Bearings
Design a steel rocker- roller bearing to transmit a load of 1000 kN

using the following data:
Allowable working load on single and double rollers = 8 N per mm

diameter per mm length.
E L
P T
Permissible shear stress in steel = 105
N
N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Bridge Engineering
1. Bed plate
Vertical reaction = 1000 kN
Area of bed plate = (1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/4 = 25 × 104 𝐦𝐦𝟐

E L
P T
We can provide a bed plate of overall size 400 × 650 × 40 mm and
N
top plate of overall size 400 × 600 × 40 mm.
Bridge Engineering
2. Rocker Pin
Providing 2 rocker pins, the horizontal shear force to be resisted

by each pin (100/2) = 50 kN
E L
If 𝒅 = diameter of rocker pin,
P T
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝟒
× 105 = 50 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 N
𝒅 = 24.6 mm
We can adopt a tapering pin with a top diameter of 25 mm and

bottom diameter of 30 mm and height 55 mm.
Bridge Engineering
3. Thickness of Base Plate
Maximum bending moment about central axis in base plate = (500 ×

𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 100) = 5 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 N-mm.
L
If 𝒕 = thickness of base plate required,
Section Modulus 𝒁 = (𝒃. 𝒕𝟐 /𝟔) = (𝑴⁄𝝈𝒕)

T E
NP
𝟔𝐌 𝟔 × 𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝐭= = = 55.47 mm
𝐛𝛔𝐭 𝟔𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟓𝟎
We can provide an overall thickness of 72 mm for the central

portion of the base plate.
Bridge Engineering
4. Roller Diameter
Assuming two rollers of 200 mm diameter each,

Permissible load = 8 N/mm diameter/mm length
If 𝑳 = Total length of all rollers,
E L
Load taken by rollers = 8 × 𝑳 × Diameter
P T
(1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) = (8 × 𝑳 × 200)
N
Solving 𝑳 = 625 mm
We can use 2 rollers of 400 mm length having a diameter of 200 mm.
A typical cross section of the rocker-roller bearing is shown in

Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example of Reinforced Concrete Rocker Bearings
Design a reinforced concrete rocker bearing to transmit a support

reaction of 600 kN.
Adopt M-30 Grade concrete and Fe-415 grade HYSD bars.
Permissible bearing stress in concrete is 8 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 .
E L
T
Sketch the details of reinforcements in the rocker bearing.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Area of lead sheet over concrete bearing block = (600 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/8 =
75000 𝒎𝒎𝟐 .
Assuming a width of 200 mm,
L
Length of lead sheet = (75000/200) = 375 mm.
T E
We can adopt a lead sheet at the top and bottom of bearing of size
N P
200 mm by 400 mm and concrete block of size 250 mm by 400 mm
with a height of 450 mm.
Total Bursting Tension = (1/3) × Support reaction
= (1/3) × 600 = 200 kN
Bridge Engineering
Reinforcements are provided in the horizontal and vertical

directions.
The rocker is designed as a column for axial loads.
L
The load being small, minimum longitudinal reinforcement of 0.8
E
percent of the cross-sectional area is provided with hoop
T
reinforcement to resisting bursting tension.
𝟎.𝟖 N P
Vertical reinforcement = ( × 250 × 400) = 800 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Using 8 mm diameter bars, Number of bars = (800/50) = 16
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal reinforcement in the form of hoops
𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
= ( ) = 869.56 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟐𝟑𝟎
Using 8 mm diameter bars,
Number of hoops = 0.5 × (869.56/50) = 8.696

E L
P T
N
We can provide 9 hoops of 8 mm diameter in 3 layers and 3 rows
and 20 vertical bars as shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Example of Elastomeric Pad Bearings
Design an elastomeric pad bearing to support Tee beam girder of a

bridge using the following data:
Maximum dead load reaction per bearing = 300 kN
Maximum live load reaction per bearing = 700 kN
E L
T
Longitudinal force due to friction per bearing = 45 kN
P
Effective span of the girder = 16 m
N
Rotation at bearing due to dead and live loads = 0.02 radians
Concrete for Tee beam and bed block = M-20 Grade
Total estimated shear strain due to creep, shrinkage and

temperature = 6 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
Bridge Engineering
1. Selection of Bearing Pad Dimensions
Maximum vertical load on bearing 𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (300 + 700) = 1000 kN
Minimum vertical load 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 300 kN
L
Referring to Table 2, select plan dimensions of bearing pad of size
E
320 mm by 500 mm.
P T
Loaded area 𝑨𝟐 = 16 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝟐
N
𝑨𝟏
According to IRC: 83 Allowable contact pressure = 0.25 𝒇𝒄 J𝑨𝟐
Where 𝑨𝟏 = Concrete bed block area over pier
𝑨𝟐 = Elastomeric pad area
Bridge Engineering
The ratio (𝑨𝟏J𝑨𝟐) is limited to 2.
Allowable contact pressure 𝝈𝒄 = (0.25 × 20 𝟐) = 7.07 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Effective bearing area required = (𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙J𝝈𝒄)
= (1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/7.07

E L
P T
= 14.14 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝟐 < 15 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝟐
Hence, it is safe.
N
Bearing stress 𝜶𝒎= [(1000 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )/ (15 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 )] = 6.67 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Referring to Table 2,
Thickness of individual elastomers layers 𝒉𝒊 = 10 mm
Thickness of outer layer 𝒉𝒆 = 5 mm
Thickness of steel laminates 𝒉𝒔 = 3 mm

E L
Side cover c = 6 mm
P T
N
We can adopt 3 mm laminates with two internal layers.
Total thickness of elastomeric pad 𝒉𝒐= (2𝒉𝒆+ 3𝒉𝒔 + 2𝒉𝒊 ) = [(2 × 5) + (3

× 3) + (2 × 10)] = 39 mm
Bridge Engineering
2. Shape factor
Shape factor =
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐫 (𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬)
𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐮𝐥𝐠𝐞
=
𝟓𝟎𝟎)𝟏𝟐 ×(𝟑𝟐𝟎)𝟏𝟐)
= 9.16
E L
𝟐×𝟏𝟎 ×(𝟓𝟎𝟎]𝟑𝟐𝟎)
P T
Here, 6 < Shape Factor 9.16 < 12. (Hence safe).
3. Shear strain
N
Shear strain due to creep, shrinkage and temperature per bearing =
(0.5 × 6 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒 ) = 3 × 𝟏𝟎)𝟒
Bridge Engineering
Shear strain due to translation per bearing 𝜸𝒅
= Shear strain due to creep, shrinkage and temperature + Shear

strain due to longitudinal strain
L
𝟑 ×𝟏𝟎8𝟒 ×𝟏𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟒𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟑
= + = (0.123 + 0.3) = 0.423 < 0.7
𝟑𝟗 𝟏𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟒
T E
Hence, safe.
4. Permissible rotation N P
𝝈𝒎.𝒎𝒂𝒙= 10 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 (assumed)
Bridge Engineering
Maximum permissible angle rotation of a single internal layer of

elastomer corresponding to 𝝈𝒎.𝒎𝒂𝒙 of 10 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 is given by
𝟎.𝟓 𝝈𝒎.𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝒉𝒊 (𝟎.𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝜶𝒃𝒊.𝒎𝒂𝒙= = = 0.00193 radians
𝒃 𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟖 × 𝟗.𝟏𝟔𝟐
Permissible rotation 𝜶𝒅= 𝜷 𝒏 𝜶𝒃𝒊.𝒎𝒂𝒙

E L
𝜷 = 0.1 𝝈𝒎. = (0.1 × 6.67) = 0.667 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
P T
N = number of internal elastomeric layers = 2 N
Rotation at bearing due to dead and live loads = 0.02 radians
𝜶𝒅 = (0.667 × 2 × 0.00193) = 0.0026 > 0.002
Hence, safe.
Bridge Engineering
5. Friction
Shear strain computed = 0.423
Under critical loading conditions,
Shear strain ≤ 0.2 + 0.1 𝝈𝒎.

E L
≤ 0.2 + (0.1 × 6.67)
P T
≤ 0.867 > 0.423 N
Hence, safe.
Bridge Engineering
6. Total Shear stress
Shear stress due to compression = 1.5 (𝝈𝒎/s)
= 1.5 × (6.67/9.16)
= 1.09 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
E L
P T
Shear stress due to horizontal deformation 𝝉𝒓 = 𝜸𝒅 = 0.423 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
as per computation due to translation.
N
Shear stress due to rotation = 0.5(𝐛/ 𝒉𝒊 )𝟐 𝜶𝒃𝒊
= 0.5 × (𝟑𝟎𝟖/ 𝟏𝟎)𝟐 × 0.00193
= 0.915 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Total Shear stress = (1.09 + 0.423 + 0.915) = 2.428 N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 < 5

N/𝐦𝐦𝟐 .
Hence, safe.
L
We can adopt an elastomeric pad bearing with overall dimensions
E
of 320 mm by 500 mm with a total thickness of 39 mm having two
T
N P
internal elastomeric layers of 10 mm thickness and three steel
laminates of thickness 3 mm, having bottom and top covers of 5
mm.
The designed elastomeric pad bearing is shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 30: Bridge Joints
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Joints
E L
P T
N
Ø Construction Joints
Ø Expansion Joints
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Joints
Ø Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The joint is the weakest and most vulnerable area in bridge

design.
• Unless properly designed, the distress at bridge joints will lead

to many maintenance problems, ranging from spalling of
E L
concrete edges at the joint to deterioration of pier caps.
•
P T
With the extremely high density of traffic occurring on most
N
major bridges, maintenance work on the bridge should be
restricted to a minimum length of time.
• Hence, the joints on a bridge should be so designed as to

perform satisfactorily for a long time without requiring repair or
replacement.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Joints
Ø Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Types of Joints
• Generally joints in bridges are classified as
(a) Construction Joints and
(b) Expansion and Contraction Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Joints
Ø Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Construction Joints
• Construction joint is necessary in bridges whenever the

placement of concrete has to be stopped temporarily before the
completion of the entire monolithic portion under construction.
• Such temporary suspension of concrete placement may
E L
sometimes be unexpected, if it is due to failure of machinery
such as concrete mixer, vibrator, etc.
P T
• N
But often, it may be scheduled to facilitate addition of
reinforcements for a top portion, as in the case of the stem of a
retaining wall.
Bridge Engineering
Construction Joints
• When foundations of adjacent parts of the structure are at

different levels, as in case of the junction between the abutment
and the wing wall, a construction joint should be provided.
• Construction joints should be positioned to minimize the effects
E L
of discontinuity on the durability, structural integrity and
appearance of structure.
P T
• N
Joints should be located away from regions of maximum stress
caused by loading, particularly where shear and bond stresses
are high.
Bridge Engineering
Construction Joints
• Construction joints are generally either vertical or horizontal.

They are generally provided at the locations of minimum shear
and are aligned perpendicular to the principal lines of stress.
• Shear keys in construction joints should be constructed in

working site plans.
E L
•
P T
Before resuming day’s work, the joints are roughened and
N
prepared for the next pour of concrete in accordance with the
standard specifications.
• The joints are provided to allow free translation, deflection and

rotation of the structure at the edges without damage or
inconveniences to the traffic.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Types of Joints
Ø Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Expansion joints and contraction joints are provided to take

care of deformations due to change in the temperature.
• The difference between the two types in the depth of the joint
and also in the width.
•
E L
Contraction joints, where provided, will be only for a part of the
P T
depth of the slab and will often be of smaller width.
• N
Expansion joints will be for the full depth of the member.
• An expansion joint implicitly also refers to a contraction joint.

Hence it is more rational to designate it as a movement joint.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
Purposes behind providing expansion joints and contraction joints

are:
1) Differential shrinkage of concrete
L
2) Creep or Inelastic deformations
3) Thermal expansion and contraction

T E
N P
4) Elastic shortening of concrete due to prestress
5) Displacement of structure under load or any other action
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Expansion joints are important structural elements in any type

of road bridge.
• They accommodate the relative movements of the bridge

elements, especially those due to concrete shrinkage, change in
temperature and long term creep.
E L
•
P T
Located at the road level, the expansion joints are subject to the
N
impact and vibration due to wheel loads and are exposed to the
effects of water, dust, petroleum derivatives and salt solutions.
• By virtue of their function, expansion joints form a source of

weakness in the performance of the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Leakage of water from the deck at the joints have in the past led
to deterioration of bearings and substructure.
• The expansion joints should be robust, durable, watertight and

replaceable, besides facilitating good riding quality.
•
E L
Satisfactory long-term performance and durability of expansion
P T
joint systems require diligent design, quality fabrication,
N
competent construction, adequate inspection and meticulous
maintenance.
• However, a fully satisfactory expansion joint has not been

evolved yet.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• The expansion joint and the bearings should be designed

together to be compatible.
• The designers have the tendency to attempt sophisticated

techniques of structural analysis and design of superstructure
E L
while they would be quite oblivious of the seriousness of the
P
correct design of the expansion joints.
T
• N
Thus even in prestressed concrete bridges of advanced design,
expansion joints have been unsatisfactory.
• Another aspect of bridge design on which very little attention

has been devoted by designers in the past is the joint seal.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• The surface of the deck expansion joint should be made as

watertight as possible.
• The sealing system is particularly important in case of medium

and long span bridges.
•
E L
Trouble-free lifetime performance and durability of expansion
P T
joint systems depend on the application of appropriate design,
N
high-quality fabrication, correct construction practices,
systematic inspection and proper maintenance.
• The different types of expansion joints and their suitability for

adoption are listed in Table 1.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
Table 1 Suitability Criteria for Different Types of Expansion Joints
Sl Expected Service
Type of Joint Suitability Special Considerations
no Life, Years
Simply supported spans Only for decks with bituminous/
1 Buried Joint 10
with movement up to 10 mm asphaltic wearing course
L
Simply supported spans Joint filler may need replacement if
E
2 Filler Joint 10
with movement up to 10 mm found damaged
3
Single Strip
Seal Joint
Movement up to 80 mm 25
P T Elastomeric seal may need

replacement during service life
4
Modular Strip/
Box Seal Joint
Movement over 80 mm 25
N Elastomeric seal may need
replacement during service life
Not suitable for joints involving

Movement between 80 mm
5 Finger Joints 25 differential vertical movements. Joint
and 200 mm
requires sound anchorage with deck
Joints in high seismic zones. Special

Movement between 80 mm
6 Special Joints 25 design to accommodate large
and 200 mm
longitudinal movements.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Since many of the available joint systems are proprietary, the

shape, dimensions and orientation of the various components
shown in the figures are to be taken as indicative for
educational purposes.
•
E L
Guidelines and specifications for expansion joints are available
in IRC: SP: 69-2005.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• A simple expansion joint, known as buried joint, may be used to

cater for small movements associated with simply supported
spans up to 10 m.
• Here the width of the joint gap is kept at 20 mm.
•
E L
A steel plate 200 mm wide and 12 mm thick of wieldable
P T
structural steel as per IS:2062 is placed symmetrical to the
N
centreline of the joint to bridge the gap resting freely over the
top surface of the deck concrete.
• Bituminous/asphaltic wearing course is laid continuous over the

steel plate. The emphasis is on securing a good riding quality
over the joint.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• For highway bridges of spans up to about 10 m, the expansion

joint known as the filler joint may also be used.
• This joint is 20 m wide, with details as shown in Figure.
L
• A copper sheet 2 mm thick is bent to form a bulb in the middle
E
with a plan width of 220 mm and laid integral with the deck slab
T
and adjoining deck slab/ approach slab.
N P
• The gap above this sheet is filled with a premoulded resilient
joint filler. This arrangement would allow movement up to 10
mm.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• For medium spans, when the movement is of the order of 40 to

50 mm, an expansion joint consisting of mild steel angles and
plates as shown in Figure can be adopted.
• The details shown are suitable for composite girder bridge of

about 27 m span.
E L
•
P T
In tropical climates, this type of joint seldom functions properly
due to corrosion. N
• It is also difficult to seat the sliding plate accurately on the
mating plate throughout the width of the carriageway.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Based on observation of performance in the field, this type of

joint should not be used for mid span joint of a prestressed
concrete cantilever bridge.
• Use of this type of joint in even T-beam bridges in coastal areas

should be with caution.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• A modern solution for expansion joints for movement up to 80

mm, known as the single strip seal joint, is shown in Figure.
• The joint device consists of continuous, flexible, extruded

neoprene seal held in place by steel extrusions which are
E L
anchored either to the steel supports or directly to the concrete
deck.
P T
• N
Satisfactory performance of the joint is governed by the correct
setting of the expansion gap with reference to the theoretical
requirement at a specified reference temperature, corrected for
the actual temperature prevailing at the time of concrete
placement.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Further, the installation of the joint should ensure that the rating
of the seal is consistent with the expansion gap.
• Accumulation of debris above the seal during service should be

avoided as it can lead to transfer of wheel loads to the seal
resulting in premature failure of the joint.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Finger plate expansion joints, as shown in figure, are used in

bridges to cater to large movements of 80 to 200 mm.
• In this type, a series of interlocking fingers are provided.
L
• The fingers have been made prismatic with rectangular cross-
E
section and square ends at the free ends for convenience in
T
manufacture.
N P
• While these joints should function well under ideal conditions,
there is potential difficulty due to slight rotation of the decks on
both sides.
• Also this type is unsatisfactory with regard to the water

tightness criteria.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Special joints have to be designed in case of long span bridges,

bridges in high seismic zones under conditions requiring very
large longitudinal movement, high transverse movement and
vertical movement.
•
E L
For example, a maximum movement of 2.85 m had to be
P T
accommodated in the suspension bridge over Tagus with
N
modular units splitting movement and dilations into tolerable
widths and using neoprene joint seals.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are required to be strong enough to withstand the

knocking of wheels of vehicles passing over the bridge deck.
The modern trend is to adopt an elastomeric (neoprene) compression

seals for the expansion joints in bridge decks.
E L
There are different types of standard compression seals. Single
P T
compression seal is used for small movements and novel modular
N
joint system using several seals is preferred to accommodate larger
movements.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Standard Compression Seals
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
An effective joint sealing system for a long span bridge must satisfy
the following performance criteria.
(i) It must have the capability to successfully respond to any

combination of the many types of movement that might occur on a
L
particular bridge, e.g. straight distance change between the joint
E
T
interfaces, racking distortion from the many variations of skews,
P
N
horizontal, angular, vertical and articulation motion patterns,
differential vibration of slab ends, impact and warping.
(ii) It must seal out the entry of all foreign material with a potential for
producing restraint. It should guarantee that bearing seats, pier caps
and bends so not receive accumulations of these materials along with
chemicals deleterious to the performance life of steel or concrete.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
(iii) It must seal out the entry of free water.
(iv) It must capable of absorbing the various types and ranges of

movement within itself without being extruded above or expelled from
the joint opening.
E L
(v) With respect to the riding surface of the sealing system, it must be
P T
constructed of materials which have a capability to withstand wear
N
and impact from repetitive and heavy traffic loadings, besides
durability against petroleum products, and weather.
(vi) It should have a long service life. Ideally equal to the life of the
bridge. Short lived sealing solutions should have provision for simple
and easy replacement with minimum cost.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
Typical sources of joint movement that occur on bridges are listed

below:
(i) Straight thermal movement, i.e. the change in longitudinal distance

between adjacent slab ends or joint interfaces. As a guide for
E L
estimation, this movement can be taken approximately as 1 mm per m
in a temperature gap of 50 degree centigrade.
P T
N
(ii) Racking movements of skewed joints, magnitude and complexity
varying with the angle of skew.
(iii) Progressively closing or opening joints.
(iv) Vibratory movement form traffic loadings.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
(v) Slab end rotation, which may be temporary due to heavy traffic
loading at mid span or permanent due to progressive increase in dead
load calculation.
(vi) Articulating movements.
E L
Whether the movement at a joint is as small as 25 mm in the case of a
P T
simply supported T-beam bridge of 20 m span or large as 1.8 m, the
N
movement must be accounted for in the design of the joint and
sealing system with an additional provision for some margin of safety.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• Prefabricated modular compression sealing was adapted in the

design of expansion joints to cater horizontal movement over 80
mm.
• The modular expansion joints are complex structural systems
E L
which provide watertight wheel load transfer across expansion
P T
joint openings. Several systems of modular joints are available.
• N
A typical four-module expansion joint is shown schematically in
Figure.
• The modular joint consists of four main components: two edge

beams, mechanically locked elastomeric seals, centre beams (for
seals) and support bars (for centre beams).
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• The seals can be of strip type or extruded webbed box type.
• The centre beams are extruded metal shapes to facilitate assembly

of the seals in series, and these are supported by independent
multiple support bars, which are welded to the centre beams.
•
E L
The support bars are suspended over the joint openings by sliding
P T
elastomeric bearings mounted within support boxes, which rest on
N
cast-in-place concrete installed into a preformed block out.
• Resilient or shock absorbing support system for the centre beams

and the support bars facilitate damping the dynamic loading and
also serve to accommodate vertical and transverse movements
apart from longitudinal movement.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• An equidistance control system is incorporated in the design

ensures equal distribution of the movement among the various
seals.
• The completed expansion joint should be continuous across the

full width of the bridge.
E L
•
P T
The joint for a bridge is prefabricated at a factory with strict quality
control. N
• The dimensional details of the expansion joint for any particular
bridge are to be obtained from the specialist manufactures of the
joint.
Bridge Engineering
Expansion Joints
• In Europe and in North America, leakage of deicing salt through the

deck expansion joint causes spalling of concrete surrounding the
joint and corrosion of reinforcing bars and prestressing tendons in
the deck, besides deterioration of the underling piers.
•
E L
Modern designs of multi-span bridges in these countries tend to
P T
minimize the number of joints by favouring continuity and to
N
discourage suspended decks of balanced cantilever bridges.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Lecture 31: Bridge Appurtenances
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
E L
P T
N
Ø Footpaths
Ø Drainage Arrangements
Ø Wearing Course
Ø Approach Slab
Ø River Training Works

Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• An appurtenance, in the context of a bridge, is any part of a

bridge or bridge site which is not a major structural
component, but still performs a useful function towards the
performance of the bridge.
•
E L
The major appurtenances include: handrails, parapets,
T
footpaths on bridges, drainage sprouts, wearing course over
P
N
the deck, river training works, embankments for approaches,
approach slab and crash barriers.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• Parapets and handrails are provided on bridges as a protective

measure to keep bridge users from failing to the depth over the
sides of the bridge.
• While parapet walls would be adequate for culverts and small
E L
bridges, handrails are adopted for longer bridges.
•
P T
Since these are the parts prominently visible in the
N
neighbourhood, the design should be such as to enhance the
aesthetics of the bridge.
• Depending on the situations, the handrails can be either of the

post and rail system or panel slab and post system.
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• The post and rail system can be of steel or reinforced concrete.

Different designs are possible.
• Typical details of post and rail system of handrails in

reinforced concrete for a highway bridge are shown in figure.
•
E L
The posts are spaced at suitable intervals of less than 1.8 m
and cast monolithic with the kerb.
P T
• N
The rails are of rectangular shape and are precast.
• R.C railings are vulnerable for corrosion damages. Hence their

construction should be done with utmost care.
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• Reinforcements of the posts should be suitably anchored in

the deck slab.
• The post in cast in a single placement operation after

accurately positioning the precast handrail.
•
E L
One end of the handrail is fixed and the other end is freely
supported as shown in figure.
P T
• N
Considerable research has been undertaken in developed
countries to evolve a handrail system which would be strong to
prevent a colliding vehicle from falling over to the valley.
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• Handrail should be resilient enough to absorb energy of the

impact with minimum damage to the vehicle and minimum
injury to the occupants of the vehicle.
• The design of the kerb is also attempted to be made in such a
E L
way that on hitting a kerb the vehicle will be deflected to move
parallel to the road.
P T
• N
Crash barriers with cold formed steel sections supported at
intervals by short steel pedestals anchored by bolts cast with
the deck are used at the kerbs.
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• The footpath is beyond the crash barrier. Hence, in these cases

light attractive handrail systems with extruded aluminium
sections areadopted.
• In the case of submersible bridges, handrails, if provided,
E L
should be collapsible during floods, so as to minimise
T
obstruction to flow of water and passage of floating debris.
P
• N
It is, however, preferable to provide perforated kerbs along with
diamond shaped guide posts as shown in Figure.
• It would be often desirable to provide handrails for approaches

to a bridge, especially if the approaches are on high
embankments or on a curve.
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Handrails
• The design, layout and materials chosen

for the rails should blend with the
surroundings.
• The posts may be erected on lean

concrete blocks cast at site.
E L
• Typical details of such an arrangement
P T
are shown in figure. N
• If reflectors are fixed to the posts, the
safety for the vehicles on the approaches
will be considerably enhanced and the
rails shown in figure may be omitted.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
Footpaths
• In view of the large number of pedestrians using the roads, it is

desirable to provide footpath on either side on all bridges in the
interest of road safety.
• The width of footpath should be a minimum of 1.5 m. The width

may be increased on bridges in urban areas.
E L
•
P T
The footpath width may also be utilised to carry public utilities
N
such as telephone cables and power cables through 150 mm
ducts provided in the footpath.
• Water/ sewerage pipes are not to be carried over any part of the
superstructure.
Bridge Engineering
Footpaths
• Acceptable designs for the footpath for concrete slab bridge

and for girder bridge are shown in Figure along with details of
reinforcement.
• Precast slabs provided at the top of the footpath to cover the
E L
duct are often found to have unsatisfactory performance in
P T
service with regard to level and durability.
• N
An alternate design has been proposed recently, in which the
footpath is formed by filling the space between the road edge
kerb and the bridge kerb with concrete.
• Three 150 mm diameter pipes are embedded in the concrete to

convey the utility cables.
Bridge Engineering
Footpaths
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Footpaths
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Footpaths
• Three 150 mm diameter pipes are embedded in the concrete to

convey the utility cables.
• Inspection chambers are provided at suitable intervals.
L
• This design permits the provision of chequered tiles on the
footpath in urban areas.
T E
N P
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
Drainage Arrangements
• Adequate arrangements should be provided for proper drainage

of rain water from the bridge deck in order to ensure good
durability.
• For this purpose, drainage spout with grating as indicated in
E L
Figure should be provided at spacing not more than 10 m apart.
•
P T
The drainage spout should be galvanized after welding the
plates and flats together. N
• Such spouts should be extended well below the soffit of the
deck structure to avoid damage to concrete due to spray of salt-
laden water.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Care should be taken in design to ensure that drains do not

discharge on the bridge elements or on traffic passing below the
structure in case of a road overbridge.
• External piping down the sides of the deck to the piers may look
ugly.
E L
•
P T
It may be desirable to use concealed internal lateral connecting
N
drains from kerb gullies to drains in concealed slots in piers.
• By effective maintenance inspection, the drains should be kept

free debris so that the drains function properly.
Bridge Engineering
• Inadequate deck drainage may lead to ponding of water and

hydroplaning of vehicles, leading to traffic safety hazards
besides deterioration of the deck surface.
• A drip groove 25 mm deep is located at the bottom of the deck
E L
slab at about 160 mm from the fascia parallel to the roadway to
P T
prevent rain water from flowing down from fascia to the beams.
• N
This groove should be stopped 900 mm from the face of the
abutment to prevent moisture accumulating on the bed block
over the abutment.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
Wearing Course
• A wearing course (sometimes referred as wearing coat) is

provided over concrete bridge decks to protect the structural
concrete from the direct wearing effects of traffic and also to
provide the cross camber required for surface drainage.
•
E L
The wearing course may be of asphaltic concrete or cement
concrete.
P T
• N
Asphaltic concrete wearing course is currently the preferred
option as this permits the use of buried expansion joint for short
spans facilitating a smooth transition between the bridge and
the approaches for the riding surface.
Bridge Engineering
Wearing Course
• The thickness of the wearing course is kept uniform and the top
of the deck slab is adjusted to facilitate the cross camber for
surface drainage.
(a) Asphaltic Concrete Wearing Course:
E L
Asphaltic wearing course of 56 mm uniform thickness is desirable
P T
when the road pavement on the approach on either side of the
bridge is of asphaltic concrete. N
Bridge Engineering
Wearing Course
The wearing course consists of the following:
(i) A coat of mastic asphalt 6 mm thick with a prime coat over the
deck slab;
L
(ii) 50 mm thick asphaltic concrete wearing course in two layers of
25 mm each.
T E
(b) Cement Concrete Wearing Course:
N P
Cement concrete wearing course of 75 mm uniform thickness in
M30 concrete over concrete deck slab may be adopted in case of
isolated bridges where use of asphaltic concrete is inconvenient.
Bridge Engineering
Wearing Course
• The wearing course should be reinforced with 6 ∅ 200 in both

directions where the deck slab is in compression and with 6 ∅
100 in both directions where the deck slab is in tension.
• The reinforcement is placed at the middle of the wearing course.
E L
The free ends of the reinforcement at panel joints should be
P T
bent down to protect the ends of the joints.
• N
The cement concrete wearing course should be laid in two
longitudinal strips with casting of alternate panels of equal
length in each strip.
Bridge Engineering
Wearing Course
• The joints of the panels in the two strips shall be staggered.
• While concreting the left out panels, bituminous papers will be

placed at the joints with the previously placed panels in order to
get a separation between the panels.
•
E L
Shuttering will have to be provided at the free ends for ensuring
P T
vertical face and also to attain good compaction.
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
Approach Slab
• A reinforced concrete approach slab is usually provided on

either side of a concrete bridge to function as a smooth
transition between the paved roadway and the riding surface of
the bridge.
•
E L
The slab serves to minimize bumps to traffic and the resulting
P T
impact to abutment due to potential differential settlement
•
N
between the approach embankment and the abutment.
The slab should cover the full width of the roadway and should
extend for a length of not less than 3.5 m into approach.
• The top of the approach slab should conform to the cross

profile of the top of the deck slab.
Bridge Engineering
Approach Slab
• The slab has minimum thickness of 300 mm at the ends with the
maximum thickness adjusted to suit the cross camber.
• Typical details of the approach slabs for the case of bridge

without footpaths and for the case of bridge with footpaths are
shown in Figure.
E L
•
P T
It may be noted that the approach slab is a heavily reinforced
N
slab having reinforcement 12 ∅ 150 both ways at top and at
bottom.
Bridge Engineering
Approach Slab
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø General Features
Ø Handrails
Ø Footpaths
E L
Ø Wearing Course
P T
Ø Approach Slab N
Bridge Engineering
River Training Works
• In case of major bridges across wide rivers, river training works

such as guide bunds, spurs and approach road protection
works may sometimes be required.
• Guide bunds are provided to channel the flow of flood waters in
E L
the river towards the ventway of the bridge and to afford
P T
protection to the road embankment from flange attack during
•
floods.
N
Spurs are provided for training the river along a desired course
attracting, deflecting or repelling the flow a channel.
• Approach embankments may require protection of slopes by

pitching along the slopes and a short apron at the bed level.
Bridge Engineering
• Detailed guidelines for the design and construction of river

training works are available IRC: 89.
• Guide bunds can be straight or elliptical with circular head and

tail.
•
E L
Typical details of an elliptical bund are shown in Figure.
P T
•
N
Elliptical bund results in more uniform flow through the bridge
as compared to straight guide bund.
• The ratio of major to minor axis is generally kept between 2.0 to

3.5.
Bridge Engineering
• The length of the guide bund is usually 1.0 to 1.25 L on the

upstream side and about 0.2 L on the downstream side, where L
is the length of the bridge.
• The pitching on the river side should be made with stones

having minimum weight 0.4 kN.
E L
•
P T
The thickness of pitching is computed from the equation below.
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝑸𝟎.𝟑𝟑 N
Where t = thickness of pitching in m.
Q = design discharge in m3/s.
Bridge Engineering
• The thickness of stone pitching computed as above is checked

to be between 0.3 m and 1.0 m.
• A filter is provided under the slope pitching to prevent the

escape of embankment material through the voids in the
pitching.
E L
•
P T
An apron (known as launching apron) is provided at the toe of
N
the river side slope for the protection of the toe.
• The size of the stone should be such as to resist the mean

design velocity as given in equation.
𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Bridge Engineering
• The thickness of stone pitching computed as above is checked

to be between 0.3 m and 1.0 m.
• A filter is provided under the slope pitching to prevent the

escape of embankment material through the voids in the
pitching.
E L
•
P T
An apron (known as launching apron) is provided at the toe of
N
the river side slope for the protection of the toe.
• The size of the stone should be such as to resist the mean

design velocity as given in equation.
𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Bridge Engineering
Where d = diameter of stone in m.
V = mean design velocity in m/s.
• The minimum weight of stone used for apron is 0.4 kN.
•
L
The width of launching apron is generally taken as 1.5 d, where
E
T
d is the maximum anticipated scour depth below the bed level.
P
•
N
The thickness of the apron is kept at 1.5 t at the inner end and at
2.25 t at the outer end, as shown in Figure.
• River training works involve heavy investment and may be cost

effective only for bridges across wide rivers.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• River training works should be adopted only after careful

studies on their technical feasibility and economic feasibility.
• After completion of the works, proper periodical inspection

should be ensured to facilitate timely remedial action in case of
distress.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
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Module 11: Construction, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Bridges

Lecture 32: Bridge Construction
Ø Introduction
Ø Construction Materials
E L
P T
N
Ø Construction Techniques
Ø Formwork and Falsework
Ø Quality Assurance
Ø Economical Span and Configurations
Ø Comparative Cost Analysis

Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Construction of a major bridge structure comprises multiple

functions like planning of labour, materials, machinery, finance
and constant supervision to complete the bridge project within
a specified target period utilizing optimally the available
resources.
E L
•
T
The modern approach in construction management involves
P
N
several diverse functionaries like structural designers,
estimators, construction engineers, field supervisors, financial
managers, etc. working under professional managers.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
Construction management functions include following major

activities.
• Tendering and winning the contract for the bridge project
• Contract negotiations
E L
• Developing liaison with clients
P T
•
N
Mobilizing financial resources for the project
• Work planning
• Supervision of work
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Controlling and monitoring the progress of the project
• Maintenance of good labour relations
• Maintenance of proper accounts
• Engineering and completion of the project

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Major project controlling and monitoring techniques like

Critical Path Method (CPM) and Project evaluation and Review
Techniques (PERT) are widely used.
• With advent of high speed computers, data processing,
E L
preparation of working drawings, work scheduling, material
T
and labour management, controlling the various activities of
P
N
the project and updating tasks have been simplified and these
works can be efficiently handled with less paper work.
• Additionally, optimization techniques involving linear and

nonlinear methods have also contributed to optimal solutions
with considerable savings in overall cost of the project.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The final cost of a bridge is the sum of the cost of the

permanent materials, the proportionate cost to the project of
plant and temporary works and the cost of labour.
• The cost of permanent materials can be estimated reasonably

correctly.
E L
•
P T
With experience, a bridge contractor can deal competently with
N
the cost of plant and temporary works.
• But the labour cost does not lend itself to exact analysis.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Recent competitive designs have attempted to introduce

innovations in construction methods with a view to effect
economy in the cost on labour by reducing temporary works
and by minimizing the duration of the site work.
•
E
The suitable techniques of construction of bridge
L
T
superstructure will vary from site to site and will depend on the
P
N
spans and length of the bridge, type of bridge, materials used
and site conditions.
• For instance, cast in-situ concrete construction could be

adopted for short spans up to 40 m, if the river bed is dry for a
considerable portion of the year.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Free cantilever construction with prestressed concrete decking

would be appropriate for long span bridges crossing rivers
with navigational requirements.
• The current trend is towards the avoidance of staging as much
E L
as possible and to use precast or prefabricated components to
the maximum extent.
P T
• N
Construction machinery, such as cranes and launching girders
are getting wide usage.
• In case of bridges across wide rivers, considerable savings in

construction cost can be achieved by innovative use of barge
mounted cranes for erection of one span at a time.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Construction Materials
• The primary materials widely used for the construction of

modern bridges comprise of high performance concrete, high
strength concrete, high yielding strength deformed (HYSD)
reinforcement bars, high tensile wires, strands and cables for
prestressed concrete bridge decks.
E L
•
T
High performance concrete grade for reinforced concrete
P
N
bridges according to IRC 112: 2011 is specified as M30 and M35
for moderate and severe exposure conditions respectively
when used with prestressed concrete or those with length
exceeding 60 m.
Bridge Engineering
• For culverts and other minor constructions, the grade of

concrete can be reduced to M20 and M25 for moderate and
severe exposure conditions respectively.
• For prestressed concrete members, the minimum grade of
E L
concrete specified according to IS 1343: 2012 is M35 and M40
T
for moderate and severe exposure conditions respectively.
P
• N
Design mix concrete should be used to ensure the desired
strength and durability. Design of concrete mixes for specified
strength, workability and durability using the locally available
cements, fine and coarse aggregates must be performed.
Bridge Engineering
• Weigh batching and machine mixing are essential to produce

high performance concrete of uniform quality.
• Several types of admixtures are available to improve the

workability of concrete without increasing the water/cement
E L
ratio which adversely affects the strength of concrete.
•
P T
Bridge deck concrete deposited in slabs and beams should be
N
compacted by mechanical vibration using vibrators with
frequencies in the range of at least 3200 to 3600 cycles per
minute which ensures good compaction.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Construction Techniques
Cantilever Method
Staging Method
E L
P T
N
Progressive Placement Method
Incremental Launching or Push Out Method
Bridge Engineering
Cantilever Construction Techniques
• Cantilever construction is a novel method of progressively

constructing a cantilever in segments and stitching them to the
previously completed segments by prestressing.
• The cantilever segmental construction generally starts from a
E L
pier extending in both sides. This method eliminates use of
P T
expensive formwork and scaffolding resulting in faster rate of
•
N
work progress coupled with overall economy.
The cantilever construction method is classified into two

groups, a) Cast in-situ Construction and b) Construction using
Precast Segments.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cast in-situ Construction:
• In the cast-in-situ method of construction, the piers of the

bridge are first constructed and the bridge deck is cast-in-situ
with units of 2.5 to 3 m length cantilevering symmetrically on
either side of the pier.
E L
•
P T
The form work for cast-in-situ construction is supported by steel
N
frame work attached to the completed part of the bridge deck.
• The form work is moved progressively from one completed

section to the next part.
Bridge Engineering
Cast in-situ Construction:
• The in-situ construction is done by a pair of travelling gantries,

each weighing about 40 t for casting 2.5-3 m segments of a two
lane bridge deck.
•
E L
The gantry systems proceed in a systematic manner from
P T
section to section on either side of the pier after the
N
prestressing of the segment last cast.
• The gantry system also supports a suspended scaffolding for

constructional convenience and workers safety.
Bridge Engineering
Construction using Precast Segments:
• When long span bridges have to be constructed using the

cantilever construction, it is more advantageous and
economical to adopt precast segmental construction in
preference to the cast in-situ method.
E L
•
P T
In this method, the bridge segments comprising single cell or
N
multi-cell box girders are match cast in a casting yard in the
vicinity of the bridge site by using special forms and the cured
units are transported to the work site.
Bridge Engineering
• The precast segments are placed in position by means of a

mobile launching girder or when access under the bridge is
possible with barges or trucks, using a crane or a mobile hoist
located at the extremity of the cantilevers.
E L
•
P T
The primary advantage of the precast segmental construction is
N
that the units can be cast on ground near the bridge site well in
advance and the quality of units are superior to those in the cast
in-situ method.
Bridge Engineering
• The fully cured segments can be transported to the site by

means of heavy duty trucks and lifted by cranes to join them to
the previously erected units by using temporary stressing
cables.
E L
•
P T
The rate of progress achieved in this method is faster compared
to the cast in-situ method. N
• In both the methods, a typical cross-section would be a box
girder of constant or variable depth to suit the longitudinal
profile of the bridge deck.
Bridge Engineering
Staging Method of Construction
• Staging method involves construction of superstructure in one

direction, span by span by means of a supporting traveller.
• In case of long structures with relatively shorter spans, span by

span construction of bridge deck is advantageous in terms of
speed of construction and economy.
E L
•
P T
The form carrier in effect provides a type of factory operation
transplanted to the job site. N
• The traveller may be supported on the piers or from the edges of
the previously constructed at the joint location and the forward
pier.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Staging method of span by span construction has a great

potential for construction of trestle type structures in terms of
speed of construction and economy.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Progressive Placement Method of Construction
• In progressive placement method of construction, the precast

elements are placed from one end of the structure to the other in
successive cantilevers on the same side of the various piers,
rather than by balanced cantilevers on each side of the pier.
•
E L
The main feature of this method comprises a moveable
P T
temporary stay arrangement to limit the cantilever stresses to a
•
N
reasonable level during construction.
This method is found suitable, practical and economical in the

span range of 30-90 m.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Precast segments are transported over the completed portion of

the deck to the tip of the cantilever span under construction,
when they are positioned by a swivel crane that proceeds from
one segment to the next.
•
E L
The segments are held in position by temporary external ties
P T
and by two stays passing through a tower located over the
•
preceeding pier.
N
The stays are anchored to the top flanges of the box girder
segments so that the tension in the stays can be adjusted by
light jacks.
Bridge Engineering
Incremental Launching Method of Construction
• In incremental launching or push out method of construction,

precast segments of the bridge deck are cast near the site in the
lengths of 10-30 m in stationery forms located behind the
abutments.
•
E L
Each unit is cast directly against the previous unit.
•
P T
After sufficient concrete strength is achieved, the new unit is
N
post-tensioned to the previous one by post-tensioning.
• The assembly of units is pushed forward in a stepwise manner

to permit casting of the successive segments.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Normally, a work cycle of one week is required to cast and

launch a segment regardless of its length.
• To allow the deck to move forward, special low friction sliding

bearings are provided at the top of various piers with proper
lateral guides.
E L
•
P T
The main problem is to ensure the safety of stresses in the
N
super structure under its own self weight during all stages of
launching at various critical sections.
• To achieve this criterion, the first stage prestress is applied

concentrically to the whole cross-section and in successive
increments over the entire length of the super structure.
Bridge Engineering
• A fabricated structural steel launching nose is attached to the

lead segment to reduce the large negative bending moments
developed in the front portion (particularly just before the
superstructure reaches a new pier).
•
E L
If the spans are large, they can be sub-divided by temporary
P T
piers to control the magnitude of bending moments within the
safe limits.
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Formwork and Falsework
• Formwork is the mould required to cast concrete to a desired

shape.
• It is used to retain plastic concrete until the concrete has

hardened.
•
E L
It is designed to resist the fluid pressure of plastic concrete and
additional pressure caused by vibrators.
P T
• N
It can be removed when the concrete hardens.
• Formwork may be constructed out of timber or steel plates.
Bridge Engineering
• The total temporary structure system including formwork

required to support concrete construction for the permanent
structure until it becomes self-supporting is known as
falsework.
•
E L
Scaffolding denotes any temporary elevated platform and its
P T
supporting structure used for supporting workmen and
•
materials during construction.
N
Scaffolding may be constructed of sawn timber, wooden poles
(e.g. casurina) or steel or aluminium tubes.
• Guidelines for the design and erection of false work are

contained in IRC: 87.
Bridge Engineering
• The economical design and construction of formwork is

essential for the efficient execution of concrete bridges.
• The appearance of the finished structure is mainly dependent

on the quality of formwork.
•
E L
While great care is bestowed on the design calculations for the
P T
permanent structure, relatively scant attention is being paid to
N
the design and erection of formwork and falsework.
• Detailed calculations for all temporary works are required to be

submitted by the designer/ contractor prior to commencement
of work for approval by the engineer-in-charge of the work.
Bridge Engineering
• The formwork for a concrete structure involves three distinct

operations: manufacturing, erection and stripping.
• Each of these operations should be given careful consideration

to achieve satisfactory results.
•
E L
Proper coordination and communication among the design,
P T
construction and supervision agencies should be ensured in
respect of all aspects of formwork. N
• Timber forms are usually manufactured in the carpentry shop at
the bridge site.
• Steel forms are best fabricated in a factory to close tolerances

to ensure interchangeability.
Bridge Engineering
• Special care should be given to the sequence of erection.
• The forms are erected first approximately to line and level; then
they are correctly aligned, levelled with wedges and kept firmly
intact by tightening the braces and ties.
•
E L
The forms should be leak proof, as leaky forms result in
honeycombed concrete.
P T
• N
Stripping should be done carefully to avoid injury to concrete or
damage to the forms.
• Soon after stripping, the forms should be cleaned, oiled and

stored for re-erection.
Bridge Engineering
• The form bolts, nuts and washers should be cleaned and kept in
buckets for reuse.
• Wedges should be cleaned and stacked.
L
• Proper organisation of stripping operations would lead to
reduction of wastage.
T E
•
N P
Inspection of formwork just prior to and during concreting is
very important.
• Prior to concreting, the formwork should be inspected by a

competent engineer capable of quickly assessing the adequacy
of the forms, and trained to detect the inadvertent omissions of
tie wires, bolts and brace tightening.
Bridge Engineering
• The lines must be true; and bulges and sags must be prevented.
• During concreting, it is good practice to detail an experienced

carpenter to watch the forms, tighten the braces and be on the
alert for any emergency.
•
E L
The time interval between casting and removal of forms
P T
depends on many conditions, including the ambient
N
temperature of the air, the setting time for the cement used,
nature of stresses induced in the member and span.
Bridge Engineering
• For normal guidance, the following may be taken as the

minimum time for removal of shuttering with ordinary Portland
cement concrete and normal curing under normal weather.
Days
Beam sides, walls, columns (unloaded) 2

E L
P T
Slabs (props left under)
Removal of props to slabs

N 3
14
Beam soffits (props left under) 7
Removal of props to beams 21
Bridge Engineering
• In case the atmospheric temperature reduces below 15 degree

centigrade, the time shown before should be increased.
• The following factors should be given careful consideration

while planning and designing formwork.
(a) Strength:
E L
P T
•
N
The formwork should be capable of carrying the pressure of
concrete and the weight of labour and plant engaged in its
placement and compaction.
• The pressure due to concrete will vary depending on whether

the formwork is horizontal or vertical.
Bridge Engineering
• The factors affecting the pressure are: density of concrete,

workability of the mix, rate of placing, and method of concrete
discharge into the forms, temperature of the concrete, extent of
vibration, height of lift, dimensions of the section cast,
L
reinforcement details and stiffness of the formwork structure.
E
•
P T
In the absence of detailed calculations, the pressure can be
N
calculated as that due to a liquid weighing 26 kN/m3 for
horizontal surfaces and for vertical surfaces up to depth of 1.8
m.
Bridge Engineering
• For vertical surfaces deeper than 1.8 m, the stress may be

increased at 4 kN/m2 for every additional metre.
• Construction loads may be taken approximately at 3.6 kN/m2

acting vertically.
(b) Stiffness:
E L
P T
N
• The forms should be rigid enough to ensure that deflection of
the completed work should not exceed 0.003 of the span and
that the deflection of the form itself in any one span should not
be more than 3 mm.
Bridge Engineering
(c) Repetition:
• The forms should be designed in such a manner that

components are easy to handle and will be reused a number of
times in the same work.
•
E L
Since formwork cost is a considerable part of the total cost of
P T
concrete work, this aspect requires careful analysis.
(d) Durability: N
• In order to ensure maximum economy, it is essential to provide
for repetitive uses of the formwork.
Bridge Engineering
• Careful consideration should be given to the use of durable

materials so that the formwork can be used and handled without
undue wear.
• With proper handling and care, timber form-panels should give
E
about ten repetitive uses without major repair.L
•
P T
Many more reuses should be possible with steel forms.
(e) Strippability: N
• The ease of stripping without damage to the concrete or the
forms is a requirement deserving special attention.
Bridge Engineering
• Wedges and special insertions of smaller closing pieces are

arranged to facilitate removal of forms from enclosed spaces.
• Unless easy stripping is ensured, the gains due to repetitive use

of forms from enclosed spaces.
•
E L
Unless easy stripping is ensured, the gains due to repetitive use
of forms may be lost in costly repairs.
P T
(f) Cost: N
• The final cost of forming an area of concrete is the sum of the
cost of materials for the forms, the cost of labour in erecting,
stripping, cleaning and carrying forward to next use, and the
cost of expandable material such as form ties.
Bridge Engineering
• The aim in design is to keep the total cost to a minimum.
• It is usually difficult to estimate the cost of formwork reliably.
• With the universal rise in prices and wages, it would be well for
L
a contractor to study the labour content of the formwork cost.
•
T E
Innovative designs for formwork for bridge components lead to
economical and efficient construction.
N P
• Falsework may be defined as the temporary support work
necessary to support a portion of a permanent structure during
erection until it is capable of supporting itself.
Bridge Engineering
• By normal usage, falsework refers to the part of the temporary

structure on which the formwork rests.
• Bridge falsework may be either conventional systems or

proprietary systems.
•
E L
Conventional systems use falsework constructed of sawn or
P T
round timber, steel joists, scaffold tubing and include also
temporary piles. N
• Special provision should be made to facilitate easy dismantling
after the completion of the permanent structures.
• To this end, wedges and jacks are incorporated in the falsework

design at a number of suitable points.
Bridge Engineering
• When heavy loads are expected as in falsework for arch

bridges, resort may be made to sand boxes, which are metal
cylinders with plungers holding the falsework and with the
plugged hole through which sand can be allowed to flow out
when the falsework is to be lowered.
E L
•
P T
The falsework should be designed to carry its own weight,
N
construction dead and live loads, the dead load due to the
permanent structure, wind load and water pressure, if
applicable.
Bridge Engineering
• Permissible stresses for falsework may be higher than those for

permanent structures, if the design is carried out in full detail
and proper site supervision can be ensured.
• Conversely, if the design is sketchy and the supervision is not
E L
very efficient, it is desirable to use stresses lower than those for
permanent construction.
P T
• N
Props supporting formwork should be checked for verticality by
plumbing, and no prop should be erected more than 10 mm (1 in
40) out of plumb.
• No runner shall be placed with its centre line more than 25 mm

eccentric to centre of the prop head.
Bridge Engineering
• Proprietary systems involve metal components assembled into

modular units.
• Falsework is especially important in the construction of arch

bridge, where it is often referred to as centering.
•
E L
The centering for an arch is a load carrying structure and the
P T
success of an arch bridge constriction depends on the design,
N
construction and stripping of the centering.
• The types of centering normally used include trestles, bents and

trusses, are shown diagrammatically in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Types of Centering for Arches
Bridge Engineering
• Trestle centering means supporting the arch by posts from the

ground.
• This method is the least expensive, involves least deformation

of the posts, gives the greatest salvage value of material and is
the simplest to build.
E L
•
P T
The posts may be vertical, inclined or combined.
• N
In high arches, the costs may be fan shaped with support at a
height to avoid long inclined members.
• This method also provides more clearance for passage of traffic.
Bridge Engineering
• Trussed centres are used when simpler methods are not

convenient.
• Trussed centres are expensive to frame, low in salvage value

and vulnerable for deformation.
•
E L
Trussed centres must be designed and executed under
P T
competent supervision of an experienced engineer.
• N
The foundations for the falsework should be checked for
adequacy and temporary piling may be used, if necessary.
• Striking of centering should be done normally only after three to

four weeks.
Bridge Engineering
• In the case of bowstring girder bridges, the deck forms are built
first, supported on falsework.
• After concreting the deck, the vertical suspension members

(hangers) are formed similar to columns.
•
E L
The arch members are formed as beams, using back forms near
the ends.
P T
• N
The arch centering is usually laid on ground and the forms are
built accurately in sections and numbered to save time during
erection.
• On completion of the whole bridge, the falsework may be

removed.
Bridge Engineering
• Tubular steel scaffolding, usually of 38 mm (1.5 in,) nominal

bore, is being increasingly used for bridge centering.
• Advantages of tubular steel scaffolding include adaptability,

easy, availability, simplicity in number of types of fittings,
E L
interchangeability in use for formwork or falsework, ease of
P T
erection, resistance to fire, reliable strength and good salvage
•
value.
N
Disadvantages of tubular steel scaffolding include high initial
cost, costly replacement of damaged couplers and fittings,
difficulty in connecting with timber formwork, possible diverse
effects of human error in overlooking tightening of joints, need
for additional skilled trade at site and painting.
Bridge Engineering
• Under normal circumstances, tubular scaffolding will be

cheaper than timber centering for heights above 8 m.
• Each standard should rest on a sole plate.
L
• Screw jacks for use as sole plates under standards for formwork
are available.
T E
•
N P
For slab type bridges over river beds which are dry during
summer, movable staging of tubular scaffolds on platforms with
castors can be used.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Quality Assurance
• The performance of a bridge is dependent on the strength and

durability of its components.
• These in turn depend on the quality attained at various stages of

development from planning, design and construction to
maintenance to meet the needs of the users.
E L
•
P T
Quality in bridge engineering has to be achieved through
N
innovative planning, diligent design, intelligent direction,
competent construction and timely maintenance.
• For major bridges, it is desirable to prepare a quality assurance

manual for compliance during design and construction stages.
Bridge Engineering
Quality Assurance
• The most effective method of reducing maintenance costs is the

implementation of an efficient quality assurance procedure
during the initial construction.
• The designer should ensure that the structure could be built
E L
with ease and reliability under the prevailing site conditions.
•
P T
In the case of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
N
bridges, specual attention should be devoted to the “4-Cs”, i.e. ,
Constituents, Compaction, Cover and Curing.
Bridge Engineering
Quality Assurance
• Quality Assurance includes all those planned actions necessary

to provide adequate confidence that the product (in this case,
the bridge) will meet the requirements, and is essentially a
system of planning, organizing and controlling human skills to
assure quality.
E L
•
P T
Quality Control deals with operational techniques of controlling
•
quality.
N
Four classes of quality assurance are specified: (i) Q-1 Nominal
QA; (ii) Q-2 Normal QA; (iii) Q-3 High QA; and (iv) Q-4 Extra High
QA.
Bridge Engineering
Quality Assurance
• For bridge structures, only the three classes Q-2, Q-3 and Q-4
are acceptable.
• Class Q-2 may be adopted for bridges in reinforced concrete up

to 60 m length with individual spans not exceeding 20 m.
•
E L
Class Q-3 may be adopted for reinforced concrete bridges and
P T
prestressed concrete bridges having length more than 60 m
N
with individual spans not exceeding 45 m.
• Q-4 class is applicable for bridges with innovative designs or

materials or construction techniques.
Bridge Engineering
Quality Assurance
• The requirements of quality control and degree of control for the

different classes of quality for project preparation, design and
drawings, contractual aspects, construction organization,
materials and workmanship are specified in IRC: SP:47-1998.
•
E L
The compliance of the guidelines in the above publication will
P T
be a step towards obtaining ISO: 9000 Quality Certification.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Economical Span and Configurations
• The evolution of the super structure forming the deck portion of

a bridge has seen revolutionary changes with the development
and use of new materials and forms to keep pace with the ever
increasing demand for covering longer spans.
•
E L
Materials like timber and iron have been replaced by new
P T
materials like high strength and high performance concrete,
N
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, high yield strength
deformed reinforcements, high tensile steel wires, bars, strands
cables and polymeric materials.
Bridge Engineering
• The development of prestressed concrete by Freyssinet

facilitated the rapid development and construction of
innumerable number of bridges across the world.
• Engineering community from different parts of the world
E L
contributed immensely through research and practice for the
P T
widespread use of prestressed concrete for medium and long
•
span bridges.
N
The structural forms of various types of bridges and their
respective economical span ranges are compiled in Table 1.
Bridge Engineering
Table 1. Economical Spans for Various Types of Bridges
Span Range Type of Bridge
4m-7m Reinforced Concrete Slab Culvert
L
7 m - 12 m Prestressed Concrete Slab
15 m - 25 m
T E
Reinforced Concrete Tee beam and Slab, Reinforced Concrete Rigid Frame
25 m - 60 m
N P
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Slab Steel Plate Girder
50 m - 100 m Balanced Cantilever Type, Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete
75 m - 150 m Prestressed Concrete Box Girders Using Cantilevered Construction, Steel Truss
150 m - 500 m Cable stayed bridges with Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete decks
500 m - 1800 m Steel Suspension Bridges or Cable Stayed Bridges with Steel decks
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Comparative Cost Analysis
• A comparative analysis of several types of designs using the

available materials together with the cost of construction
utilizing the locally available labour will lead to an economical
and suitable design for a particular set of conditions.
•
E L
However, in general, the quantities of concrete and steel
P T
reinforcement used per unit area of bridge deck can be
N
considered as indicative of the degree of economic cost
although these figures are not the only factors which govern the
overall cost of the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
• The significant factors influencing the overall cost of the bridge

are compiled in the following list:
1. The total width of bridge deck
L
2. The length of individual spans and overall length of the
bridge.
T E
N P
3. The number of longitudinal and cross girders
4. The type and class of live loads supported by the deck
5. The depth and type of foundations, excavations etc.
6. The cost of form and false work.
Bridge Engineering
7. The cost of materials and labour
8. The type of construction such as precast or cast in-situ
9. The method of erection of precast segments
L
10. The time constraint for completion of the bridge project
E
•
P T
The quantities of concrete and steel reinforcement required per
N
unit area of different types of bridge decks with spans ranging
from 35 to 140 m were determined based on comprehensive
analysis and extensive practical experience.
• The collected data is shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• For spans less than 35 m, simply supported spans are the

cheapest form of construction.
• For spans exceeding 60 m, simply supported spans are

prohibitively costly.
•
E L
Continuous bridge decks with unequal spans are more
P T
economical than equal spans in the span range of 50 to 100 m.
• N
Rigid Portal Frame design also uses the same quantity of
materials as those of continuous girders with unequal spans.
• For spans less than 90 m, portal frames are slightly more

expensive than continuous beams of unequal spans.
Bridge Engineering
• However for very long spans especially in crossing deep

ravines, reinforced concrete arched bridges are more
economical.
• Concrete arches are seldom prestressed since concrete is
E L
strong in compression, and can easily resist the thrusts
developed an arch.
P T
• N
Bow string girders are economical, considering the material
quantities for spans up to 50 m.
• The dimensions of the Tee beam of the bow string girder bridge
can be considerably reduced by axial prestressing resulting in
overall economy.
Bridge Engineering
• Although the Bow string girder bridge is aesthetically superior

to other types of girder bridges, the cost of form work being
significantly higher, at present this type is rarely preferred.
• The cross sections of various types of prestressed concrete

bridge deck configurations are shown in Figure.
E L
•
P T
Cast in-situ post tensioned voided slabs are preferred for spans
N
up to 40 m, either in simple or continuous spans.
• Span/depth ratios as high as 40 have been used resulting in

high torsional resistance rendering it highly suitable for curved
alignment with the bridge deck supported by single central
columns for arterial highways.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Precast Tee, I and Box shaped girders with cast in-situ slab are
suitable for spans up to 50 m.
• The span/depth ratios vary from 18 to 20 for simply supported

spans to 25 to 30 for continuous spans.
•
E L
The variation in the quantities of concrete and high tensile steel
P T
with average thickness of concrete deck as a function of span
N
for different types of structural configurations is graphically
presented in Figure.
• Generally the box sections are the most economical types

requiring the least concrete content and prestressing steel
compared to a voided slab for a given depth of bridge deck.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• A comparative analysis has clearly established that prestressed

concrete box girder decks on an average needed only 55
percent of the depth of composite I section decks when used in
urban flyovers.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 33: Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Inspection
E L
P T
N
Ø Inspection Instrumentation
Ø Repair and Rehabilitation

Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Inspection

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Bridge deck maintenance management system is an essential

component to ensure long term conservation of bridge deck to
serve its intended purpose involving several vital functions like
periodic inspection, repairs and rehabilitation.
•
E L
Effective maintenance will ensure that the bridge deck will
T
function satisfactorily at the various limit states of strength and
P
•
serviceability.
N
Good maintenance practice requires periodical surveillance,
identification of local damage, deterioration and loss of
durability of the deck due to environmental and other local
effects.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Maintaining highway bridge decks and keeping them in sound

and fit condition ensuring safe and uninterrupted traffic flow, is
the primary function of a bridge maintenance engineer.
• The life of a bridge deck depends entirely on preventive
E L
maintenance with well programmed repairs and rehabilitation.
•
P T
It is a well-established fact that the total number of existing
N
bridges is much more in comparison with the new bridges
under construction.
• But, the amount of energy and resources spent on preventive

maintenance and or rehabilitation of distressed bridges is
negligible in comparison with that spent on new bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Hence, increasing number of bridges are becoming

unserviceable and if let unserviced, they have to be pulled
down.
• The cost of dismantling the damaged bridge may in some
E L
cases be several times than that required for periodical
maintenance and or rehabilitation.
P T
• N
Hence it is more prudent to inspect the bridge at regular
intervals for detection of any signs of deterioration and initiate
rehabilitation measures to restore the bridge structure to a
state of full serviceability.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The primary objective of bridge maintenance is to ensure the

integrity of the structure during its intended life span so that it
functions without any disruptions.
• The maintenance management system must also provide guide
E L
lines and methodologies to enable the local engineers to reach
T
rational cost effective measures and timely decisions
P
N
regarding maintenance and rehabilitation of distressed bridge
decks.
• Periodical inspections, repairs and rehabilitation measures

constitute the primary aspect of good and effective
maintenance.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• This aspect is of paramount importance due to the rapid

increase in the number of reinforced and prestressed concrete
bridges built during the last few decades as a result of easy
availability of good quality cement, steel and epoxy
L
compounds and various other building materials along with
E
T
innovative methods of construction of bridges.
•
N P
Many of the existing concrete bridges have shown signs of
distress due to severe environmental conditions typically
prevailing in coastal regions.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The existing bridges built during 1950s are more than 70 years
old and they have not been maintained due to the absence of
any systematic periodical surveillance and credible
maintenance organization.
•
E L
Rehabilitation of bridge structures may become essential due
T
to several reasons. Some common reasons are design and or
P
N
constructional deficiency, environmental effects, overloading
of the bridge deck either due to unanticipated loading or due to
accidents and user made changes in the structure during its
service life.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• In general, bridge repair and rehabilitation is unique for the

particular structure. Hence the use of common techniques for
rehabilitation of various bridges is limited.
• Several new cementatious materials, epoxy resins and
E L
compounds have been developed during the last decades
T
which are highly effective in protecting the basic structure
P
N
from the destructive effects of severe environmental exposure
conditions.
• It is pertinent to note that maintenance engineers must study

the basic designs, history of construction, changes in loading
patterns on the bridge deck and environmental changes etc.
before embarking on repairs.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Detailed analysis of all these parameters will enable the

engineer to work out a strategy for long lasting rehabilitation
measures for the distressed bridge deck.
• Recent developments in the domain of instrumentation have
E L
resulted in various types of instruments which could monitor
T
the in-situ strength of concrete, micro cracking in concrete and
P
•
rusting in steel reinforcements.
N
Also methods have been codified to evaluate the in-situ
strength of slabs to sustain the designed loads by actual load
testing of the slab panel and monitoring the deflections
developed at the soffit of the slab.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Structural slabs and beams exhibiting local distress can be

repaired by external bonding of steel plates to the soffit by
epoxy adhesives.
• Honeycombing, cracks and cavities in concrete can be
E L
repaired by the process of guniting, pressure grouting and
shortcreting procedures.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Inspection

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
• Effective maintenance system requires periodical inspection of

bridges to locate any signs of distress in the early stages
which can be repaired with minimum costs.
• Generally all types of remedial and preventive maintenance
E L
measures including minor repairs and replacement of bridge
T
components should be planned periodical intervals without
P
•
N
disrupting the traffic on the bridge deck.
The data collected from the inspection reports should be

scientifically evaluated from time to time to assess the need for
remedial measures.
• Three types of inspection are normally undertaken for bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
1. Routine Inspection:
These are general inspections undertaken frequently by bridge

maintenance engineers possessing practical knowledge of
structures.
E L
This type of inspection does not need any expertise in design,
detailing and constructional aspects.
P T
N
Routine inspection is necessary to identify minor deficiencies
which could lead to accidents or maintenance problems at a
future date.
This type of inspections are normally undertaken at monthly or

bimonthly intervals.
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
2. Detailed Inspection:
This type of inspection is further categorized under General and

Major Inspections depending on the frequency and intensity of
inspections.
(a) General Inspection:

E L
P T
N
The general type of inspection is planned annually covering all
the structural components of the bridge.
The procedure includes visual inspection assisted by standard

instrumental aids and invariably followed by a detailed written
report.
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
(b) Major Inspection:
Major inspection is comprehensive involving detailed examination

of all structural components.
The procedure involves installation of access facilities like
E L
inspection platforms to examine the soffits of deck slab and
P T
girders, articulation locations and bearings at supports.
N
Depending on the importance of the structure, this type of
inspection is conducted at 2 to 3 year intervals for important
bridges specially exposed to aggressive environmental
conditions (e.g. Bridges located in coastal area, marine locations
and abnormal wind zones).
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
3. Special Inspection:
Special inspections are necessary in extraordinary situations

such as earthquakes, high intensity/ abnormal loadings, floods
etc.
E L
These inspections are exhaustive comprising testing of structural
P T
elements (e.g. Non-destructive testing using ultrasonic pulse
N
velocity techniques to detect internal micro cracks and excessive
deflections using dial gauges etc.).
The results of tests are examined in the light of structural analysis

and codified specifications. Experienced engineers are entrusted
with this type of inspections.
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
Special Inspections are necessary for bridge bearings and joints

during extremes of temperature and the soffits of deck slab and
girders should be inspected for cracks under abnormal loading
conditions.
E L
Exposure to aggressive environment may result in cracking and
T
spalling of concrete in pretensioned girders with thin webs.
P
N
The inspection team should be led by a qualified and experienced
bridge engineer who is familiar with the design and constructional
aspects of the bridge structure to be inspected.
Bridge Engineering
Inspection
Consequently, the observations are properly and accurately

assessed resulting in a meaningful technical report containing
details of distress/ deficiency and recommendations for relevant
repairs and rehabilitation measures for the bridge deck.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Inspection

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Inspection Instrumentation
• During the last few decades, several types of testing equipment

have been developed for use in structures under distress.
• Modern testing equipment for measurement of in-situ strength,

surface and internal cracks in concrete are widely used.
•
E L
Also, electronic gadgets have been developed to measure the
P T
thickness of concrete cover to reinforcements and strains
N
developed in concrete due to loading on the bridge deck.
• The testing equipments widely used by the specialized

inspection team are listed below:
1. Electronic strain gauges for measurement of strains in concrete

and steel
Bridge Engineering
2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus for detection of cracks in

concrete.
3. Rebound hammer (Schmidt hammer) for in-situ measurement of

compressive strength or grade of concrete.
4. Snooper-crawler and adjustable ladders.

E L
P T
N
5. Magnetic detector for measuring thickness of concrete cover
and for locating reinforcement bars.
6. Vibration measuring equipment
7. Hydraulic jacks, pressure transducers or load cells for

measurement of forces.
Bridge Engineering
8. Electrical resistance meter (for rust pockets).
9. Pachometer to located and measure the size of steel bars

embedded in concrete.
L
10. Optical microscope with light source to measure the width of
cracks on the surface of concrete.
T E
N P
11. Mechanical extensometer or Demec Gauge with stainless steel
targets for measuring surface strains on concrete under loads.
12. Dial gauges for measurement of deflections at soffits of deck

slab and beams when the bridge is loaded.
Bridge Engineering
• The gadgets mentioned above are very useful in evaluating the

in-situ strength of concrete in the bridge deck by non-
destructive testing techniques.
• Pachometer is used to measure the diameter of steel
E L
reinforcements embedded in concrete along with the cover to
an accuracy of ±3 mm.
P T
• N
For inspection of the soffits of bridge decks greater than 10.7 m
in height, a mechanical contraption widely referred to as Barin’s
Snooper vehicle is generally used.
Bridge Engineering
• The snooper is mounted on a heavy duty truck with a swivelling

platform to facilitate the inspection of soffit of the bridge deck
using the hydraulically operated platform.
• Various types of snooper vehicles have been developed to suit

the rugged terrain and watery situations.
E L
•
P T
The typical schematic diagram of a snooper system is shown in
figure. N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Barin’s Snooper System for Inspection of Bridges
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Inspection

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Repair and Rehabilitation
• Detailed inspection reports specify the nature and magnitude of

distress or damage to the bridge deck.
• The reports are first analysed in the light of previous history of

the bridge before deciding upon the type of repair and
E L
rehabilitation which depends upon the degree of damage
suffered by the bridge structure.
P T
• N
Generally the degree of damage is classified under the following
three major groups:
1. Minor Damage, 2. Moderate Damage and 3. Severe Damage
Bridge Engineering
1. Minor Damage:
Surface cracks developed on the bridge deck due to shrinkage of

concrete as a consequence of temperature changes and minor
spalling of concrete at edges of structural concrete elements are
grouped under this category.
E L
P T
The cracked surface is repaired by superficial patching by using
N
epoxy grout or gutting using shortcrete applied by a pneumatic
gun.
The damaged and spalled concrete is first removed by hand tools

and the surface is thoroughly cleaned before the application of
epoxy grout.
Bridge Engineering
All cracks should be sealed by the epoxy grout applied under

pressure injection.
2. Moderate Damage:
L
Extensive spalling and cracking of concrete due to multiple
E
reasons in a bridge deck can be grouped under moderate damage.
T
N P
In such cases, repair and rehabilitation is done by removing the
unsound or loose concrete by providing temporary supports to the
girder to relive dead load stresses.
Typical details of repairs to the spalled concrete of bridge deck

girders is shown in figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Expansion bolts or grout rebars are drilled into the sound concrete
from the soffit and wire mesh is placed to the sides and welded to
the existing bars.
Bridge Engineering
Gunite or shortcrete is applied under pressure to restore the girder

to its predamaged condition.
In the case of webs of prestressed concrete girders damaged by

shear cracks near supports due to improper detailing or
E L
compaction of concrete, holes are drilled diagonally and rebars are
P T
placed and grouted to arrest the shear cracks as shown in Figure.
Bridge Engineering
3. Severe Damage:
Bridge decks damaged severely require a detailed structural

analysis and a design check based on the conditions of damage
and the best engineering assumptions and judgement.
E L
A comprehensive review of design calculations and detailed
P T
examination of the damage will help in selecting a cost effective
N
and appropriate restoration technique for the damaged structural
elements of the bridge.
The repair technique adopted to restore the girder damaged by

extensive shear cracks followed by spalling of concrete is shown
in figure.
Bridge Engineering
In the jacketing stirrups technique, the deck slab concrete is

carefully removed to permit positive anchoring of additional
vertical stirrups placed around the existing beam.
After priming the exposed surfaces, epoxy mortaring or
E L
shortcreting or guniting is done providing a new concrete jacket
over the old girder.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
In coastal regions where bridge girders are subjected to severe

exposure conditions, extensive spalling of concrete exposing the
reinforcements is generally observed.
In such cases, the unsound and loose concrete around the girder
E L
is removed and repairing against the loss of concrete section is
P T
done by jacketing the girder using a steel box fixed to the girder as
shown in figure.
N
The gap between the girder and the steel box is filled by epoxy
concrete grout ensuring the functional capacity of the girder.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Rehabilitation of Articulation joint:
In the case of balanced cantilever bridge decks, the cantilevers

projecting on either side of the central span rest on the end spans
at having joint generally referred to as articulation.
E L
Due to improper detailing of reinforcements or due to severe
P T
exposure conditions, distress may develop at the articulation joint.
N
Repair and rehabilitation of articulation can be effectively done by
using post tensioning techniques.
In this method external anchor bars with plates and nuts are
employed to arrest the fracture distress at a poorly detailed and
overloaded articulation joint.
Bridge Engineering
Repairs of Girders damaged by Collision:
Pretensioned prestressed concrete girders and poles may get

damaged during transportation or due to collision.
L
If the damage is localized and not extensive, it can be repaired and
E
rehabilitated. The method of repairing the bottom flange of a
T
figure. N P
pretensioned beam partially damaged at the sides is shown in
The damaged portion is thoroughly cleaned of all those loose

material and dowel bars or expansion bolts are introduced into the
drilled holes to a depth not less than 75 mm and then covered using
mortar or non-shrink grout.
Bridge Engineering
If the damage extends over a larger depth covering the sloping

sides, a welded steel wire mesh is embedded near the surface
before applying the mortar or non-shrink grout.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Restoration of Strength of Prestressed Concrete Girders:
Prestressed concrete girders are likely to get damaged due to

severe exposure conditions especially in the coastal regions where
humidity and temperature are high.
E L
When unbounded tendons are used, the high tensile strands may
P T
get damaged due to rusting resulting in loss of prestress in the
girder. N
In such cases the effective cross sectional area of high tensile steel
gradually decreases due to rusting leading to sudden explosive
failure of the girder due to fracture of steel in tension.
Bridge Engineering
Several methods can be used to restore the strength of damaged

prestressed concrete girders.
Method I:
L
The principle of post tensioning is used to restore the damaged
prestressed concrete I-girders.
T E
N P
In this method, post tensioning rods in conjunction with jacking
(concrete) corbels located outside the damaged areas are used for
restoration work.
The calculated preload is applied and the damaged concrete is

repaired.
Bridge Engineering
After the new concrete attains the desired strength, the preload is
removed.
The details of locating the high strength rods on the roughened

sloping bottom flange of the girder is shown in Figure.
E L
After the jacketing corbels are erected, the post tensioning of the
rods is done as per design computations.
P T
N
Suitable spiral and link reinforcements are used in the jacking
corbels to strengthen the concrete.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Method II:
In this method the reinforced concrete corbels are constructed and

the damaged concrete is repaired by applying the required preload.
L
The method of adding external reinforced concrete to restore the
strength of damaged beam is shown in figure.
T E
N P
16 mm diameter steel dowels are used to anchor the corbels to the
bottom flange.
Bridge Engineering
Method III:
Additional metal sleeve jacket is used to restore the damaged

portion of the girder.
L
This method does not restore the loss of prestress except that a
partial prestress may be gained by preloading.
T E
N P
The preload should be applied prior to the repair of the damaged
concrete and removed after completion of repairs.
Then a metal sleeve jacket should be installed around and beyond

the damaged areas extending over a minimum length of 1 m.
Bridge Engineering
Finally the gap between the metal sleeve and the beam is filed with
epoxy grout by pressure injection as shown in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Restoration of concrete bridge decks by externally bonded steel

plates:
Reinforced concrete beams when epoxy bonded with steel plates

on the tension face exhibited significant increases of up to 30
E L
percent in the ultimate flexural strength in comparison with non-
plated beams.
P T
N
Two fundamental methods of strengthening/ rehabilitating of
flexural members with epoxy resin adhesives are:
(1) The total tensile reinforcement in the cross-section is increased

by epoxy bonding of thin steel plates on the tension face of the
beam to enhance the flexural and shear strength.
Bridge Engineering
(2) The overall depth of the flexural element is increased by adding

a new layer of concrete on top of an existing cross section and
bonding the old and new elements with modern epoxy resin
adhesives.
E L
Detailed experimental investigations have conclusively established
P T
the efficacy of strengthening concrete beams by externally bonded
steel plates.
N
In the case of bridge decks, it is not possible to add new concrete
on top of deck and hence the first method of bonding steel plates to
the soffit of slabs or girders is adopted.
Bridge Engineering
Generally any grade of structural steel is suitable for bonded

reinforcing plates.
Plates gauges below 3 mm are not suitable, because sand blasting

can deform them.
E L
Steel plates between 6-16 mm thickness are used in some
strengthening works.
P T
N
The adhesive joint is generally between 1-3 mm thick.
The strengthening operation can be performed by epoxy bonding of

steel plates to the soffit of a girder.
Bridge Engineering
Rehabilitation of a bridge deck slab by fixing of steel plates to the

bottom can be effective.
Shear strengthening of beams in distress near supports is also

possible by epoxy bonding steel plates near supports.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
T
Pvt. Ltd.
N P
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 34: Rebuilding of Bridges
 Introduction
 Replacement
E L
 Rebuilding of Pier Top P T
 Replacement of Girders
N
 Rebuilding over Diversion
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Replacement
 Rebuilding of Pier Top
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• An existing bridge in full or in part may require to be rebuilt for

one or more of the reasons mentioned below:
(a) Obsolescence
(b) Damage
E L
(c) Weathering or aging
P T
(d) Excessive maintenance cost
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Obsolescence
The functional obsolescence of the structure is frequently

encountered due to grade separation or change in the pattern of
traffic passing over the railway or highway using the bridge, while
it may still have many years of normal life left.
E L
P T
Sometimes, replacement may have to be done due to navigational
requirements on navigable streams. N
The changing of the traffic conditions, particularly on the railways
and National and State Highways, requiring heavier structures
and larger clearances due to heavier and/or larger locomotives or
vehicles to be used may also be the reasons for replacement.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Damage
The structure may be damaged due to severe accident occurring

over it, particularly in the case of railway bridges.
The bridge may be damaged fully or partly due to heavy and

unexpected gale or unexpected high floods.
E L
P T
Such floods can be caused due to increased precipitation in the
N
catchment area itself or owing to the changed pattern of flow of
the river upstream.
It may also happen that a new system of irrigation and flood

control structures coming over the catchment basin may change
the pattern of the flow in the river.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
Sometimes a breach in a major reservoir upstream can cause an

unusually high flood for which the bridge openings might not
have been designed.
• Weathering
E L
Even well maintained steel or concrete of the bridge can
P T
deteriorate over the years from the effects of weathering action of
N
saline atmosphere, fumes, abrasion, etc.
Concrete structures are vulnerable to the effects of water leaching

the cement form the concrete over years.
They are also subjected to the vagaries of freezing and thawing if

the structure is situated in a zone where there is heavy snowfall.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
Over a period of time, corrosion in some unseen pockets can

develop and grow like cancer into a major defect ultimately
causing irreparable damage to the structure.
The structural material can also be subjected to fatigue failure.
L
Actual fatigue service life has proven extremely difficult to predict
E
T
in practice, even though theoretical methods have been devised
P
to determine load cycles.
N
It is possible that some members or parts of the structure have
been subjected to more number of load cycles than anticipated.
Consequently, they may fail far in advance of the intended service
life of the structure as a whole.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Maintenance cost
The maintenance cost of the structure generally increases as the

bridge nears the end of its service life.
With the increased cost of labour and repair materials, it may be
E L
found more economical to replace the structure with modern
P T
materials than spending money in maintaining the old one until
N
the ultimate theoretical service life of the structure is over.
It is also possible that though the bridge may not be due for
replacement either due to obsolescence or due to its high
maintenance costs including the cost of major repairs.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
When all the consequences are taken together it may prove

economical to replace the structure.
Cost of detention to traffic should also be considered if the

existing structure calls for restriction of speed.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
Bridge structures are generally designed to give a service life of

100 years, though service life of individual materials may be as
follows:
• Masonry Bridge 100 years
• Steel Bridge 60 years

E L
• Concrete Bridge 100 years P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Replacement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Replacement
The replacement of the structure of a bridge may be done in part

or in full.
The change in pattern of loading may be such that it may be

sufficient if the bridge superstructure is only replaced.
E L
Full replacement of substructure can take the heavier loads with
P T
small overstressing or with minor strengthening like jacketing.
N
In case the replacement is required due to change in gradients of
the approaches, it may require only the raising or lowering of the
superstructure.
Bridge Engineering
Replacement
Similarly, to provide for more waterway or clearance for

navigation, it may be possible to manage only if the
superstructure is raised.
On such occasions, it should be seen if the existing
L
superstructure can take any heavier loading expected in the
E
T
foreseeable future. If not, it is preferable to change the entire
P
superstructure.
N
In most of the cases, along with the raising or replacement of the
superstructure, some modifications to the top part of the
pier/abutment, i.e. the bed block portion and some raising or
lowering of the pier/abutment may be called for. This type of
replacement is known as partial replacement.
Bridge Engineering
Replacement
In all cases, the entire structure has to be replaced particularly

when the entire structure has become obsolete due to:
(a) its being too weak to take present-day loads,
(b) its not being suitable to be raised due to change in gradient,
E L
T
(c) when aging or weathering is considerable.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Replacement
• Partial Replacement of Structure
Partial replacement of structure arises generally in case of railway

bridges on which the superstructures are made up of steel girders
whose life is normally less than the life of the substructure made
up of concrete.
E L
P T
Sometimes the rail or deck level has to be altered, owing to
N
changes in the gradients of the approaches.
When it is easier to raise or lower the existing steel girders,

modifications to the tops of the piers and abutments are the only
concerns.
Bridge Engineering
Replacement
On many of the old structures, built before the development of

reinforced concrete, top of the substructures, i.e. the bed block
portion, which supports the girders, were generally made up of
large sized stones or sometimes, even, of timber or steel grillages.
L
Over the passage of time, either the bed block portions have
E
T
deteriorated or the large stones have tended to become loose.
P
N
Partial reconstruction of the top part of the pier was found
necessary to get rid of the defect.
Such a partial replacement, in most cases is done by using

temporary arrangements, keeping the traffic continuously passing
over the structures but under restricted speed.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Replacement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Rebuilding of Pier Top
There are two methods of the rebuilding of pier/ abutment, i.e.
a) using temporary support by the side of a pier or
b) rebuilding in parts by supporting on pier itself.
• Temporary outside support method

E L
P T
The simplest method is to provide a temporary support on either
N
side of the pier to support the ends of the girders temporarily.
The girders will then need the provision of additional temporary

stiffening over the shifted support.
Bridge Engineering
The temporary support will be made up of timber (sleeper) cribs or

standardised (easily movable) trestling materials.
A typical arrangement of using this method is Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
This method is feasible where the depth from the bottom of the
girder to the bed is not considerable.
Also, the flow of the river in the off-season must be so shallow that
such cribs or stagings can be built up over a temporary base
formed on the bed.
E L
This method is quick for execution.
P T
N
A number of the girders can be supported at the same time with the
available temporary staging materials so that work on a number of
abutments/piers can be taken up simultaneously.
Bridge Engineering
If the top of the proposed pier is to be the same as the top of

existing pier, the existing girders have to be lifted so that at least
150 mm of clear space is available between the bottom of the
girder and top level of the pier in order to provide for minimum
working space.
The approaches will have to be temporarily E

L
P T regarded for this
up.
N
purpose as the rail/deck level over the girders will temporarily go
Bridge Engineering
The sequence of operations of the scheme will be as follows:
1. The base for temporary cribs/trestles is made by levelling and

dressing the bed and laying a suitable base with boulders or
concrete or filled sand bags.
E L
2. The crib/trestle is built and supporting cross joints are kept
ready for insertion.
P T
N
3. Traffic block/possession of line is taken, the girders lifted, the
support joists over the trestles inserted and the girders lowered (to
a predominant level).
Bridge Engineering
4. The approaches should be simultaneously regarded to

correspond with any temporary change of deck rail level.
5. The approach gradient should not impose any severe restriction

to prevalent traffic. The traffic should be restored at restricted
speed.
E L
P T
6. The top of the pier should be dismantled for adequate depth and
the surface cleaned. N
7. Necessary dowels should be fixed with the lower part embedded
in the pier to be retained and the shuttering fixed for the new pier
top.
Bridge Engineering
8. The reinforcement cage should be inserted and concrete laid,

leaving hoes in position for fixing the holding down bolts/ anchor
bolts.
9. After the new concrete develops sufficient strength, the holding

L
down bolts should be inserted and the new bed plates laid in
E
T
position. The new bearing at the ends of girders should be fitted
P
correspondingly.
N
10. Take block/possession of the line, jack up the girders and
remove the temporary support over the cribs and lower girder to
final position.
Bridge Engineering
11. The alignment of the girders should be checked and corrected

and the holding down bolts must be grouted.
12. The temporary trestles should be removed.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Rebuilding with Supports on Piers
Where the height of the pier is considerable (> 5 to 6 metres) or the

river is a perennially flowing stream, it may not be practical or
economical to put up temporary supports.
E L
In such circumstances, the dismantling and rebuilding of the pier
top is done in stages.
P T
N
In this case, the pier is dismantled and rebuilt first in the nose
portions over which temporary steel tools can be fixed for taking
on temporary cross beams, which in turn, can support the girders.
The remaining portion of the pier coming directly below the girder
can be dismantled and rebuilt subsequently.
Bridge Engineering
The sequence of operations of this method is as follows:
1. The existing bearings of the girders are removed and girders are
supported on timber packings.
2. The nose portion of the piers on either is dismantled and the part
E L
of the new bed block, which would cover this part, is built.
P T
N
3. Holes for temporary holding down bolts are left.
4. Necessary reinforcement would be laid in short lengths with

extra lengths for lapping at the ends for bent up.
Bridge Engineering
5. Two steel stools are fixed and held by holding down bolts over
the nose portion after the newly laid concrete attains sufficient
strength. Alternatively timber packings are laid and held.
6. Traffic is suspended temporarily for a few hours taking a traffic

L
block, the main girders are lifted and temporary packings below
E
removed.
P T
N
7. Suitable supporting cross joints are erected over the
stools/packing for temporarily supporting the main girders which
will be lowered over them and held suitably.
Bridge Engineering
8. Simultaneously, the approaches will be regarded to suit the new

level of the tack in case there is any change in level. Traffic will be
restored at restricted speed.
9. The portion of the pier below rolled steel joists is dismantled up

to the proposed bottom level of the bed block.
E L
P T
10. The finished tops are first cleaned and the bent up
N
reinforcement from the newly laid concrete over the nose portion
straightened and the reinforcement required for the main bed
block-laid in connected to the former.
Bridge Engineering
11. The concrete for the main bed block is then laid.
12. In this stage of work, if it is felt that the supporting joists will
not be able to span the full width of the pier, the half-portion of the
pier under the joist is dismantled and rebuilt while the other
portion is supported in addition by timber packing.
E L
P T
13. After the concrete attains sufficient strength, the timber
N
packing can be laid over that part and the other half dismantled
and process repeated.
14. Another traffic block is taken when the main girders are jacked
up and the temporary cross-joist and packings (if any) and the
temporary stool over the ends also can be removed.
Bridge Engineering
15. The bearings are set in position over new bed block after which
the girders are lowered to the final position.
16. Traffic can then be restored. After this process is done on all
the piers/abutments, the speed restrictions can be removed.
E L
The work sequence adopted using this method on a bridge where
P T
the pier tops have to be lowered to accommodate new deeper
N
girders (without altering the rail level) is indicated Figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Replacement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Replacement of Girders
As a part of the rebuilding of bridges, particularly in India, the

existing girders are replaced by girders of new design or by girders
made up of new materials.
A number of methods are available for renewal of girders as follows.
E L
1. Side slewing with temporary supports at suitable panel points;
2. Erection by cranes;
P T
3. End launching with temporary supports; N
4. Erection by floatation method;
5. Erection with the help of service span;
6. Regirdering by using existing spans.
Bridge Engineering
• Factors affecting Girder Replacement:
The factors, which have to be taken into consideration while

formulating a scheme for replacement of superstructure i.e.
girders, are:
1. Type of bridge
E L
P T
2. Site conditions
3. Approach conditions and access

N
4. Availability of bridging equipment and materials.
Bridge Engineering
• The type of bridge includes the length, width, height and weight
of the girders, the number and type of spans, height and width
of piers and abutments, skew or square span, with deck or
without deck.
• Site conditions cover:

E L
P T
(a) Condition of the bed-wet, dry partly wet, soft or hard; and
N
(b) Condition of flow, i.e. depth of water during various seasons,
the velocity of flow and the liability of the river to floods and
spates.
Bridge Engineering
• Approach condition cover height of bank, width of bank or

cutting on approach to bridge and availability of space for
erection of the girder.
The access to the site includes condition of and distance to the

L
nearest road, distance to nearest station and infrastructures
E
facilities available at station.
P T
N
The suitability of the rivers for navigation purposes which will
have a bearing on what period the waterway will be available for
floatation (if applicable).
Bridge Engineering
• The major factor is the availability of bridging equipment and

material.
• The equipment cover mobile cranes, winches, trolleys and other

tackles.
E L
• The bridge materials include those required for erecting various
P T
temporary supports and stagings, sleepers and packing pieces,
N
standard trestle material, beams, piles and pile driving
equipment are some of the items which come under this
category.
Bridge Engineering
• The site conditions and facilities available may be such that they
can suit more than one method for replacement of the girder, in
which case the other aspects to be considered are the overall
time factor involved, the minimum block time required at a time
L
for stopping traffic for repairing one or more girders and also
E
overall cost.
P T
•
N
In estimating the overall cast, the actual cost involved in the
field work and assessed loss that may be involved in slowing
the traffic for a longer period will be taken into consideration.
Bridge Engineering
Side Slewing Method
• This method is the simplest and the safest that can be adopted
for changing complete spans one-by-one.
• In this method, stagings are erected generally opposite to the
E L
supports, i.e. piers and abutments of either side, i.e. upstream
and downstream of the bridge.
P T
N
• The new girder is either assembled by the side over stagings or
assembled on the approaches.
• After assemblage, a traffic block over the section is taken and

the girder is brought over on trolleys (known as diplorries which
are low-height trolleys designed to take heavy loads).
Bridge Engineering
• The girder is jacketed up and slewed over the trolleys from the
assembled position and the trolleys with the girder brought over
the span to be changed.
• The girder is again jacked up and slewed over on to the

L
temporary support on one side. After this, the trolleys will be
E
removed and the block cleared.
P T
N
• Roller paths had to be used for slewing the girders as they were
too heavy to be skidded across.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The precautions to be adopted when this method is adopted,

particularly for long spans, are as follows.
1. Extreme care should be taken to ensure that both ends of the

spans move equally. For this purpose, the pull on the crab
L
winches, which will be used for slewing, should be kept uniform.
E
P T
2. The movement should be slow and steady; two delay tackles
N
should be provided, one at either end in order to control this
movement.
3. The movement should be done in stages of 15 cm every time

verifying if the slewing is uniform at both the ends. The move
should not be jerky.
Bridge Engineering
4. Care should be taken to prevent any longitudinal movement of

the span while slewing and this can be achieved by keeping the
roller paths level.
5. Wedges should always be kept in front of rollers to be inserted

quickly in case of emergency.
E L
P T
6. The staging should be built on a sufficiently firm base and
N
during the movements, it should be ensured that there is no
settlement in the staging, particularly when the stagings are not
supported on piles.
Bridge Engineering
7. The whole operation should be closely watched, and guided by a

single leader who will command the operations with whistles and
flags, the codes of which have been clearly explained to the men
on the job earlier.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
End launching Method:
• This method is mostly adopted for erecting girders on a new

bridge.
• In this method, two or more girders are connected, one behind
E L
the other, by temporary cover plates and are moved as a train
P T
over the bridge length till they completely occupy the gaps.
N
• The spans, in this case, are all assembled on the approaches.
• If the spans are not heavy and/or are of short length, they are
launched by fixing skid rails longitudinally from pier to pier (with
some intermediate supports if necessary) and using the same
as the skid path.
Bridge Engineering
• The pulling is done by a 10 tonne crab winch kept at the far end
of the gap.
• Another 5-tonne crab winch will be kept near the abutment on

the rear, whose function is to pull the girder until the front end
of the girder reaches the first pier.
E L
P
• Thereafter, this is used as a delay tackle. T
N
• In order to avoid lowering of the girder long after launching, the
approach banks on which the girders are assembled is kept
lower and ballast is provided.
• The back/ballast wall is built after the erection of girders and the
approach bank made up to the correct level.
Bridge Engineering
• In the case of the existing bridges, this alternative is not feasible

and hence the girder will be assembled, laid and pulled at a
higher level over temporary packings fixed on the tops of piers
and abutments).
L
• After the girders reach the respective gaps, the intermediate
E
T
joists will be removed and each girder will be lowered over the
P
pier with the help of jacks.
N
Bridge Engineering
Girder Renewal with Cranes:
Girder spans, built up complete with minimum decking

arrangement, have been renewed up to 30 m spans with cranes.
Two cranes had to be used.
E L
The sequence operation as actually adopted on a bridge, is
summarized below.
P T
N
1. The new span, assembled over the approaches, was brought
over the span to be changed, using low trolleys i.e. diplorries for
movement.
2. Temporary brackets were bolted on to both ends of girders.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
3. Two cranes of suitable capacity (35 tonnes for MG and 60-70

tonnes for BG) are positioned at either end of the new span and
properly supported over approach/adjacent span.
4. The new girder is lifted up by both the cranes and the end
L
brackets are lightly supported on timber jacks over ends of
E
adjacent spans.
P T
N
5. The diplorries on which the new span is brought, are removed
and lowered to bed or moved to the adjacent spans.
6. The track and the trough deck (if present) of the old span are
dismantled and removed.
Bridge Engineering
7. The rivets of the deck would have been cut out and 40-50
percent holes replaced with bolts as part of preliminary
arrangements to facilitate quick work and to minimize time for the
block.
L
8. The cross bracings of the old span are disconnected and
E
T
removed. Rivets of cross bracings would have also been cut in
P
advance and substituted by bolts.
N
9. The old girders are slewed out over the skid rails or supporting
joists as slowly as possible, care being taken to guard against
toppling of the girder.
Bridge Engineering
10. In this case, the supporting joist was in three pieces with bolted
splice connections and were resting at ends on stools on top of the
bed block over the nose of the pier.
11. The splice connections of the supporting joist are removed and
L
middle portion of the joist taken out to provide sufficient space for
E
T
lowering of the new span through the gap on to the bed block.
P
N
12. The temporary brackets at ends are removed and the new span
are lowered on the bearings over the piers.
13. The bed plate of bearing would have been positioned in the
meantime.
Bridge Engineering
14. The new span having been assembled completes with sleepers
and track- the track on either side only has then to be connected to
the track on the new span.
15. The diplorries are now brought over the now span and the old
L
girders lifted one by one with the help of the cranes and placed on
E
the diplorries and properly stayed.
P T
N
16. The cranes are released and moved on to one approach at the
same time moving the diplorries with old girders in the same
direction.
17. Old girders are lifted and slewed out for stacking by the side of
the track, with the help of the cranes.
Bridge Engineering
18. A minimum of 3 to 3.5 hours block would be necessary to

handle one 30 m span conveniently at a time by this method.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Renewal of Girders with Gantries:
• The method can be adopted also with some modification using

collapsible (mobile) gantries instead of cranes.
• Temporary gantry track will have to be built up over temporary
E L
joists supported on the noses of the existing abutments and
piers on either side.
P T
N
• Adequate space has to be left over piers between the gantry
track joists for housing individual girders slewed out after
dismantling.
• At the same time, sufficient space has to be left for lowering the
new girders in between.
Bridge Engineering
• If pier is not sufficiently long the gantry track have to be built

over temporary stagings built on either side of the piers.
• The other variation in this method is that the new girder is

brought over the span to be change on the rail truck/wagon
L
itself as an alternative to bringing over diplorries.
E
P T
• This means that they can even be assembled in a central shop
and brought to the site directly. N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Enveloping Method:
• In this method, the new or a temporary girder is assembled in

such a way that it can envelop the existing girder and can be
moved over the same by fixing a trolley track on the top boom of
L
the existing girder and using light low wheeled trollies or rollers
E
for the movement of the new girder span.
P T
N
• This method is particularly suitable for replacing girders of long
spans of open-web type over rivers where the depth of water is
too much and/or the velocity of flow is too high to erect any
temporary staging on sides and it is possible to drive piles.
Bridge Engineering
• Driving of the piles may also be difficult owing to a large amount

of pitching stones having been thrown around piers, which
stones would interfere with the driving of the piles.
• This method is called partial construction methods also.
E L
• The new or temporary enveloping span is partly built up, i.e. the
P T
two side frames and the top bracings are built up together on
the approach. N
• A temporary trolley line or roller path is fixed over the top boom
of the existing girders.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• A trolley made of a set of rollers is fitted below the top lateral

bracing close to the joints one at every panel point of the new
girder so that they can run over the trolley track.
• In the approach, a temporary trolley or roller path is built on the

L
cess of the approach bank so that similar trolleys placed below
E
T
panel points of bottom boom can move over them.
P
N
• The new girder is moved over this track till such time as the
front portion comes over the existing girder.
• Then the front trolley is fixed over the existing girder and the
end of new girder brought to rest on the same and the trolley
below the bottom boom at the front end removed.
Bridge Engineering
Floatation Method:
• This method is used in major rivers, such as Ganga,

Brahmaputra or other tidal rivers, for changing long-span
girders over the deep channel.
E L
• This is an ideal method for changing girders in navigable rivers
P T
where navigation facilities are normally available and can be
availed of without difficulty. N
• As the name suggests, the replacement of the girder is done by
floating out the old girder and floating in the new girder.
• The new girder is assembled on the bank, close to a deep

channel.
Bridge Engineering
• Stagings are built for a sufficient height over a pair of pontoons,

and these are moved close to the erection yard.
• The girder is assembled complete with minimum decking and

slewed over the stagings erected on the pontoons.
E L
• The pontoons are then towed near the gap where the girder is to
replaced, and temporarily anchored.
P T
N
• A pair of pontoons similarly provided with stagings are brought
on the either side of span and taken below the existing span.
• If the river is tidal, these pontoons will be taken when the tide is
rising so that, during the rising tide, the existing spans are
lifted.
Bridge Engineering
• Immediately after being cleared off bearings, the pontoons are

towed outside.
• The top of the pier is cleared of any temporary supports and the
pontoons containing the new span are similarly towed over the
gap and taken on temporary supports.
E L
P T
• As the tide starts falling, the pontoon staging is free and can
quickly be towed out. N
• The span can then be lowered with the help of jacks over the
new bearings which would have been positioned in the
meantime removing any temporary supports.
Bridge Engineering
• The pontoons containing the old spans can then be towed to the
dismantling yard built on the other side, where they will be
slewed out from the pontoons and taken up for dismantling.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Replacement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Rebuilding over Diversion
Need for Diversion:
• The previous methods are generally applicable to the railway

bridges where the substructure and foundation are in good
condition and are proposed to be retained as such or
strengthened for reasons of economy.
E L
P T
• There may be cases where the entire bridge may requires
replacement. N
• In such cases, the reconstruction is done on a different
alignment taking the bridge either upstream or downstream and
suitably modifying the approaches.
Bridge Engineering
• If the existing bridge is proposed to be abandoned completely,

the new bridge can be positioned upstream, as for as possible,
keeping the pier position corresponding to the existing pier
positions.
L
• This will avoid undue scour which may affect the existing bridge
E
T
being kept in service while the new bridge is under
P
•
construction.
N
Even in such case, it is preferable to keep a minimum distance
between the two and this minimum distance is dependent upon
the span arrangement and nature of the river, i.e. the flow
condition and the foundation strata condition.
Bridge Engineering
• If it has to be sited downstream, distance will be much more as

the scour holes caused by existing piers would extend quite
deep and for considerable distance below.
• In a highway bridge, it is not possible to partially replace the

superstructure using previous methods
E Lunless the
T
superstructure comprises steel/ timber decking.
P
N
• Hence, invariably, even for the replacement of the
superstructure, the existing traffic will have to be diverted on a
new alignment.
Bridge Engineering
• Also, it may be that in case of a railway bridge, it will be difficult

to relay the track on either approach on a permanent basis due
to curvature constraints.
• Then also, the existing traffic will have to be diverted on a

L
temporary diversion while the superstructure work of the entire
E
T
bridge in the existing alignment is being replaced.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Temporary Diversion:
• The temporary diversions are laid as close as possible bearing

in mind the existing condition of the bridge.
• On either end, they have to be connected with S curves if the
E L
alignment is straight or curvature suitably modified if the
alignment is on a curve.
P T
N
• It will be uneconomical and difficult to provide temporary piers
or even build up banks to the same level as that of existing
bridge.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Hence, the practice is to provide the approaches at the ruling

gradient or the gradient permissible for taking the traffic and
keeping the alignment over the waterway as low as possible.
• Some temporary girders supported on sleepers, cribs or trestle

L
supports are provided over the waterway for passing the normal
E
discharge.
P T
N
• It should, however, be understood that this type of arrangement
is possible only when the work can be completed in one
working season, or an alternate route is available for diverting
the traffic temporarily for the duration of floods when the
temporary diversion can be damaged.
Bridge Engineering
Construction without Temporary Arrangements:
• Sometimes, a small bridge or a culvert has to be constructed

under an existing railway or road embankment for the purpose
of passing the local drainage, laying a service main or for
providing a pathway.
E L
P T
• The road or track above may be subjected to heavy traffic and
N
any slight dislocation by way of speed restriction over a long
period may have serious repercussions.
• In such case, the method known as pipe jacking is adopted.

General layout of pipe jacking work is shown in figure.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Pipe jacketing is the technique of inserting prefabricated

concrete pipes or R.C.C box sections through the ground below
or embankment by jacking them horizontally in the correct
position.
L
• For this purpose, a drive pit is made on the one side of the
E
T
embankment along the proposed alignment of the pipe, in which
P
N
a jacking wall is built at the rear end, against which jacking rig is
fixed.
• A similar pit is made up at the other end but without the need for
having any jacking wall.
Bridge Engineering
• Precast pipes in small lengths are inserted into the drive pit and
jacked through using a driving shield and removing soil in front
as adopted for tunnels.
• Typical cross-section through a road of a bridge built up by

jacking technique is shown in the figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 35: Dynamic Response of Bridge Decks
 Introduction
 Factors Influencing Bridge Vibrations

E L
 Dynamic Response of Bridge Decks P T
N
 Practical Approach for Vibration Analysis
 Numerical Examples
 Codal Provisions
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 Dynamic Response of Bridge Decks
L
E
P T
 Codal Provisions N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Moving loads on bridge decks causes the super structure

comprising beams and slabs deflect from its equilibrium
position relatively quickly.
• The mass and inherent elasticity of the structure tends to
L
restore the bridge deck to its equilibrium position thus causing
E
T
a series of vibrations due to the motion of vehicles on the
P
bridge deck.
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The effect of bridge deck vibrations result in
(a) Structural damage if not properly designed for vibration

effects,
(b) Causes unpleasant physiological and psychological reactions

on humans, and
E L
P T
(c) Develops additional stresses of transient nature which are in
addition the static effects. N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The normal practice generally followed in several national and

international design codes to safeguard the bridge deck from
the destructive effects of dynamic loads is to provide for
impact factors for live loads which amplify the design static
loads by a certain percentage.
Consequently the bridge deck is rendered E

L
•
P T more rigid so that
and elasticity of the structure. N

the dynamic effects are safely resisted with increased mass
• Certain thumb rules incorporated in the codes include limiting

the span/depth ratios of the deck and also limiting the
deflection/span ratio.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• These provisions are not based on the data of frequency and

amplitude of vibration of the structure and hence cannot be
taken as guarantee against the occurrence of undue vibrations
even under normal loads.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
L
E
P T
Bridge Engineering
Factors Influencing Bridge Vibrations
Bridge vibrations are influenced by the following factors:
(1) Natural frequencies of the vehicle system and the suspension

system
(2) Speed of passing vehicles
E L
(3) Ratio of vehicle to bridge deck weight
P T
bridge deck
N
(4) Flexural rigidity and natural frequency of vibration of the
(5) Type of bridge deck and approaches
Bridge Engineering
Factors Influencing Bridge Vibrations
(6) Improper functioning of expansion joints
(7) Frequency of live load application due to the passage of

multiple axles
(8) Motion induced in bridge before application of live loads

(particularly important for continuous spans)
E L
P T
(9) The damping characteristics of the bridge and the vehicle
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
L
E
P T
Bridge Engineering
Dynamic Response of Bridge Decks
• The dynamic response of a bridge deck to a moving load

depends on mass, stiffness, damping properties of the bridge
and dynamic properties of the moving loads resulting in
vibrations either at the natural frequency or at the frequency of
the applied excited force.
The normal range of fundamental frequencyE

L
•
between 1 and 20 cycles per second. P
T of bridges varies
•
N
This may coincide with the range of frequencies of moving
vehicles resulting in the possibility of resonance leading to the
failure of the bridge deck.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
L
E
P T
Bridge Engineering
Practical Approach for Vibration Analysis
• A prerequisite for vibration analysis of bridge decks is a proper

understanding of the principles of dynamics of structure.
• A simpler procedure has been evolved by Lenzen, relating the

natural frequency and the vibration amplitude shown in Figure in
the next slide.
E L
P T
• This concept generally referred to as Lenzen’s criteria is very
N
helpful in identifying the degree of perception of vibrations in the
structure by humans.
Bridge Engineering
The following procedure is ideally suited for the designer for a

logical approach for the vibration analysis of bridge decks:
(1) Estimate the maximum span deflection 𝜹𝜹 (mm) under a single

200 kN hypothetical point load at centre of span and cross-section
using the fully composite (average) flexural rigidity of the deck
E L
section of full width (EI).
P T
N
(2) Estimate the fundamental natural frequency 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 of the deck span
from the relation,
𝟐𝟐 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬
𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 = cycles per second
𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅
Bridge Engineering
𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 = cycles per second
Where
L = Span (m)
EI = Flexural rigidity of the full width section E

L
P T of the bridge deck
expressed in kN.m Units.
N
2
𝟐𝟐
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅 = Dead weight of deck including finishes expressed in kN/m of

bridge span.
Bridge Engineering
(3) Take ∆ = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒δ, if 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 > 4 cycles per second

∆ = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕δ, if 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 < 4 cycles per second
Where ∆ = maximum amplitude of vibration in mm and deflection 𝜹𝜹

expressed in mm.
E L
P T
(4) Estimate the maximum acceleration A from the equation
𝟐𝟐
A = 40 ∆ × 𝑵𝑵 mm/𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒇𝒇
𝟐𝟐
N
(5) Ensure that product A∆ ≯ 3226 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 /𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐
And that the vibration characteristic from Lenzen’s criteria (from

known value of 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 and ∆) is within desirable limits.
Bridge Engineering
Lenzen’s
E L
Criteria
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
L
E
P T
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example 1: Problem Statement
A reinforced concrete slab deck for a culvert of effective span 6.5 m

is 500 mm thick with two Lane road way 7.5 m wide and foot paths 1
m wide. Height of kerb = 300 mm, wearing coat is 100 mm thick with
asphalt concrete. M-20 Grade concrete is used in the deck-slab.
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Compute the natural frequency of the slab deck and check for the
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safety of the deck against failure due to dynamic effects.
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Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example 1: Solution
(1) Data:
Effective span = 6.5 m
M-20 Grade Concrete
L
E = 5700 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 5700 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 25491 N/𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 = 25.491 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 kN/𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐
E
I=
𝟗𝟗.𝟓𝟓 × 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟑
= 0.0989 𝐦𝐦𝟒𝟒 P T
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
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Flexural rigidity EI = (25.491 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 ) × 0.0989 = 2.521 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 kN.𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
(2) Maximum Deflection:

Maximum deflection at centre of span under a hypothetical
concentrated load of 200 kN is computed as δ.
Bridge Engineering
𝑾𝑾𝑳𝑳𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟔𝟔.𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟑

𝜹𝜹 = = = 4.539 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒 m = 0.454 mm
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
(3) Natural Frequency of Vibrations:

Fundamental natural frequency 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 =
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cycles per second
Weight of deck slab = (9.5 × 0.5 × 24) = 114 kN/m

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Weight of foot paths = (2 × 0.3 × 1 × 24) = 14.4 kN/m N
Weight of wearing coat = (0.1 × 7.5 × 22) = 16.5 kN/m
Weight of parapet, railing etc. = 5.1 kN/m (approximately)
Total dead weight 𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅 = 150 kN/m
Bridge Engineering
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 × 𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

Fundamental natural frequency 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 =
𝟔𝟔.𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= 18.16 cycles per second
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Since 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 > 4 cycles per second
∆ = 0.40 𝜹𝜹 = (0.40 × 0.454) = 0.1816 mm

T E
N P
A = 40 ∆ 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐𝒇𝒇 = (40 × 0.1816 × 18.162) = 2395 mm/sec2
A∆ = (2395 × 0.1816) = 435 mm2/sec2 < 3226 mm2/sec2 (Hence safe)
Compared with Lenzen’s criteria, the vibration characteristics lie

between the zones of distinctly to strongly perceptible.
Bridge Engineering
Lenzen’s
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Criteria
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Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example 2: Problem Statement
A reinforced concrete Tee beam and slab deck of effective span 16 m

has a cross section with 3 longitudinal girders as shown in Figure. M-
20 Grade concrete is used for casting the slab and girders. Estimate
the natural frequency of vibration of the Tee beam and slab deck and
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check for the safety of the deck against failure due to dynamic
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effects.
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Bridge Engineering
(a) Data:
M-20 Grade Concrete
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E = 5700 𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 5700 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 25491 N/𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 = 25.491 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 kN/𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐
E
(b) Sectional properties:
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The cross-section of Tee beam is shown in
Figure.
N
Location of Neutral Axis from base
= (300×1400×700 + 200×2500×1500)/
(300×1400 + 200×2500) = 1134.78 mm ≈ 1135 mm
Bridge Engineering
The second moment of inertia I = (300 × 14003)/12 + {(300 × 1400) ×

(1135 –700)2} + (2500 × 2003)/12 + {(2500 × 200) × (465 – 100)2} = 2.163
× 1011 mm4 = 0.2163 m4
For 3 girders, Effective moment of inertia I = (3 × 0.2163) = 0.6489 m4
Flexural Rigidity EI = (25.491 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 ) × 0.6489 = 16.541 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 kN.m𝟐𝟐

E L
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(c) Maximum Deflection:
Maximum deflection at centre of

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span under a hypothetical
concentrated load of 200 kN is computed as
𝑾𝑾𝑳𝑳𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑

𝜹𝜹 = = = 0.001032 m = 1.032 mm
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
Bridge Engineering
(d) Dead Load of Deck:
Self-weight of slab = (0.2 × 1 × 24 × 8.7) = 41.76 kN/m
Weight of wearing coat = (0.08 × 8.7 × 22) = 15.312 kN/m
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Weight of 3 girders = [3 × (0.3 × 1.4 + 0.2 × 2.5) × 24) = 66.24 kN/m
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Weight of Kerb, parapet railing etc. = 12.68 kN/m (Approximately)
Total dead weight 𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅 = 136 kN/m N

(e) Natural Frequency of vibrations:
Fundamental natural frequency 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 = cycles per second
Bridge Engineering
Fundamental natural frequency 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 = cycles per second =
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 × 𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

= 8.534 cycles per second
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
(f) Vibration Amplitude:

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Since 𝑵𝑵𝒇𝒇 > 4 cycles per second, ∆ = 0.40𝜹𝜹 = (0.40 × 1.032) = 0.4128 mm
(g) Check for Dynamic Response:

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A = 40∆𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐𝒇𝒇 = (40 × 0.4128 × 8.5342) = 1202.55 mm/sec2
A∆ = (1202.55 × 0.4128) = 496 mm2/sec2 < 3226 mm2/sec2 (Hence Safe)
Bridge Engineering
Compared with Lenzen’s Criteria, the

vibration characteristics lie between
the zones of distinctly to strongly
perceptible.
Lenzen’s
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Criteria
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Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
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Bridge Engineering
Codal Provisions
The various codal provisions which correlate indirectly with the

dynamic response of bridge decks are those pertaining to
(1) Impact factors
(2) Limitation of the ratio of deflection to span
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(3) Restriction in the span/depth ratios.
These provisions have been evolved P

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N with time; based on a
quantitative analysis of the bridge behaviour when subjected to live
loads after accounting for the increase in the static responses due to
the dynamic effect.
Bridge Engineering
Codal Provisions
The impact factor allowance is expressed as a fraction of the applied

live loads and is computed:
I = A/ (B + L)
Where
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I = Impact Factor Fraction
A = Constant having the value of 4.5P

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N for Reinforced Concrete
B = Constant having a value of 6.0 for Reinforced Concrete

L = Span in metres
Bridge Engineering
Codal Provisions
For deck span less than 3 m, impact factor is 0.5 for RC Bridges and
0.545 for Steel Bridges.
When deck span exceeds 45 m, impact factor is 0.088 for RC Bridges

and 0.154 for Steel Bridges.
For deck span less than 9 m,

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A) For tracked vehicles, 25% of the span up to 5 m linearly
reduced to 10% for span of 9 m.
B) For wheeled vehicles, 25%.
Bridge Engineering
Codal Provisions
For tracked vehicle for RC bridges, 10% up to the span of 40 m and in

accordance with the following figure for spans exceeding 40 m.
For steel bridges, 25% for span up to 23 m and as per he following

figure for spans exceeding 23 m.
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Bridge Engineering
Codal Provisions
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Bridge Engineering
E L
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Bridge Engineering
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Publishing.
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Lecture 36: Seismic Design of Highway Bridges
 Seismic Effects on Bridges
 Seismic Design Philosophy

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 Structural Configuration for Earthquake
 Time Period of Bridge

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 Strength, Ductility and Energy Dissipation
 Seismic Design Provisions

Topic of Discussion

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Bridge Engineering
Seismic Effects on Bridges
• The seismic effects on bridges can be classified as
(i) Seismic displacements, (ii) Pier failure
(iii) Expansion Joint failure, (iv) bearing failure
(v) Abutment slumping,

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(vi) foundation failure and
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(vii) Partial and complete
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collapse of bridges due to soil
liquefaction.
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Bridge Engineering
• Under earthquake action the bridge decks are subjected to

transverse or longitudinal displacement depending on the
direction of earthquake.
• In some situations when sufficient bearing seat width is not

provided, the unseating of deck take place.
E L
P T
• In horizontally curved superstructure, transverse movement of
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superstructure translates into longitudinal movement at a joint,
which could lead to unseating of deck.
• In skewed bridges, the centre of mass usually does not

coincide with centre of stiffness, which causes rotation of
superstructure and large displacements at supports.
Bridge Engineering
• Bridges with large skew angle could rotate and unseat the
superstructure under seismic action.
• Bridge piers designed without ductile detailing are prone to

spalling of cover concrete, buckling of longitudinal
reinforcement and crumbling of core concrete.
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Bridge Engineering
• Effect of vertical acceleration, in near field region, often

changes the failure mode of bridge pier from flexure to shear.
• Shear failure of bridge piers may be due to inadequate or no

ductile detailing or improper/ premature curtailment of
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longitudinal reinforcement or design not based on capacity
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design methods.
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• Expansion joints are subjected to compression or tension
failure during earthquake.
• When superstructure is subjected to substantial lateral and

longitudinal force during earthquake, it can lead to failure of
bearing or of connections to substructure.
Bridge Engineering
• During earthquake slumping of abutment fill, rotation of

abutments occur in case the abutment fill is incompletely
consolidated.
• Abutment back wall may get damaged due to superstructure

impact.
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• When bridges are founded on soft or liquefiable soils,
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amplification of structural vibration response under seismic
action had resulted in unseating of bridge deck, especially in
simply supported spans.
Bridge Engineering
• The seismic forces shall be assumed to come from any

horizontal direction. For this purpose two separate analyses
shall be performed for design seismic forces acting along two
orthogonal horizontal directions.
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• Design seismic force resultants (axial force, bending moments,
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shear forces, and torsion) at any cross-section of a bridge
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component resulting from the analyses in two orthogonal
horizontal directions (x,z) shall be combined as below.
a) ±r1 ± 0.3r2 and b) ±0.3r1 ± r2 Where,
r1 and r2 = Force resultants due to full design seismic forces along

x direction and z direction respectively.
Bridge Engineering
• When vertical seismic forces are also considered, the design

seismic force resultants at any cross section of a bridge
component shall be combined as below.
a) ±r1 ± 0.3r2 ± 0.3r3
b) ±0.3r1 ± r2 ± 0.3r3
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c) ±0.3r1 ± 0.3r2 ± r3 Where,P T
1 2
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r and r = Force resultants due to full design seismic forces along
x direction and z direction respectively.
r3 is the force resultant due to full design seismic force along the
vertical direction.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

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Bridge Engineering
Seismic Design Philosophy
i. Under Design Basis Earthquake (DBE), a moderate earthquake,

which may occur more frequently in the life of a structure; the
bridge should be able to withstand earthquake with minor
structural damage.
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ii. Under Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE), a large
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earthquake, which may occur once in the life of a structure; the
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bridge may be subjected to significant structural damage but not
collapse. The damage should be readily accessible for inspection
and repair.
iii. The bridges with design life of up to 100 years may be

designed for DBE only. The bridges with design life of more than
100 years may be designed both for DBE and MCE.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

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Bridge Engineering
Structural Configuration for Earthquake
• The preferred structural system and configuration from seismic

behaviour considerations are given in the table below, along
with the non-preferred types, for which special design and
detailing are required.
Sl
Seismically preferred
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Seismically not preferred
No.
Superstructure
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1. Integral Bridges. (Helps to
avoid unseating of
N
the
1. Suspended Spans resting
on Cantilever arms
A.
superstructure from support and (Connection is subjected to
also improves seismic response large unpredicted
due to high redundancy) displacement and rotations)
Bridge Engineering
Sl
Seismically preferred Seismically not preferred
No.
Superstructure
2. Right angled Bridges or
Bridges with mild curvature,
small skews (i.e. radius of
Curvature ≥ 100 m and Skew ≤
E L
30°). Right Bridges provides a
direct load path with predictable
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A.
N
response under seismic loads. 2. Superstructure with high
Bridges with sharp curvature seismic mass.
and large skew angles
experience larger and
unpredictable deformations,
which in turn, results in larger
ductility demands and also
imparts torsional effects);
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
Superstructure
3. Continuous Bridges (Helps to
avoid unseating of the
L
superstructure from support in
A.
longitudinal direction)
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2. Superstructure with high
low seismic mass (Reduces the

seismic demand for
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4. Lighter Superstructure with seismic mass.
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substructure and foundation
design)
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
Substructure
1. Multiple column bent for
substructure are preferable 1. Plate Type Piers (Very
large difference in stiffness
L
because their redundancy and
E
ability to produce ductile in two orthogonal directions)
behaviour
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2. PCC and Masonry Piers in
B.
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2. Adjacent Piers of near equal seismic zones IV and V
heights and near equal stiffness 3. Piers with such shapes,
(i,e. Variation in stiffness ≤ 25%). where plastic hinge is likely
(Stiffness irregularities cause to form at intermediate
concentration of seismic shear height. (Causes large shear
forces in the shorter columns, force in substructure for
which may cause brittle shear formation of plastic hinge)
failure)
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
Substructure
4. Piles extended up to pier
3. Piers of such shapes where cap without pile cap and
plastic hinge will form at the top without reduction in pile size
B. of foundation (Helps to restrict above ground
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the damage to inspectable
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portion above ground only, 5. Piers with flares near top
during a seismic event)
Nand bottom in case of portal
structure.
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
Bearings and Expansion Joints & Seismic Devices
1. Bearings with high damping
characteristics to dissipate
1. Metallic Rocker and
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energy (i.e. High Damping
Rocker-cum-Roller bearings
C. Elastomeric Bearings and Lead
Rubber Bearings, friction
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in Seismic zones IV and V
pendulum bearings
reduces seismic demand in
which
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(Rigidity of bearings
increases seismic demand).
substructure and foundation).
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
2. Bearings where vertical load
bearing mechanism is
L
segregated from lateral load
resisting mechanism (Ensures
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predictable response of the 1. Metallic Rocker and
C.
e.g. Pot cum PTFE bearings.
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bearings under seismic event) Rocker-cum-Roller bearings
N in Seismic zones IV and V
(Rigidity of bearings
3. Detailing where adequate gap increases seismic demand).
at Expansion Joints are
provided to cater for seismic
movements. (To avoid pounding
of deck).
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
4. Bearing Design to ensure
structural integrity and
L
avoidance of unseating of
structure under extreme seismic
T E
displacements, considering out 1. Metallic Rocker and
C. applicable. N P
of phase movements wherever Rocker-cum-Roller bearings
in Seismic zones IV and V
5. Use Seismic devices (like (Rigidity of bearings
Shock Transmission Units, increases seismic demand).
Viscous Dampers, Lead Rubber
Bearings to improve seismic
performance of Bridges (As it
reduces seismic demand)
Bridge Engineering
Sl
No.
Foundations
1. Foundation type preferred
D. which adds to flexibility to the
L
system and increases time
period.
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NP
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

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Bridge Engineering
Time Period of Bridge
• It is preferable to design bridges in zones IV and V in such a way

that fundamental period falls in most favourable range in both
longitudinal and transverse directions such that the seismic
demands are smaller both in the structure and foundation.
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• Various methods to enhance time periods of piers may be
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explored such as using framed substructure, cantilever piers
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with near equal stiffness in two principal directions and use of
seismic isolation bearings.
• For computing time period, due consideration shall be given to

the flexibility available to the bridge from pile/well foundation due
to soil structure interaction for maximum and no scour condition.
The consideration of flexibility leads to longer period.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

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Bridge Engineering
Strength, Ductility and Energy Dissipation
• Seismic design of bridge is generally achieved by providing

adequate strength and ductility of substructure.
• The energy dissipation takes place due to inelastic behaviour of

pier.
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• The location of plastic hinge should be predetermined and the
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required flexural strength of the plastic hinge shall be obtained
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using capacity-based design approach.
• RCC/PSC substructure shall be designed as under reinforced and

adequately detailed to avoid premature failure due to shear and
bond.
Bridge Engineering
• Plastic hinge regions shall be provided with close spaced

transverse stirrups to confine the compressed concrete within the
core region and to prevent buckling of longitudinal reinforcement.
• In steel substructure, the compression zones require detailing to

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avoid premature buckling and joints require proper detailing to
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ensure overall ductile behaviour of the structure.
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Bridge Engineering
• The beneficial effect of bridge flexibility, damping characteristics,

energy dissipation and isolation by using seismic protection
/isolation devices and ductility in seismic response reduction
should be duly accounted in seismic analysis and design.
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• The seismic design of the bridge is achieved by providing
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adequate strength and ductility in the members resisting seismic
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action under design earthquake motion. The horizontal strength
and stiffness of substructure should not vary significantly along
the bridge length.
• The likely location of plastic hinge regions in the event of major

earthquakes should be pre-identified.
Bridge Engineering
• Unless external seismic isolation /protection devices are used to

reduce the seismic demand on structure, the majority of energy
dissipation in the structure takes place due to inelastic action in
plastic hinges occurring in major earthquakes.
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• The ductility provisions in plastic hinge regions should therefore
E
be ensured as required by seismic codes.
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• The capacity protected regions of substructure/foundation can be
designed elastically without ductility provisions.
Bridge Engineering
• Force demands for essentially elastic components adjacent to

ductile components should be determined by capacity-design
principle, that is, joint-force equilibrium conditions; considering
plastic hinge capacity at hinge location multiplied by over strength
factor.
The over strength factors should not be used E

L
•
P T where plastic hinges
are not likely to be formed.
N
• Force demands calculated from linear elastic analysis should not
be used in capacity protected regions.
Bridge Engineering
• The over strength factor is a multiplying factor to plastic moment

capacity at hinge location.
• This factor represents various sources of over strength such as

unintentional increase in material properties, post-yield strain
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hardening, rounding off dimension of members and providing
E
excess reinforcement than required.
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• The global displacement capacity of structure should not be less
than the estimated displacement demands under a design
earthquake and local displacement capacity of its individual
members.
• The ductility capacity should be greater than ductility demand.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
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Bridge Engineering
Seismic Design Provisions
Superstructure
i. The superstructures with simply supported spans on bearings

are vulnerable to damage because these are prone to being
unseated or toppled from their supporting sub-structures due to
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either shaking or differential support movement associated with
E
ground motion.
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ii. N
In such cases, provision such as larger seat widths, using
unseating prevention devices, holding-down devices or
interlinking of spans by linkages should be made to prevent
spans dislodgement off their supports.
Bridge Engineering
iii. The superstructure should remain elastic even when the plastic
hinge location in columns/piers reach their plastic moment capacity.
iv. In order to ensure elastic behaviour in superstructure capacity

design principle shall be adopted.
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Bridge Engineering
Substructure
i. Plastic hinges should develop in columns rather than in capping

beams or superstructures under seismic conditions.
ii. The locations of potential plastic hinges in piers should be pre-
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selected so as to ensure their accessibility for inspection and
repair.
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iii. The shear failure in columns should be avoided by ductile design
and detailing practice.
iv. The pier shall be capable of resisting shear corresponding to

over strength plastic moment developed in plastic hinge region.
Bridge Engineering
v. This shall be ensured by ductile design and detailing practices.
vi. The number of piers and abutments that will resist seismic force
in longitudinal or transverse directions should be pre-selected.
E L
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Bridge Engineering
Bearings and Expansion Joints
i. The inertia forces generated on superstructure due to seismic

effects should preferably be transferred to piers/abutments
through fixed bearings capable of withstanding horizontal loads.
ii.
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Wherever the fixed bearings are used, they shall be designed for
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the design seismic action determined through capacity design.
N
iii. Alternatively linkages shall be used to withstand seismic action.
Bridge Engineering
iv. The out of phase motion between two piers due to various
causes such as different soil properties under pier foundations,
wave travel time effect in longer spans and different stiffness of
piers due to unequal heights or crosssectional dimensions shall
L
be considered in working out design seismic displacement in
E
bearings and expansion joints.
Wherever movable bearings are used,P

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v.
N they shall allow seismic
displacements due to possible out of phase motion of piers.
vi. Additionally these bearings should be provided with

displacement limiting devices such as stoppers, linkages etc.
Bridge Engineering
vii. Wherever the elastomeric bearings are used, these bearing shall
accommodate imposed deformations and normally resist only
non-seismic actions.
viii. The resistance to seismic action is provided by structural

L
connections of the deck to piers or abutments through suitable
E
means.
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N
ix. In case, in-plane horizontal seismic forces are to be transmitted
using these elastomeric bearings, they shall be checked using
minimum dynamic frictional value and minimum vertical loads,
including combined effect of vertical and horizontal components
of earthquake.
Bridge Engineering
x. In such cases suitable devices for preventing dislodgement of

superstructure shall be provided.
xi. Where high damping elastomeric bearings are used to resist

seismic action, these may be designed to act as seismic isolation
bearing.
E L
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N
Bridge Engineering
Foundations
i. Force demands on foundations should be based on capacity

design principle that is, plastic capacity of bases of
columns/piers multiplied with an appropriate over strength factor.
ii.
E L
Foundation elements should be designed to remain essentially
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elastic. Pile foundations may experience limited inelastic
N
deformations; in such cases these should be designed and
detailed for ductile behaviour.
iii. In case of well and pile foundations, the foundations should be

taken deeper into soil layers where liquefaction is not likely to
occur.
Bridge Engineering
Long span bridges
• Long span bridges like cable stayed, suspension bridges, or the

bridges crossing non homogeneous soil formations can be
affected by spatial and temporal variations in ground motions.
E L
• The number and location of intermediate joints should be decided
duly considering the above effects.
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N
• The different piers are subjected to different ground motions at
any one time, because seismic waves take time to travel from one
pier to another.
• Detailed seismic studies considering multi-support excitation shall

be necessary to determine earthquake effects on such bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Special Types of Bridges
These bridges shall be designed for site-specific spectrum for which

no separate importance factor shall be specified.
The site specific spectrum, time history of design earthquakes, DBE

and MCE shall be specified for seismic design.
E L
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Bridge Engineering
E L
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Bridge Engineering
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Lecture 37: Seismic Design of Railway Bridges
 Seismic Design Principle

E L
 Seismic Design Assumptions P T
N
 Seismic Retrofitting
Topic of Discussion
 Seismic Design Assumptions

E L
P T
 Seismic Retrofitting N
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Design Principle
• All components of the bridge, that is, superstructure, sub-

structure, bearing, foundation and soil are susceptible to
damage in the event of strong ground shaking.
• The earthquake resistant design shall consider the effect of
L
earthquake motions on each component of the bridge.
E
P T
• The design shall ensure that seismic resistance of the bridge
N
and its components are adequate to meet the specified design
requirement so that emergency communication after an
earthquake shall be maintained for the design basis
earthquake.
Bridge Engineering
• Masonry and plain concrete arch bridges with spans more than
10m shall not be built in the seismic zones IV and V.
• Box, pipe and slab culverts need not be designed for

earthquake forces.
E L
• Bridges of total length not more than 60 m and individual span
P T
not more than 15 m need not be designed for earthquake
forces other than in Zones IV and V.N
• Seismic forces on aqueducts and flyover bridges shall be
calculated as for any other bridge. The effect of inertia force of
flowing water mass and the hydrodynamic pressure on walls of
water trough in aqueduct shall be calculated accordingly.
Bridge Engineering
• When relative movement between two adjacent units of a

bridge are designed to occur at a separation/expansion joint,
sufficient clearance shall be provided between them, to permit
the relative movement under design earthquake conditions to
freely occur without inducing damage.
E L
•
P T
Where the two units may be out of phase, the clearance to be
N of the two units under

provided may be estimated as the square
squares of the calculated displacements
root of the sum of
maximum elastic seismic forces.
Bridge Engineering
• Special design studies shall be called for the following cases:
a) Consideration of asynchronous ground motion when, (1)

geological discontinuities or marked topographical features are
present; and (2) single span is greater than 600 m, even if there
are no geological discontinuities.
E L
P T
b) In case of bridges over potentially active tectonic faults, the
N
probable discontinuity of the ground displacement shall be
estimated and accommodated either by adequate flexibility of the
structure or by provision of suitable movement of joints.
c) Bridge located in near-field, that is, within 10 km near fault area

of known active tectonic fault.
Bridge Engineering
• For special bridges in seismic Zones IV and V where soil

conditions are poor consisting of marine clay or loose fine
sand and silt (for example where the soil up to 30 m depth has
SPT (N values - uncorrected) equal to or less than 20 and for
E L
bridges located near a known fault (near - field) or the area is
known for complex seismotectonic geological setting, detailed
P T
investigations shall be carried out to obtain the site specific
spectrum. N
• Site specific spectrum is also required for bridges with spans
greater than 150 m. Such a spectrum shall be used for design
in place of code spectrum subject to minimum requirements.
Bridge Engineering
• The design of the bridge shall be made for the effect of

earthquake motions occurring in the traffic direction
(longitudinal direction), across traffic direction (transverse
direction) and vertical direction. The simultaneous action of the
motions shall be considered, where necessary.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Design of bridges are generally performed for the case when it

is founded on rock and medium soil, which do not liquify or
slide during the ground shaking.
• For bridges founded on soft soils and in cases where deep
L
foundations are used, detailed studies of soil structure
E
interaction are required.
P T
N
• The soil structure interaction may not be considered for open
foundations on rocky strata.
• Soil flexibilities included in modelling sub-structure and

foundation of the bridge for soil structure interaction, generally
lead to longer natural period and hence lower seismic forces.
Bridge Engineering
• However, on the other hand, consideration of soil flexibilities

shall result in larger lateral deflections.
• Soil parameters, like, elastic properties and spring constants

shall be properly estimated.
E L
• In many cases one obtains a range of values of soil properties.
P T
In such cases, the highest values of soil stiffness shall be used
N
for calculating natural period and lowest value shall be used
for calculating deflection. For this purpose, dynamic soil
stiffness shall be considered.
Bridge Engineering
DL = dead load,
DL(S) = superimposed dead load,
LL = Full live load (without any reduction)
LL (F) = live load on footpath,

E L
EQ = earthquake load,
P T
EP = earth pressure, N
Bridge Engineering
ER = erection load such as cranes, machines etc.
PS = prestressing load,
HY = hydrodynamic load,
BO = buoyancy load,
E L
SH = shrinkage load,
P T
CR = creep load, N
TE = temperature load.
Bridge Engineering
(A) Ultimate Limit State
1) 1.25DL + 1.5 DL(S) +1.5EQ + 1.4 PS + 1.7 EP
2) 1.25DL + 1.5DL(S) + 0.5(LL + LL (F)) + 1.2EQ + 1.7 EP + 1.4PS +

1. 4HY + 1.4BO
E L
T
3) 0.9DL + 0.8DL(S) + 1.5EQ + 1.4 PS + 1.7 EP
P
(B) Serviceability Limit State
N
1) 1.0 DL+1.2 DL(S) +1.0 EQ + 1.0 EP + 1.0PS + 1.0HY+ 1.0BO
2) 1.0 DL + 1.2 DL(S) + 0.5(LL+LL(F)) + 1.0EQ + 1.0 EP + 1.0PS +

1.0HY + 1.0 BY
Bridge Engineering
(C) At Construction Stage
1.0 DL + 1.2DL(S) + 0.8EQ + 1.0ER + 1.3EP + 1.0PS + 1.0HY +

1.0BO
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Load Combinations
The seismic forces shall be assumed to come from any horizontal

direction.
For this purpose, two separate analysis shall be performed for
E L
design seismic forces acting along two orthogonal horizontal
directions.
P T
N
The design seismic force resultant (that is axial force, bending
moments, shear forces, and torsion) at any cross-section of a
bridge component resulting from the analyses in the two
orthogonal horizontal directions shall be combined as follows.
Bridge Engineering
a) ± ELx ± 0.3ELy
b) ± 0.3ELx ± ELy
Where ELx and ELy = force resultant due to full design seismic
force along x direction and y direction, respectively.
E L
P T
When vertical seismic forces are also considered, the design
seismic force resultants at any crosssection of a bridge
N
component shall be combined as below:
1) ± ELx ±0.3ELy ± 0.3ELz
2) ± 0.3ELx ± ELy ± 0.3ELz
3) ± 0.3ELx ± 0.3ELy ± ELz
Bridge Engineering
Where ELx and Ely are force resultant due to full design seismic
force along x direction and y direction, respectively and EIz is the
force resultant due to full design seismic force along the vertical
direction.
L
As an alternative, the forces due to the combined effect of two or
E
T
three components can be obtained on the basic of square root of
P
sum of square (SRSS), that is
N
Bridge Engineering
The vertical accelerations should be specially considered in

briges with large spans, those in which stability is the criteria of
design and in situations where bridges are located in near field.
However, the effect of vertical seismic component is particularly
L
important in the following components/situations and needs to be
E
investigated.
P T
a) Pre stressed concrete decks N
b) Bearing and lindages and
c) Horizontal cantilever structural elements
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Serviceability Limit State:
• The design of bridge should meet the serviceability limit state

under design basis earthquake (DBE).
• The parts of the bridge intended to contribute to energy
E L
dissipation shall undergo minor damage without giving rise to
P T
need for reduction of traffic or immediate repair.
N
Bridge Engineering
Ultimate Limit State:
• The design of bridge should meet non-collapse requirement

that is, ultimate limit state under maximum considered
earthquake (MCE). While designing as per IRS concrete bridge
code, DBE may be considered.
E L
P T
• The bridge shall retain its structural integrity and adequate
N
residual resistance, although considerable damage may occur
in some portions of the bridge.
• The structure should be able to sustain emergency traffic,

inspections and repair could be performed easily after the
earthquake.
Bridge Engineering
• The bridge superstructure, however, shall, in general, be

protected from the formation of plastic hinges and from
unseating due to extreme seismic displacements under MCE.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Ductile Behavior:
• The reinforced and pre-stressed concrete components shall be

designed as under-reinforced so as to cause a tensile failure.
• Further, they should be suitably designed to ensure that
E L
premature failure due to shear or bond does not occur.
P T
• Stresses induced in the superstructure due to earthquake
N
ground motion are usually quite nominal.
• Therefore, ductility demand under seismic shaking has not

been a major concern in the bridge superstructures during past
earthquakes.
Bridge Engineering
• However, the seismic response of bridges is critically

dependent on the ductile characteristics of the sub-structures.
• Provisions for appropriate ductile detailing of reinforced

concrete members shall be applicable to sub-structures.
E L
• Bridges shall be designed such that under severe seismic
P T
shaking plastic hinges form in the sub-structure, rather than in
the deck or foundation. N
• Ductile detailing is mandatory for piers/portals of bridges
located in seismic zones III, IV and V.
Bridge Engineering
• When earthquake forces are combined with other forces such

as dead load and live load, the load factor for plastic design of
steel structures and partial safety factors for limit state design
of reinforced concrete structures and pre-stressed concrete
L
structures shall be considered.
• The seismic force due to live load shall not

T E be considered
when acting in the direction of traffic,P
N
in the direction perpendicular to traffic.
but shall be considered
• The live load on Railway bridges, to be considered as seismic

mass, for calculations of earthquake loads in both horizontal
and vertical directions, shall be taken as 50 percent of design
live load (without impact).
Bridge Engineering
• In Load combination also, only 50% of the Live load shall be

combined with Earthquake load along with Dead Loads.
• The design seismic force resultant at a cross-section of a

bridge component shall be appropriately combined with those
due to other forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Design Assumptions
• The seismic forces due to design basis earthquake (DBE)

should not be combined with design wind forces.
• The scour to be considered for design shall be based on mean

design flood. In the absence of detailed data, the scour to be
L
considered for design shall be 0.9 times the maximum design
E
scour depth.
P T
N
• The earthquake accelerations should be applied to full mass in
case of submerged structures and not on buoyant mass.
• The seismic force on live load in bridges should not be

considered in longitudinal direction. The seismic force on live
load should be considered in transverse direction.
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Design Assumptions
• The seismic force on flowing mass of water in the longitudinal

direction in case of aqueducts should not be considered,
however seismic force on this water mass be considered in
transverse direction. The hydrodynamic action of water on the
L
walls of water carrying trough shall be considered as applicable
E
for liquid retaining structures.
P T
•
foundations should be reduced.
N
The earthquake accelerations on embedded portion of bridge
• The value of static elastic modulus of material, where required,

may be taken for dynamic analysis unless a more definite value
is available for use in seismic condition.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
• Simply Supported Bridges
Where the vibration unit of sub-structure can be idealized as a

single cantilever pier carrying the superstructure mass, resting on
well, pile or open foundation, the fundamental period shall be
calculated from the following equation:
E L
T = 2π√(δ/g)
P T
N
Where δ = horizontal displacement at the top of pier due to
horizontal force (= mg)
where m = lumped mass at the top of pier.
Bridge Engineering
• In general pier shall be considered fixed at the foundation level.

However, in case of soft soil or deep foundations, soil flexibility
may be considered in the calculation of natural period.
• Moment of Inertia may be considered for calculation of time
L
period. In case of RCC bridge piers, 75% of gross moment of
E
T
Inertia may be considered as cracked moment of inertia, in
P
absence of detailed calculation.
N
Bridge Engineering
• Other Types of Bridges
Where idealization by a single cantilever pier model is not possible,

the natural periods of vibration may be calculated by free vibration
analysis of an appropriate mathematical model of bridge
L
superstructure, bearing, sub-structure, foundation and soil.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Superstructure
• The superstructure shall be designed for the design seismic

forces plus other loads required in design load combinations.
• Under simultaneous action of horizontal and vertical
E L
accelerations, the superstructure shall have a factor of safety of at
P T
least 1.5 against overturning under DBE condition.
N
• The superstructure shall be secured, when necessary to the sub-
structure in all zones through bearings possessing adequate
vertical holding down devices and/or unseating prevention system
for superstructure.
Bridge Engineering
• These devices should be used for suspended spans also with the
restrained portion of the superstructure.
• However, frictional forces in the devices should not be relied upon

for preventing dislodging and jumping of superstructure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Bearings
• The fixed bearings should be designed to withstand the horizontal

and vertical seismic forces, which are expected to transmit these
forces in the event of ground motion.
E L
• In the case of movable bearings, the bearings shall be able to
P T
accommodate designed displacements. The displacements
N
beyond design values shall be restrained by stoppers.
• Any out of phase motion of piers, if envisaged, shall be

considered in working out design seismic displacement in
bearings.
Bridge Engineering
• The bearings that are permitted to move in longitudinal direction

but restrained in transverse direction shall be designed for
estimated design seismic force in transverse direction.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Vertical Hold-down Devices
• Vertical hold-down devices shall be provided at all supports (or

hinges in continuous structures), where resulting vertical force U
due to the maximum elastic horizontal and vertical seismic forces
L
(combined) opposes and exceeds 50% of the dead load reaction D.
E
P T
• Where vertical force U, due to the combined effect of maximum
N
elastic horizontal and vertical seismic forces, opposes and
exceeds 50%, but is less than 100%, of the dead load reaction D,
the vertical hold-down device shall be designed for a minimum net
upward force of 10% of the downward dead load reaction that
would be exerted if the span were simply supported.
Bridge Engineering
• If the vertical force U, due to the combined effect of maximum

horizontal and vertical seismic forces, opposes and exceeds 100%
of the dead load reaction D, then the device shall be designed for a
net upward force of 1.2 (U – D). However, it shall not be less than
L
10% of the downward dead load reaction that would be exerted if
E
the span were simply supported.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Seating Width
The bearing seat width S in mm, between the end of girder and edge
of sub-structure, as shown in Figure and minimum SE between the
ends of girder at suspended joint should be not less that the
following values:
E L
SE = 203 + 1.67 L + 6.66 H for Seismic
P T
Zones II and III N
SE = 305 + 2.50 L + 10.0 H for Seismic
Zones IV and V
Where L = length of the superstructure to the adjacent expansion

joints or to the end of superstructure.
Bridge Engineering
In case of bearings under suspended spans, it is the sum of the

lengths of two adjacent portions of the superstructure.
In case of single span bridges, it is equal to the length of the

superstructure, in m.
E L
H = average height of all columns or piers supporting the
P T
superstructure to the next expansion joint, for bearings at abutments,
N
in m. It is equal to zero for single span bridges.
For bearings at column or piers, it is the height of column or pier.
For bearings under suspended spans, it is the average height of two

adjacent columns or piers.
Bridge Engineering
Anti-Dislodging Elements in the Horizontal Direction
Anti-dislodgement elements shall be provided between adjacent

sections of the superstructure at supports and at expansion joints.
Anti-dislodgement elements like reaction blocks and seismic
E L
arrestors shall be designed for, at least twice the seismic force.
P T
N
The linkages, if provided, shall be designed for at least, elastic
seismic acceleration coefficient, Ah times the weight of the lighter of
the two adjoining spans or parts of the structure as in the case of
suspended spans.
Bridge Engineering
If the linkage is at locations where relative deformations are designed

to occur, then sufficient slack must be allowed in the linkage so that
linkages start functioning only when the design relative displacement
at the linkage is exceeded and linkage becomes effective, after
overcoming the designed slack in the linkage.
When linkages are provided at columns or piers,E

L
span may be connected to the column P
T the linkage of each
adjacent span.
N or pier instead of to the
Bridge Engineering
Detailing for Control of Displacements:
• The bridge shall be designed so that its behaviour under design

seismic action is ductile.
• The capacity design provisions shall be applicable to regular,
E L
special and irregular types of bridges in Zones III, IV and V.
P T
N
• The intended plastic hinges shall be provided with adequate
ductility measures to ensure the required overall structure
ductility.
• In addition to ensure overall ductility, structural and non-structural

detailing must ensure satisfactory behaviour of the bridge under
design seismic displacement.
Bridge Engineering
The design value of the displacement dED under seismic condition for
providing clearances in critical components shall be determined as
follows:
dED = dE + dG ± dTS
E L
Where dE = design seismic displacement determined from linear
analysis considering R = 1;
P T
N
dG = displacement due to permanent and quasi-permanent action
measured in long term such as shrinkage, creep and post-tensioning;
dTS = displacement due to thermal movements = 0.4 dT ; and
dT = design displacement due to thermal movement.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Seismic Retrofitting
• The decision to retrofit shall be based on the overall consideration

of seismicity, vulnerability and importance of the bridge.
• The need to retrofit shall be determined on the basis of one of the

standard procedures such as capacity- demand ratio method, non-
linear pushover analysis and time history method.
E L
P T
• The objective of retrofitting should be to meet at least the
N
requirement of present seismic code considering residual life of
the structure.
Bridge Engineering
• Retrofit Techniques
On the basis of deficiency observed after seismic evaluation, suitable

retrofit techniques should be selected. Some retrofit techniques for
various components are given below.
• Superstructure
E L
P T
N
Horizontal or vertical motion restrainers, interlinking of spans, pre-
stressing, using dampers.
• Sub-structure
• Concrete jacketing, steel jacketing, carbon fiber winding,

composite jacket of fibre glass and other composites.
Bridge Engineering
• Bearings
Replacement of bearings by new bearings that could accommodate

displacements, provision of stoppers, clamps/vertical holding down
devices, replacement of bearings by isolation devices.
• Foundation
E L
P T
N
Strengthening of existing foundation by enlargement of size,
increasing number of piles, jacketing.
Bridge Engineering
The retrofitted structure should be analyzed and re-designed to

check its effectiveness following standard procedures.
The experimental methods of testing effectiveness of techniques may

be carried out on components/models by quasi-static testing or on
shaking table.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
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P T
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Learning Pvt. Ltd.
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Publishing.
E L
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Lecture 38: Lessons from Bridge Failures
 Introduction
 Flood and Scour Failures
E L
T
 Brittle Fracture
 Barge/ Ship Impact
 False work Failures NP
 Erection Errors
 Design Deficiencies
 Earthquake Effects
 Failure due to Wind
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
 False work Failures
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• It is well known among engineers that absolute safety is

unattainable, and inevitably there are risks of collapse
associated with any bridge.
• However, the bridge engineer should take every possible
L
precaution to avoid failures, as serious failures of bridges will
E
T
often result in loss of lives, interruption to vital traffic and
P
costly repairs.
• Every bridge engineer

N
would do well to study the
circumstances leading to any bridge failure that he may come
across, so as to learn lessons from such failures.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• As bridge spans grow longer, and complex designs aim to

result in lighter structures, the bridges tend to become more
vulnerable to failures.
• Complex designs necessitate sophisticated checks to ensure
L
careful layout and detailing of the various members by the
E
T
designers and correct compliance by the construction team.
P
N
• Lack of communication among the various key personnel
involved in the design and construction, and lapse in respect
for natural forces have often proved disastrous.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The failure may be total or partial. Total failure refers to the

collapse of the bridge. Partial failure, on the other hand,
involves deficiencies in meeting the intended requirements,
necessitating reduced load limit, decreased speed, and
L
implementation of substantial repair and rehabilitation.
E
•
P T
Total failures generally attract attention. But partial failures
•
N
also merit careful study to avoid recurrence of the defects.
Partial failures in bridges necessitate major repairs to

rehabilitate a deteriorating bridge. The situation is particularly
prevalent in prestressed concrete bridges, where a loss of
prestress due to corrosion of prestressing steel manifests in
excessive defections and vibrations.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The failure of a bridge is normally due to a combination of

several defects and errors. In this class, failures are grouped
according to the major cause triggering the collapse.
• An unbiased engineering analysis of every bridge failure would
L
enhance the understanding of the behaviour of bridge systems
E
and the performance of new materials.
P T
N
• Bridge engineers should endeavour to apply the lessons learnt
from bridge disasters towards evolution safe, cost-effective
and durable bridges. The lessons learned from every major
bridge failure would normally result in revisions to the
standard specifications governing bridge design.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Flood and Scour Failures
• Scouring of bridge foundations is the most common cause of

damage to bridges during floods.
• The construction of the bridge abutments and piers modifies

the flow conditions in the river, resulting in new patterns of
erosion and deposition.
E L
P T
• Every bridge across a river should be assessed as to its
N
vulnerability to scour, so that prudent measures may be
initiated to prevent damage to the structure.
Bridge Engineering
• The precaution against this type of failure is to devote special

attention at the stage of investigation to the correct
determination of the design flood discharge, the maximum
flood level, the subsoil profile and the scour level.
L
• The foundation should be taken to a depth well below the scour
E
T
level to ensure adequate anchorage. Scour protection
P
N
measures may include provision of riprap filling at piers and
abutments.
• The past failure incidents highlighted the need for taking the
foundation below the scour level, and the importance of
adequate erosion protection around piers and abutments
susceptible to scour.
Bridge Engineering
• The linear waterway should not be reduced considerably from

the existing width of the river at the bridge site, especially
when the bridge is located close to the mouth of the river
where tidal effects should also be considered.
L
• There have been cases of distress to approach embankments
E
T
when abutments were bought into the river portion in an
P
•
N
attempt to reduce the initial cost of the bridge.
Scour of pier floods leading to bridge collapse has also

occurred as a consequence of quarrying of sand from the river
bed near the bridge. Bridge inspection and maintenance
should include safeguarding the river environment near the
bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture occurs as sudden failure of a steel member

instead of ductile behaviour with plastic deformation.
• This may happen due to various causes including defective

welding and sudden drop in temperature.
E L
• With the availability of weldable notch ductile steels and better
P T
knowledge of welding techniques, this problem is now
overcome. N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Barge/ Ship Impact
• Damage to bridges across navigable rivers caused by barges or

ships are on the increase. The vessels may be adrift or may hit
the piers under power. The damage to the bridge can be
minimized by providing properly designed protective fendering.
L
• When potential damage due to barge impact exists, it is prudent
E
T
not to use pile foundation with exposed piling above the river
P
N
bed. In such cases, sturdy well and heavy caisson foundation
with protective fendering will be desirable.
• Bridge design for barge collision is not based on the worst-case

scenario due to economic and structural constraints. A certain
amount of risk is considered acceptable.
Bridge Engineering
Barge/ Ship Impact
• The risk acceptance criteria are specified in codes with

consideration of the probability of occurrence of a vessel
collision and the consequences of the collision.
• It is advisable to incorporate protection against vessel collision
L
in the initial design. The horizontal and vertical clearances of the
E
T
navigation span have to be determined based on the study of the
P
•
anticipated vessel movements.
N
There is scope for research study to improve our understanding
of the vessel collision mechanics and the development of cost
effective protection measures.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
False work Failures
• Failures of false work can result in loss, injury, death and

interruption to traffic as much as bridge collapse.
• Falsework failure can cause excessive settlement and deflection,

besides the catastrophic collapse of the superstructure.
E L
• While flood, storm winds and earthquakes may contribute to
P T
failure, most falsework failures are attributable to human error.
N
• The problem of avoiding falsework failures is not easy to solve
because of many economic and administrative factors.
• Falsework is a temporary structure designed and erected to last

long enough to support the final structure during construction.
Bridge Engineering
False work Failures
• Traditionally, this has been left to the contractor and as an

economic necessity, the formwork construction needs to use
secondhand materials to the extent possible, thus lacking the
finesse of a finely designed structure.
L
• With increased spans of our bridges, falsework design has
E
become more complicated.
P T
N
• The bridge falsework design should be prepared and checked by a
competent engineer and its erection should be under proper
supervision.
Bridge Engineering
False work Failures
• Immediately prior to and during the placing of concrete, the

constructed falsework should be carefully checked for joint fits,
bracing, stiffness, overturning possibilities, foundation settlement
and general adequacy.
L
• By improved methods of construction and constant vigilance, we
E
can avoid falsework failures.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Erection Errors
• The erection of a major bridge invariably involves special risks,

which could lead to injuries and loss of lives.
• A major cause of erection failures in the past has been the

underestimation of the construction loads and their effects on the
unfinished structure.
E L
P T
• Past erection failures evidenced the essentiality of the design
N
engineer to constantly interact with the construction engineers in
order to initiate timely remedial action if any defects are noticed
during erection.
Bridge Engineering
Erection Errors
• The failures during erection of steel box girder bridges may

basically be due to instability of thin steel plates in compression
and secondary stresses arising from minor geometric
imperfections.
• Geometric imperfections cause critical L

secondary
E
stresses
T
resulting in buckling of the bottom flange.
P
N
• The lesson to be learnt is that design derived from sophisticated
analysis should be tempered with realistic allowances for
construction methods and erection tolerances.
Bridge Engineering
Erection Errors
• The prestrssed concrete bridge of box section collapsed during

erection by incremental launching method, mainly due to wrong
placement of temporary bearings, which punched through the
inadequately designed soffit slab.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Design Deficiencies
• Bridge failures principally due to design deficiencies are relatively

few.
• Designers attempt to achieve the required strength with the use of

minimum amount of materials with a view to minimize the cost of
construction.
E L
P T
• This quest for ever better strength/weight ratios, coupled with
N
other factors, sometimes leads to catastrophic failures.
• In the case of the steel box girder bridges, the primary mode of
failure is instability of the thin plates in compression due to minor
details such as geometric imperfections.
Bridge Engineering
Design Deficiencies
• In each of these cases, a factor which was originally of secondary

importance became with increasing scale of primary importance
and led to failure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Effects
• Several types of bridge failures are noticed during earthquakes. A

common failure is by span shortening. Decks may slide off their
supports due to violent shaking.
• As abutments and piers move together, some decks may buckle,

some may be crushed and some collapsed.
E L
P T
• This problem is critical for bridges with simply supported spans
located in soft soil. N
• Another type was the horizontal displacement of piers due to
movement of piles in liquefied soils subjected to lateral loading.
• A third type involved differential settlement of piers and abutments

due to differences in soil characteristics due to liquefaction.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Effects
• Liquefaction of approach fills have resulted in settlement of fills in

relation to abutments, causing accidents to motor vehicles by
impact against the abutment back wall.
• Columns in substructure are found to suffer extensive damage

L
during earthquakes. The damage is mainly attributable to
E
T
inadequate detailing, which limits the ability of the column to
P
•
deform inelastically.
N
In concrete columns, inadequate ductility results from insufficient
reinforcement to achieve confinement of concrete within the core.
• Termination of longitudinal bars at mid-height led to splitting

failure or shear failure near the end cut-off point in a bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Effects
• Column failures by crushing of concrete due to torsion are also

noticed. In steel column, local buckling may cause inadequate
ductility.
• Several preventive measures may be adopted. Heavier and closer

L
spaced spiral reinforcement should be provided for columns.
E
T
Such reinforcement would retain the concrete in the core and
P
•
prevent collapse.
N
Restraint should be provided at expansion joints and articulations
such that ordinary expansion due to temperature is permitted but
larger movements under earthquake are restrained.
Bridge Engineering
Earthquake Effects
• No splices are to be allowed in columns of less than 6 m height, as

lapped splices of column bars are found to be ineffective under
earthquakes.
• Approach slab with one end resisting on abutment should be

L
provided to permit a smooth transition in case of settlement of
E
T
approaches due to liquefaction of the fill.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Failure due to Wind
• Several bridge failures have occurred due to wind. The bridge may
faile due to aero-static instability, as the design of cross bracing
and its fastenings may be inadequate to sustain wind forces,
though the design may be otherwise in conformity with
contemporary practice.
E L
•
P T
While very little can be done to save a structure from the direct
N
attack of a severe tornado, the damage can be minimized by
providing proper anchorage of the deck with the substructure.
• The recurrence of these types of failures is avoided in recent

designs through streamlining the deck and adequate stiffening.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• Fatigue may be defined as the gradual weakening of a structure

due to repetitive loading and is accompanied by spreading of a
crack.
• If the steel is corroded at the tip of the crack, progression of the

L
crack is accelerated. The fatigue failure led to the evolution of
E
T
strict specifications for bridge inspection.
P
N
• In modern steel bridges, fatigue failure is avoided by paying
attention to detailing of connections and ensuring ductility.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Introduction
E L
 Erection Errors
P T
N
 Fatigue
 Corrosion
Bridge Engineering
Corrosion
• Corrosion of reinforcement in a reinforced concrete bridge may

lead to cracking and spalling of concrete, rendering the bridge
unsafe for modern traffic.
• Potential damage due to corrosion in a backwater area can be

L
prevented only by careful attention to concrete cover to
E
T
reinforcement, by proper placement and compaction of concrete
P
• In pretensioned structures,
N
to avoid honeycombing, and by proper curing with potable water.
corrosion prevention is mainly

accomplished through the use of high performance concrete and
the addition of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures.
Bridge Engineering
Corrosion
• In post-tensioned concrete bridges, special care should be

devoted to ensuring integrity of the duct and grouting of
prestressing cables soon after stressing.
• Delayed grouting and inadequate grouting of tendons especially

L
near the anchorage may cause corrosion of the tendons,
E
T
contributing to the failure of a prestressed concrete bridge.
P
N
• Corrosion of tendons may remain undetected until the loss of
strength to a significant level results in major evidence of
deterioration or even a sudden failure.
• The corrosion takes place at the transverse joints between precast

segments at which chloride-containing water could penetrate.
Bridge Engineering
Corrosion
• The risk of corrosion for concrete bridges may be reduced by

adoption of a combination of preventive measures such as
provision of adequate concrete cover, use of high performance
concrete, application of admixtures to inhibit corrosion, use of
L
corrosion resistant reinforcement, such as epoxy-coated bars and
E
exercise of good quality control.
P T
•
N
Grouting deficiencies have contributed to distress of several post-
tensioned bridges. Such failures have shown the importance of
durability design, besides the load and resistance based structural
design. Modern segmental construction, however, uses matchcast
joints sealed with epoxy.
Bridge Engineering
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Module 12: Advanced Topics in Bridge Engineering

Lecture 39: Fatigue and Fracture of Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Fatigue
E L
P T
N
Ø Crack Growth and Fracture
Ø Fatigue and Fracture Control

Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Fatigue

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The modern view of fatigue of welded structures is that fatigue

is the process of crack extension under the application of
repeated loading sufficiently large above a threshold, with
initiation assumed present due to some discontinuity
L
introduced in the manufacturing of the base metal or as a
E
T
consequence of fabrication.
•
N P
The process of fatigue crack extension is labeled as sub
critical crack growth since the process consists of incremental
crack extension with each cycle of loading. The meaning of
“sub critical” is that the crack can be tolerated in the member
without unstable propagation and fracture.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Fracture is characterized by unstable crack extension which

occurs when the energy required to extend the crack is
exceeded by the energy released by an incremental extension
of the crack.
•
E L
Fracture is the rupture in tension or rapid extension of a
T
discontinuity (which could be a fatigue crack), leading to gross
P
N
deformation, loss of function or serviceability, or complete
separation of the component.
• The crack extends over time in a stable manner due to fatigue

until it reaches its critical size, and fracture becomes the end
event of a fatigue crack.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The process of crack extension is shown schematically in

Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• All structures are assumed to have a crack initiating

discontinuity arising from either the manufacturing of the steel
or as a result of cutting, drilling, welding, or other changes
made to the member during fabrication.
•
E L
All steel members possess discontinuities due to fabrication
T
and manufacturing, but these are benign as long as the
P
•
stresses are kept sufficiently low.
N
The structural engineering approach to fatigue presumes the
existence of some discontinuity that serves as a potential
initiation site for cracking.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• All inspection methods have detection limits which serve to

limit the initial discontinuity size, but also allows for
discontinuities that cannot be identified.
• Inspection cannot detect all discontinuities; its purpose is to
E
identify and reject those that could cause harm.
L
•
P T
Fatigue details exhibit what is referred to as threshold fatigue
N
strength. This means that applied stress ranges below the
threshold stress range theoretically do not cause crack
extension.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The threshold is a function of the geometry of the fatigue

detail, a combination of the local stress concentration at the
detail and the expected initial discontinuity.
• Most modern highway bridges on major roads are designed so
E L
that the stress is below the threshold which provides a
T
structure which will confidently not exhibit fatigue crack
P
extension.
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• In modern high volume interstate highways, fatigue frequently

controls much of the design of welded bridge members,
including both proportions and details.
• The large number of fully loaded trucks produces millions of
E L
cycles of fatigue loading each year. The number of trucks on
T
an interstate highway typically exceeds 1,000 trucks per day,
P
•
N
which produces over 27 million cycles in 75 years.
In order for the bridge to survive this repeated loading, the

design stress range is conservatively kept below the threshold
value in most cases.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The lower allowable stress ranges associated with the

threshold causes the design and location of details such as
splices, stiffeners, and any attachments to be controlled by
fatigue.
•
E L
Modern bridge designs utilize weld details which have known
T
and acceptable fatigue resistance. The designer must select
P
•
N
the proper details based upon the expected fatigue stress.
In a flexural member, the stress range is not constant along its

length. Consequently, the designer must determine the stress
range at every detail that is susceptible to fatigue and assure
that it is within acceptable limits.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Cracking in steel structures can only occur when there are

tensile stresses present. Total stress governs fracture and
fluctuation in stress or stress range, governs fatigue. Thus,
sustained stresses are important in the investigation of
L
fracture, while cyclic stresses are important in the investigation
E
T
of both fatigue and fracture.
•
N P
The stresses applied to structural components due to dead
load and live load are shown in figure in the next slide.
• In addition to these applied stresses, potential residual

stresses are embodied within the details.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The designer needs to specify which parts of a member are

subject to tension since these portions are subject to more
stringent material toughness and weld inspection criteria.
• The goal of the design is to provide a fatigue tolerant structure
E L
which will not exhibit fatigue damage or any fracture during the
service life of the structure.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Fatigue

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• The dominant parameter for fatigue design is stress range,

which can be readily computed by the design engineer for a
specific bridge application.
• The stress range for the fatigue limit state is the algebraic
E L
difference between a maximum and minimum live load stress
T
caused by the passage of a single fatigue design vehicle
P
•
occupying a single lane.
N
The most common cause of fatigue cracks in bridges is in-
service cyclical stress range due to trucks.
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• Fatigue in steel bridges is addressed by restrictions on the

stress range due to live load plus impact produced by the
passage of a code-specified fatigue design truck (load-induced
fatigue) and by specific detailing requirements (distortion-
induced fatigue).
E L
•
T
Two different sources of fatigue are identified: load-induced
P
•
and distortion-induced fatigue.
N
Both load-induced and distortion-induced fatigue must be
considered separately during design.
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• Load-induced fatigue is defined as fatigue effects due to the in-

plane stresses for which components and details are explicitly
designed. Simply stated, load-induced fatigue is related to the
in-plane primary stresses that are calculated from analysis.
•
E L
Examples of these in-plane stresses include the flexural stress
T
in a flange or web of a steel I-girder, stress ranges in a cross-
P
N
frame that result from a refined analysis, stress ranges at a
shear stud to girder flange connection when designing a
composite girder, stress ranges due to wind and other similar
instances where engineers have results from analysis.
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• All steel structures possess initial discontinuities, stress

concentrations, and residual stresses due to rolling and/or
welding.
• Load-induced fatigue cracking is the growth of cracks from
E L
these conditions due to applied stress-range cycles from the
passage of trucks.
P T
• N
Distortion-induced fatigue is the designation given to cracking
that arises from local out-of-plane secondary stresses not
typically calculated in analysis.
• This type of cracking represents the majority of observed

fatigue cracks that are discovered in in-service bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• It occurs in bridges at diaphragm/ cross-frame connection

plates that are not positively attached to the girder flanges, at
floor beam connections to main girders, as well as in situations
such as floor beam to truss and tie girder connections.
•
E L
Distortion-induced cracking is prevented by providing a
T
positive load path to transmit unintentional and intended force
P
•
N
effects between transverse and longitudinal members.
Distortion-induced cracking is controlled by detailing members

and connections to mitigate out-of-plane distortions, not by
proportioning members to satisfy specific limit states.
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue
• The design for load-induced fatigue requires that the factored

stress range due to live load plus impact resulting from the
passage of the fatigue design truck be less than the factored
nominal resistance at every detail that is subjected to net
tensile stress.
E L
•
T
The limit state is expressed mathematically as:
P
N
Load < Resistance
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Fatigue

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Crack Growth and Fracture
• Crack growth in steel bridges requires two conditions to occur:

existing discontinuities and tensile stresses normal to the
discontinuities.
• Cyclic stresses with a tensile component can cause fatigue
E L
crack growth, while sustained tensile stress or a single stress
P T
cycle with a tensile stress component can cause fracture.
• N
Cracking in steel structures can manifest as a slow, stable
process of growth from repeated applications of stress or
suddenly when the conditions are right.
Bridge Engineering
• If crack growth is allowed to propagate and continue long

enough, total separation/loss of the member can result when the
uncracked cross section is sufficiently reduced such that the
member can no longer resist the internal forces and the crack
extends in an unstable mode.
E L
•
P T
The unstable growth is typically in the form of brittle fracture in
•
steel bridge members.
N
The fatigue process can take place at stress levels (calculated
on the initial section) that are substantially less than those
associated with yielding under static loading conditions.
Bridge Engineering
• The usual condition that produces fatigue cracking is the

application of a large number (millions) of load cycles, with
some above a “threshold.”
• Consequently, the types of structural engineering applications
E L
that are susceptible to fatigue cracking include dynamically
P T
loaded structures such as bridges, highway sign and lighting
offshore structures.
N
structures, crane-support structures, stacks and masts, and
• Crack growth in metals requires two conditions to occur:

existing discontinuities and tensile stresses normal to the
discontinuities.
Bridge Engineering
• Cyclical stresses with a tensile component can cause fatigue

crack growth, while sustained tensile stress or a single stress
cycle with a tensile stress component can cause sudden and
complete fracture.
•
E L
A relationship exists between load and resistance for both
P T
fatigue and fracture. However, the parameters in this
N
relationship vary for fatigue and fracture. For example, the load
parameter to initiate fatigue is stress range, while that for
fracture is total stress.
• Crack growth can be delineated into three distinct regimes:

initiation, steady-state propagation, and unstable fracture.
Bridge Engineering
Three distinct regimes of crack growth i.e., initiation, steady-state

propagation, and unstable fracture, can be illustrated in Figure.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Initiation
It is inevitable that discontinuities are present in fabricated steel

components.
L
These discontinuities are byproducts of steel making, as well as
E
the various cutting, drilling, punching, and welding operations
T
elements. N P
associated with the fabrication of steel bridge and structural
Given these preconditions, the engineer is responsible to control

the stresses to avoid potential fatigue and subsequent brittle
fracture resulting from growth of these discontinuities.
Bridge Engineering
The fatigue behavior of a fabricated steel engineering structure is

controlled by the size, shape, and location of the discontinuities,
and the stresses applied.
The initiation portion of general crack growth in which existing
E L
discontinuities are sharpened into cracks is essentially non-
P T
existent for all fabricated steel structures and can conservatively
be ignored.
N
Thus, they are assumed to be present at the start. Crack growth in
bridges is delineated into only two regimes: stable fatigue cracking
and unstable fracture.
Bridge Engineering
• Propagation
The propagation regime of crack growth represents steady-state

fatigue cracking that may occur when stresses above the threshold
are applied.
E L
Fatigue is the propagation of microscopic cracks into macro
P T
cracks by the repeated application of tensile stress.
N
An existing crack grows a small amount in size each time a load is
applied.
Growth occurs at the crack front, which is initially sharp.
Bridge Engineering
Even at relatively low loads, there will be a high concentration of

stress at the sharp front, and plastic deformation (slip on atomic
planes) therefore occurs at the crack front.
Continued slip results in a blunted crack tip, and the crack grows a
minute amount during this process.
E L
P T
Upon unloading, not necessarily to zero, the crack tip again
becomes sharp. N
The process is repeated during each load cycles.
The rate of growth of the crack increases exponentially over time.
Bridge Engineering
• Fracture
When a critical size is achieved, the stable crack fractures in an

unstable manner without an increase in stress.
L
Fracture may be defined as rupture in tension or rapid extension of
E
a crack, leading to gross deformation, loss of load-carrying
T
P
capacity, or complete separation of the component.
N
Failure occurs in one of two ways. One possibility is that the steel
has sufficient toughness and the fatigue crack grows to such an
extent that the loss of section means the load simply can no longer
be resisted by the uncracked ligament (for example, overload).
Bridge Engineering
In this case, failure occurs by yielding of the remaining material, or,

exceptionally, by instability if the crack growth produces a grossly
unsymmetrical section.
In the case of yielding and a ductile failure, the critical flaw size is
E L
proportional to the yield strength. If the steel does not have
P T
sufficient toughness, the section fails by brittle fracture.
N
In the case of a brittle failure, the critical size is proportional to the
fracture toughness of the material which varies with the rate of
application of the load and the temperature of the material.
Bridge Engineering
Fracture is represented by the rapid extension of the crack with a

limited number of additional cycles.
It should be noted that in bridge structures, cracking may not

necessarily lead to unstable propagation, since in many cases the
E L
limited magnitude of stress may allow the cracking to arrest,
P T
resulting in the need for either no repair or simple repair.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
Ø Fatigue

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Fatigue and Fracture Control
• Fatigue and fracture in steel bridges must be considered during

analysis and design before the bridge is constructed, as well as
in evaluation for existing bridges.
• For load-induced fatigue, several analysis methods are
E L
described, including both approximate analysis and refined
P T
analysis methods, the local-stress approach, and the fracture-
•
mechanics approach.
N
For the fatigue limit state, the design stress range must not
exceed the factored nominal resistance.
Bridge Engineering
• A fatigue evaluation is not routinely performed with each rating

of a steel bridge, but only when the remaining fatigue life of an
uncracked bridge is desired as input into operating decisions.
• If fatigue-related problems are encountered in the field (most
E L
commonly on older bridges), then a repair or retrofit strategy
P T
must be employed to rectify the problem and to help prevent
•
additional problems.
N
While the specifics of the repair strategy are dependent upon
the nature of the detail and problem, there are several general
repair and retrofit strategies that are common for virtually all
fatigue details.
Bridge Engineering
• These general strategies include understanding the source of

cracking, designing the repair detail, and validating the repair
detail.
• Although the specifics of these three steps are dependent on
E L
the unique fatigue characteristics of the bridge, each step is
P T
essential for any successful repair or retrofit strategy.
Bridge Engineering
• Fundamentally, all of the recommended procedures to maintain

load-induced fatigue operate around one of two common
concepts like,
(1) improving stress flow by removing discontinuities and
E L
increasing radii where stress flows are disrupted and stress
P T
concentrations drive down fatigue resistance,
N
(2) reducing the effect of tensile stress ranges by introducing
residual compressive stresses.
Bridge Engineering
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Lecture 40: Use of Shape memory Alloys in Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Shape Memory Alloys

E L
P T
N
Ø Performance of SMA-RC Bridge Piers
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• In recent years, seismic design guidelines have focused on

performance-based design in order to predict and better
manage the post-earthquake functionality and condition of
structures.
•
E L
Recent developments in performance-based seismic design
T
and assessment approaches have emphasized the importance
P
N
of properly assessing and limiting the residual (permanent)
deformations that are typically sustained by a structure after a
seismic event.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• If reinforced concrete (RC) structures can be designed in such

a way that they are not only capable of undergoing large
displacements with adequate energy dissipation capacity
during a seismic event, but can also eliminate the problem of
L
permanent deformation, this will substantially scale down the
E
T
repair and maintenance cost of structures and make them safer
against earthquakes.
N P
• Superelastic shape memory alloy (SMA) possesses the distinct
ability to experience large deformations and retrieve its original
shape upon load removal along with possessing a high
resistance to corrosion.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• This is a distinct property that makes SMA a smart material and

a strong contender for reinforcement in RC structures
particularly at critical locations (e.g., plastic hinge region),
which are prone to experience more damage during an
earthquake.
E L
•
T
Numerous experimental and numerical studies proved the
P
N
efficiency of SMA reinforced structures in seismic regions.
However, there exists no proper design guideline for utilizing
SMA in highway bridges.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• To successfully apply the performance-based design concept

to SMA-reinforced concrete (SMA-RC) bridge piers, the
performance objectives and their associated limit state criteria
must be clearly defined first.
•
E L
Most of the current researches on SMA-RC bridge piers are
T
focused on seismic performance assessment and comparison
P
•
with regular RC bridge piers.
N
Although a good number of studies exist on performance
based damage states for steel RC bridge piers, limited study
has focused on the performance based damage states for
SMA-RC piers.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• This is mainly due to limited number of experimental studies

performed on SMA-RC piers where the high cost of SMA was
the main restraining factor.
• Since the behavior of SMA-RC piers are significantly different
E L
from their steel counterpart, using those damage states for
T
SMA-RC piers might lead to faulty design.
P
• N
Several compositions of SMAs are developed and used by
different researchers in civil engineering applications.
• However, the mechanical properties of SMAs (superelastic

strain, elastic modulus, and yield strength) vary widely.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The comparative seismic vulnerability of SMA-RC and steel-RC

bridge piers in terms of drift limits based on performance
criteria was performed by Billah and Alam (2016).
• The results showed that the performance limits of SMA-
E L
reinforced concrete piers vary considerably from their steel
counterparts.
P T
• N
Hence, performance-based damage states were developed for
SMA-RC bridge piers considering five different SMAs with
three different earthquake hazard levels.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The ultimate goal of the study by Billah and Alam (2016) was to
provide a technical basis for the development of performance-
based seismic design, and other evaluation methodologies, for
SMA-RC bridge piers.
•
E L
Using an incremental dynamic analysis (IDA)-based analytical
T
approach, performance-based damage states (based on drift
P
N
limits) were developed for five different SMA-RC bridge piers
and validated against experimental data.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Since SMA has the ability to reduce the residual drift

significantly after unloading, the residual drift of different SMA-
RC bridge piers under varying intensity earthquakes needs to
be investigated.
•
E L
This study also developed residual drift-based damage states
T
for SMA-RC bridge piers and proposed an analytical
P
N
expression that can be used for predicting the residual drift in
SMA-reinforced concrete elements.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• Smart materials like SMAs have demonstrated a wide range of

engineering applications namely, biomedical, robotics,
aerospace, civil and mechanical engineering.
• Several compositions of SMAs are developed to date such as
E L
Ni-Ti, Cu-Zn, Cu-Zn-Al, Cu-Al-Ni, Fe-Mn, Mn-Cu, Fe-Pd, and Ti-
Ni-Cu, etc.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
Two distinct properties of SMA are:
• Shape memory Effect (SME): It is the ability to recover plastic

strain upon heating.
• Superelasticity (SE): It is the ability to recover plastic strain

upon load removal.
E L
P T
N
These two characteristics make SMA a strong contender against
conventional metals and alloys for the application in various
sectors.
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• Numerous applications of SMAs in the civil engineering field

are documented.
• Most applications have focused on the use of Ni-Ti alloy while

very few focused on the application of Cu-based SMAs or Fe-
based SMAs.
E L
•
P T
Although Ni-Ti SMAs show large recoverable strains, good
N
superelasticity, and exceptional resistance to corrosion, the
high cost of Ni-Ti SMAs and their machinability restrict their
large-scale applications.
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• In an attempt to reduce the cost of SMAs, researchers have

come up with various Fe-based and Cu-based low cost SMAs
such as Fe-Mn-Si, Fe-Ni-Co-Ti, Fe-Ni-Nb, Cu-AL-Mn, etc.
• Fe-based SMAs show good workability, machinability,
E L
weldability, and wide transformation hysteresis as compared to
Ni-Ti SMAs.
P T
• N
Although several compositions of Fe-based SMAs are
developed, large-scale applications are still limited due to the
poor shape recovery limit and associated costly training
treatment.
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• A ferrous polycrystalline SMA (Fe-Ni-Co-Al-Ta-B) was

developed in 2010 with a very high superelastic strain range of
over 13% at room temperature.
• This SMA has approximately 20 times higher super elasticity
E L
than Fe-Ni-Co-Ti alloy and almost double that of conventional
Ni-Ti alloy.
P T
• N
This Fe-based SMA has extremely high ductility, greater
strength, and also energy dissipation capacity several times
higher than that of commercially available Ni-Ti SMA.
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• Another Fe-based SMA (Fe-Mn-Al-Ni) was developed in 2011

which has super elasticity similar to the conventional Ni-Ti
SMA.
• This SMA has much lower austenite finish temperature.
•
E L
This allows this SMA to operate in superelastic range even at a
very low temperature.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• In order to improve the machinability and reduce the cost, a

Cu-based SMA (Cu-Mn-Al) was developed by in 2010 that has
comparable superelasticity to that of Ni-Ti SMAs.
• Moreover, these Cu-Al-Mn SMAs have comparatively lower

strain rate effects than Ni-Ti SMAs.
E L
•
P T
These Cu-Al-Mn SMAs are also reported to provide recentering
and crack recovery capabilities. N
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• Many different types of SMAs are developed that have huge

potential for smart structural applications, such as in bridge
piers.
• Two Ni-Ti, one Cu-based and two Fe-based shape memory
E L
alloys are selected by Alam et al (2016) for use in bridge piers.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
• The selected SMAs along with their mechanical properties

such as the elastic modulus (E), austenite to martensite
starting stress (𝒇𝒚); austenite to martensite finishing stress
(𝒇𝒑𝟏 ); martensite to austenite starting stress (𝒇𝑻𝟏 ); martensite
L
to austenite finishing stress ( 𝒇𝑻𝟐 ); superelastic strain (εs);
E
T
residual strain (εr) are listed in Table 1.
N P
Bridge Engineering
Shape Memory Alloys
Table 1. Properties of Different Types of SMA
SMA Alloy ∈s ∈r E 𝐟𝐲 𝐟𝐩𝟏 𝐟𝐓𝟏 𝐟𝐓𝟐 𝐟𝐲/𝐄 Reference
Type (%) (%) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
SMA-1 𝐍𝐢𝐓𝐢𝟒𝟓 6 0.5 62.5 401.0 510 370 130 0.0065 Alam et al.
(2008)
SMA-2 𝐍𝐢𝐓𝐢𝟒𝟓 8 0.5 68 435.0 535.0 335 170 0.0063 Ghassemieh
E L et al. (2012)
T
SMA-3 FeNCATB 13.5 1.5 46.9 750 1200 300 200 0.0159 Tanaka et al.
(2010)
SMA-4
SMA-5
CuAlMn
FeMnAlNi
9
6.13
0.4
0.7
28
98.4
210.0
320.0 N
275.0
442.5
P 200
210.8
150
122
0.0075
0.0033
Shrestha et
al. (2013)
Omori et al.
(2011)
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Performance of SMA-RC Bridge Piers
• Since SMA is a costly material, it was only used in the bottom

plastic hinge region of the bridge piers by Billah and Alam
(2016).
• Five different SMAs were used in the study to develop the
E L
performance-based damage states for SMA-RC bridge piers.
•
P T
The bridge pier was seismically designed following the
Canadian highway bridge design code.N
• The considered bridge is a lifeline bridge as per (CSA 2010). In
an event of the design earthquake (return period of 475 years), a
lifeline bridge needs to remain open for immediate use to all
traffic.
Bridge Engineering
• Therefore, the piers needed to be designed to achieve this

targeted performance.
• According to CSA 2010, the importance factor of I = 3 and the

response modification factor of R = 3 were considered for this
lifeline bridge.
E L
•
P T
The cross section and elevation of the bridge pier is shown in
figure. N
• The diameter of all the columns was 1.83 m.
• The piers were reinforced with 48 longitudinal reinforcing bars

of varying diameter (reinforcement ratio of 1.2-1.75%).
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Cross section and elevation of SMA reinforced concrete
bridge pier
Bridge Engineering
• 16-mm-diameter steel spirals at a 76 mm pitch (transverse

reinforcement ratio of 0.7%) was added to piers.
• The height of the pier is 9.14 m with an aspect ratio of 5, which

ensured the flexure dominated behavior.
•
E L
A constant mass of 85t was applied at the top which represents
the weight of the superstructure.
P T
• N
The design moment and axial force were 11,265 kN-m and 9,500
kN, respectively.
Bridge Engineering
• The shear capacity of the pier was checked using modified

compression field theory, which predicted the experimentally
determined shear failure within 1% error.
• The shear resistance of the pier was found to be 3,912 kN, which
E L
was much higher than the shear force demand of 1,230 kN.
•
P T
The moment-shear interaction and the axial load-moment
N
interaction of the bridge piers were investigated.
• It was found that the maximum moment and shear force as well
as the applied maximum axial load and moment are within the
safe boundary.
Bridge Engineering
• The shear capacity of the pier should be greater than 1.6 times
the base shear corresponding to the design moment which was
also satisfied.
• Different diameter bars were used for different SMAs since
E L
different SMAs have different elastic modulus and yield
strength.
P T
• N
Although SMA does not have a yielding process, the term yield
was used to refer to the initiation of phase transformation of
SMA.
• The yield strain was calculated by defining the austenite to

martensite starting stress (fy) by the elastic modulus (E).
Bridge Engineering
• Five different SMA rebars as presented in Table 1 were used to

design the different bridge piers.
• The bridge piers were designated as SMA-RC-1 (reinforced with

SMA-1), SMA-RC-2 (reinforced with SMA-2), and so on.
•
E L
SMA-RC-1 and SMA-RC-2 were reinforced with 48-28M SMA-1
and SMA-2 bars.
P T
• N
SMA-RC-3 was reinforced with 48-20M SMA-3 bars, SMA-RC-4
was reinforced with 48-35M SMA-4 bars, and SMA-RC-5 was
reinforced with 48-32M SMA-5 bars.
Bridge Engineering
• Rebar sizes were selected in such a way that the axial forces
developed in the rebar were almost similar.
• The bridge piers were designed in such a way that they have
comparable moment capacities.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Fig. 2(a) shows the moment-curvature response of different

SMA-RC sections.
• Fig. 2(b) shows the pushover response curves for these five
different SMA-RC bridge piers.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• From Fig. 2(a), it is evident that all the sections have similar
initial stiffness and comparable moment capacities.
• Since SMA-5 had higher elastic modulus, SMA-RC-5 showed

higher initial stiffness which is 1.78, 1.72, 2.21, and 3.87 times
E L
higher than that of SMA-RC-1, SMA-RC-2, SMA-RC-3, and SMA-
RC-4, respectively.
P T
• N
Moment-curvature response of all the sections revealed that this
design process led to comparable moment capacities for the
five different SMA reinforced bridge piers.
Bridge Engineering
• The elastic periods of the SMA-RC-1, SMA-RC-2, SMA-RC-3,

SMA-RC-4, and SMA-RC-5 were calculated as 0.513 s, 0.513 s,
0.514 s, 0.515 s, and 0.511 s, respectively which were close and
expected to attract similar earthquake forces.
•
E L
Fig. 2(b) shows the pushover response curves for these five
P T
different SMA-RC bridge piers. From this figure, it was observed
N
that all the bridge piers had similar stiffness and load-carrying
capacities.
• The material properties of the concrete and steel rebar used in

the bridge piers are summarized in Table 2.
Bridge Engineering
Table 2. Material Properties for SMA-RC Bridge Pier
Material Property Value

Concrete Compressive strength (MPa) 42.4
Corresponding strain 0.0029
Tensile strength (MPa) 3.5
Steel
Elastic modulus (GPa)
Elastic modulus (GPa)
E L23.1
200
Yield stress (MPa)

P T 475
Ultimate stress (MPa)
Ultimate strain
Plateau strain
N 692
0.14
0.016
Strain hardening parameter 0.0125
Transition curve initial shape parameter 19.5
Transition curve shape calibrating coefficient (A1) 18.5
Transition curve shape calibrating coefficient (A2) 0.15
Bridge Engineering
• In the SMA-RC bridge piers, SMA was used as longitudinal

reinforcement only at the plastic hinge region. In the remaining
part, steel rebars were used as reinforcement.
• The plastic hinge length, Lp was calculated according to the

Paulay and Priestley (1992) equation
E L
𝑳𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝑳 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒃𝒇𝒚
P T
(1)
N
Where L = length of the member in mm;
db = bar diameter in mm; and fy = yield strength of the rebar in MPa.
• The equation can reasonably estimate the plastic hinge length

of SMA-reinforced concrete element.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v A. H. M. Muntasir Billah, and M. Shahria Alam. Performance-Based Seismic Design of
L
Shape Memory Alloy–Reinforced Concrete Bridge Piers. I: Development of
E
Performance-Based Damage States. ASCE J. Struct. Eng., 2016, 142(12): 04016140
T
P
N
v T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
v W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Lecture 41: Use of Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) in Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Engineered Cementitious Composite

E L
P T
N
Ø Performance of Bridge Piers with ECC Cover
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• In recent years, it has been deduced that about 10% of the

constructed bridges across the world are structurally deficient.
• Majority of these bridges were built less than 60 years ago.
• Numerous independent studies have suggested that the major
E L
cause of this deficiency in reinforced-concrete (RC) bridges is
the corrosion of steel reinforcement.
P T
• N
The direct cost of corrosion-related repair of the bridge
infrastructure is quite high.
• Mitigating the rebar corrosion in R/C bridges is central for

achieving the objective of delivering a bridge which meets or
exceeds 75-100 year service life.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Sound (uncracked) concrete provides a highly alkaline

environment, which facilitates the formation of a protective
passive oxide layer around the steel rebars, preventing further
oxidation of iron leading to corrosion.
•
E L
However, this passive layer is lost in the presence of external
corroding agents such as chloride ions.
P T
• N
The chloride ions slowly diffuse through the porous concrete
cover and their concentration builds up around the steel rebar
over time, ultimately initiating the corrosion when a critical
concentration is reached.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Corrosion not only decreases the cross section of the rebar

but the volumetric expansion of the corrosion products relative
to the reactants causes tensile hoop stresses around the rebar
causing cracking and spalling in concrete due to its
brittleness.
E L
•
T
This provides an easier path for the corrosive agents to reach
P
N
the rebar, resulting in a self-feeding mechanism, which rapidly
increases the crack width and accelerates the deterioration of
the structure.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The first stage of building up of chloride ions around the rebar

to threshold levels is called the initiation stage, which is
followed by the propagation stage involving active corrosion of
the rebar.
•
E L
Commonly used corrosion protection methods in the field to
T
prevent early deterioration of RC structures mainly focus on
P
N
delaying the initiation period because the propagation of
corrosion is difficult to control.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• High and ultra-high performance concretes (HPC/UHPC) with

highly dense microstructure is often prescribed to delay the
diffusion of chloride ions through the cover.
• Similarly, corrosion inhibiting admixtures are added to

concrete to achieve the same objective.
E L
•
P T
These methods are effective only when the cover is sound with
no cracks. N
• However, in practice, due to restrained shrinkage, thermal
deformations, poor construction practices, and mechanical
loads, concrete (especially HPC/UHPC due to their greater
brittleness) unavoidably cracks.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The openings (or widths) of these cracks in concrete are

typically large which creates an easy entry path for the
corrosive agents to reach the rebar depth and limits the
effectiveness of the above corrosion initiation prevention
methods.
E L
•
T
Epoxy coated rebars (ECR) can be used for this purpose;
P
N
however, their effectiveness in the field for mitigating corrosion
is debatable.
• Common failure mechanisms of epoxy protection include

under-film corrosion, wet adhesion loss, and cathodic
disbondment at coating defects.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Unlike normal concrete and HPC/UHPC, Engineered

Cementitious Composite (ECC), also called Strain-hardening
Cementitious Composite (SHCC), is an ultra-ductile concrete
with tensile strain capacity of about 300 times that of
conventional concrete.
E L
•
T
ECC absorbs damage through the formation of micro-cracks of
P
N
widths (or openings) less than 100 μm even at large imposed
deformations well beyond its elastic limit.
• This makes ECC a highly damage tolerant and durable

material. The compressive strength of ECC is similar to that of
a high strength concrete (50-70 MPa).
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Previous researches on the transport properties of ECC

suggest that this material, even when strained in tension up to
3%, exhibits water permeability and effective chloride ion
diffusivity comparable to uncracked concrete, by virtue of its
intrinsically tight crack width.
E L
•
T
The crack widths in ECC (typically under 100 μm) are much
P
N
lower than the service limit states for a variety of structural
applications.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The difference in performance between ECC and concrete is

even more significant during the corrosion propagation stage
as ECC can sustain tensile hoop stresses around the rebars
without spalling by virtue of its tensile ductility.
•
E L
Thus, ECC presents a good potential for enhanced corrosion
T
resistance and service life of RC bridges subjected to
P
N
aggressive chloride-rich environments.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Considering only the mechanical properties and durability, it

would be preferable to replace all concrete with ECC in bridge
construction.
• However, ECC costs almost three times per unit volume and
E L
requires special processing in the field compared to normal
concrete.
P T
• N
Also, concrete adequately serves its function of resisting
compressive loads in the core of the bridge piers. The
performance limitation is caused mainly due to the
unreinforced concrete cover.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The objective of the study by Ranade et al. (2016) is to

investigate the feasibility of using precast ECC covers which
can potentially act as a permanent formwork for the
construction of durable RC bridge piers with significantly
reduced rate of rebar corrosion.
E L
•
T
The hypotheses are that the corrosion of rebars in an RC
P
N
bridge pier is significantly reduced by using ECC as the cover
material instead of concrete.
• The magnitude of corrosion mitigation in piers employing ECC

only in the cover (with concrete core) is comparable to that in
piers made entirely of ECC (both in cover and core) with the
same steel reinforcement.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Engineered Cementitious Composite
• The ECC used in this study is similar to the M45-ECC. Stress-

strain curve and multiple micro-cracking of ECC under direct
tension is shown in Figure 1.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• M45-ECC uses cement (with water) as the primary binder, while

fly ash is used as a secondary binder reacting with the by-
products of primary hydration.
• The fly ash to cement weight ratio is 1.2.
•
E L
The water/cementitious material (cement + fly ash) weight ratio
P T
is 0.29. Unreacted fly ash particles act as fillers in ECC
N
supplementing the primary aggregate, which is fine silica sand
with mean diameter of about 150 μm.
• Unlike concrete, ECC does not contain coarse aggregate for

enhancing fiber dispersion and limiting the matrix fracture
toughness, which are desirable for achieving tensile ductility.
Bridge Engineering
• Chopped Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers with diameter of 39 μm,

length of 12.7 mm, and specific gravity of 1.3 were used in this
ECC.
• The nominal strength and elongation at break of this fiber are

1600 MPa and 7%, respectively.
E L
•
P T
The PVA fibers are specifically coated with a thin oil coating (of
N
the order of a few nanometers) by the manufacturer to
favorably tailor the fiber/matrix bond for achieving tensile
ductility following the principles of micromechanics.
Bridge Engineering
Mix Proportions of Concrete and ECC
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Performance of Bridge Piers with ECC Cover
• For the experimental investigation, six cylinders of diameter 150

mm and height 300 mm were prepared by Ranade et al. (2016)
• Six cylinders can be classified into three types (Figure 2) based

on the matrix material type as steel reinforcement was identical
in all six specimens.
E L
•
P T
First, two cylinders were made completely of normal concrete,
N
named Con-1 and Con-2. Second, two other cylinders made
completely with ECC, named ECC-1 and ECC-2. The remaining
two cylinders of the third type were made with ECC in the cover
of 12.7 mm thickness and with concrete in the core, named
ECC/Con-1 and ECC/Con-2.
Bridge Engineering
• Cross-sections of all the six cylinder specimens (Full concrete,

Full ECC and ECC Cover + Concrete Core) are shown in Figure
2.
• Identical reinforcement was provided in all specimens.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The cylinders of the third type (ECC/Con) were prepared in two

stages as shown in Figure 3.
• In the first stage, only the ECC cover in the form of a thin tube
with average thickness of 12.7 mm was cast.
•
E L
High density polyethylene tubes of outer diameter 125 mm were
P T
placed inside the standard 150 mm x 300 mm cylinder moulds to
N
create an annular space, in which the ECC was poured from top.
• Although ECC is almost self-consolidating, moderate vibration

was applied to ensure proper flow of ECC into the thin annular
space.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
• The ECC cover-tube was cured inside the moulds in moist
environment created by wet paper towels enclosed in an airtight
bag.
Bridge Engineering
• At 7 days after casting (second stage), the ECC cover-tube was

demoulded and was itself used as a mould to place the
reinforcement and cast normal concrete to form the core of the
cylinder.
• No preparation of ECC surface was done.

E L
•
P T
Simultaneously, the other two types of specimens, i.e. “Con”
N
and “ECC” specimens were prepared using standard 150 mm x
300 mm cylinder moulds.
• All specimens were cured for 56 days in a moist environment

before starting the accelerated corrosion of rebars.
Bridge Engineering
• A longer curing time of 56 days, instead of typically used 28

days, was used to stabilize the properties of ECC, as it contains
high volume of fly ash which undergoes delayed hydration
(secondary hydration).
•
E L
All the six cylinders were identically reinforced utilizing four 10
P T
mm Grade 60 black steel rebars without epoxy coating along the
•
N
longitudinal direction as shown in Figure 2.
The ends of these rebars were located 25 mm above the base of

the cylinder to provide a greater cover depth, so that the
majority of ion diffusion occurs laterally.
Bridge Engineering
• Additionally, about 25 mm of rebar above the top cylinder face

was coated with epoxy to prevent migration of reactants or
products through the top face.
• A 3 mm spiral tie with longitudinal spacing of about 30 mm was
E L
also used in these specimens, welded to the longitudinal rebars.
•
P T
Potentiostatic accelerated macrocell corrosion experiments
N
were performed on the cylinders to simulate several years of
corrosion (in an aggressive salt-rich environment) in a few days.
• The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in

Figure 4.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Experimental setup for accelerated macrocell corrosion
Bridge Engineering
• Each cylinder prepared above was immersed almost completely

in a 5% salt-water (with sodium-chloride [NaCl] as salt) solution
inside a tank.
• The salt concentration was checked periodically, and additional

salt was added to constantly maintain it at 5%.
E L
•
P T
A highly corrosion resistant stainless steel (Type 306) sheet was
N
rolled and placed around the cylinder in each tank to act as the
cathode.
• The three rebars on the perimeter of each cylinder were

connected using conducting wires to serve together as the
anode.
Bridge Engineering
• Direct current was applied at a constant voltage of 10V to all the

specimens by connecting the positive terminal to the rebars
(anode) and the negative terminal to the stainless steel sheet
(cathode).
•
E L
The corrosion-current (icor) versus time (t) curves for all the six
P T
specimens (up to 465 hours) are given in Figure 5.
N
• As the same voltage was applied to all specimens, the
difference in observed corrosion currents was largely due to the
resistance of the concrete/ECC cover to the diffusion of ions.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Comparison of corrosion current-time histories of various specimens
Bridge Engineering
• All specimens with ECC cover (“ECC” and “ECC/Con”

specimens) showed lower initial corrosion-currents (at time, t =
0 hr) than the specimens with concrete cover (“Con”
specimens) in uncracked state.
•
E L
This was explained by the greater resistance offered by the
P T
denser microstructure (lower porosity) of ECC, which contains
•
N
no coarse aggregates, compared to normal concrete.
The ECC and ECC/Con specimens exhibited comparable initial

corrosion-currents; however, the ECC/Con-1 specimen showed
a higher corrosion-current than the rest of the specimens with
ECC cover.
Bridge Engineering
• The greater corrosion-current in the ECC/Con-1 specimen may

be caused due to smaller cover thickness in this specimen
compared to other specimens.
• The ECC cover-tubes were precast to act as moulds for the

reinforced-concrete cores of ECC/Con specimens.
E L
•
P T
In spite of the best efforts to ensure uniform thickness of 12.7
N
mm of the ECC cover-tube, measurements indicated that the
minimum cover thickness at rebar location (which governs ion
diffusion rate) of specimen ECC/Con-1 was about 2 mm smaller
than that of ECC/Con-1 specimen, resulting in greater current.
Bridge Engineering
• In the first few hours, the corrosion-current tended to drop in all

specimens as the ions diffuse through the concrete/ECC cover.
• This process continues till about 50 hours in the specimens with

concrete cover, compared to about 20 hours in the specimens
with ECC cover.
E L
•
P T
It took longer time in concrete specimens due to higher pH
compared to ECC specimens. N
• ECC, due to the high volume of fly ash, had lower alkalinity
compared to normal concrete.
Bridge Engineering
The corrosion-current was mainly influenced by one of the

following factors:
• major change in ion diffusion path caused by a crack,
L
• cleaning of the specimens and salt solution in the tank, or
• change in the room temperature.

T E
N P
A crack in the cover of sufficient width provided an easy path for
the ions to reach the rebar, causing a sudden increase in
corrosion-current.
Bridge Engineering
• The cleaning of specimens and change of salt-solution caused a

sudden rise in corrosion due to cleaning of the cover-cracks
and discarding of the solution with corrosion-product build-up.
• This was observed at 400 hr, when all specimens were removed
for observation and cleaning.
E L
•
P T
The laboratory temperature varied between 25 ± 2°C during this
experiment. N
• As ion diffusion was significantly influenced by temperature,
rise in temperature caused greater corrosion-currents, and vice
versa.
Bridge Engineering
• Using Faraday’s law given in Equation 1, the area under the

corrosion-current versus time curve can be integrated to
determine the mass loss of rebar (m) as a function of time.
E L
•
P T
In this equation, A is the atomic mass of iron (56 g/mole), F is
N
the Faraday’s constant (96,500 Coulomb/gram-equivalent), Z is
the valence electrons of iron (equal to 2), t is time (s), and tu is
the total time of corrosion (465 hr). Δm represents m in terms of
percentage of the total initial mass of rebars in the specimen
(M), which is equal to about 730 g for the corroding
reinforcement in the study.
Bridge Engineering
• The percentage mass loss of rebars versus time is plotted in

Figure 6.
• This figure shows that both the concrete specimens (Con-1 and
Con-2) suffered significant mass loss of rebars of about 68%
E L
and 52% by the end of the observation period of this study (465
hr).
P T
• N
In comparison, the mass loss in all specimens with ECC covers
ranged from 26% to 33%, which is less than half of the mass
loss observed in the specimens with the concrete cover.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Comparison of mass loss-time histories of various specimens
Bridge Engineering
• As observed in Figure 7, the concrete specimen (Con-1) was

heavily corroded and was on the verge of disintegration.
• Such extreme corrosion was caused by the formation of large

cracks of widths (or openings) 1.5 mm up to 5 mm in the
E L
concrete cover which allowed easy ingress of corroding agents
to the rebar.
P T
• N
Thus, the damage due to the tensile strain imposed by the
expanding corrosion products was highly localized in the form
of large cracks in concrete near the longitudinal rebars, which
led to severe deterioration of structural behavior.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Comparison of damage patterns at the end of observation period in each
specimen, top figure shows the whole picture and bottom figure shows
the zoomed view of the dashed rectangular area in the top figure
Bridge Engineering
• In contrast to concrete specimens, the specimens with ECC

cover (both ECC and ECC/Con specimens) were only
moderately corroded and maintained their structural integrity by
the end of the observation period of this study.
•
E L
Unlike concrete cover, the ECC cover was able to spread the
P T
tensile strain demand due to expanding corrosion products over
•
N
a larger area via multiple fine micro-cracks.
Micro-cracking was observed not only near the rebar location,

but away from the rebar (between two longitudinal rebars) as
well. This was because, by design, the micro-cracks bridged by
fibers in ECC had a greater load capacity than the pre-cracked
matrix.
Bridge Engineering
• Although there was one relatively large crack of width 1 mm in

almost every specimen with ECC cover, most ECC microcracks
were observed to have widths of only 75 μm or less.
• Such small crack widths in ECC, which also completely self-heal
E L
in time, kept the diffusion and permeability coefficients low in
P T
the corrosion propagation stage and can significantly prolong
•
the service life of infrastructure.
N
The specimens with ECC cover also provided greater
confinement of the core compared to the specimens with
concrete cover. This was supported by a close examination of
top cross-section of each type of specimen, shown in Figure 8.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Comparison of top cross-sections of various specimens
(a) Type 1 (b) Type 2 (c) Type 3
• Large cracks were visible in the cover as well as the core of the
all concrete specimens in Figure 8, whereas no cracks were
visible in the specimens with ECC cover.
Bridge Engineering
• The increase in average diameter (Δd) of each type of cylinder at

the end of the observation period of this study was measured.
• Δd was 4.6 mm for Concrete specimens, 2.8 mm for ECC

specimens, and 3.8 mm for ECC/Concrete specimens.
•
E L
Thus, the ECC cover not only improved the long-term durability
P T
but also improved the overall structural performance at all
N
stages of infrastructure’s service life.
• Comparing ECC and ECC/Con specimens, the specimens with

ECC only in the cover (ECC/Con specimens) appeared to be in
slightly better condition than the specimens made completely of
ECC (ECC specimens).
Bridge Engineering
• The micro-cracking was more distributed and the micro-crack

widths were smaller in ECC/Con specimens than in ECC
specimens.
• This may be caused due to the difference in orientation
E L
distribution of fibers in the thin precast ECC covers compared
P
to the cylinders made completely of ECC.
T
• N
The study revealed that using ECC only in the cover of lab-scale
steel-reinforced concrete cylinders to significantly mitigate
rebar corrosion is feasible.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v R Ranade, H Fakhri, KA Ragalwar. Feasibility of utilizing engineered cementitious
L
composite cover to mitigate rebar corrosion in reinforced-concrete bridge piers. 9th
E
RILEM International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Concrete-BEFIB, pp. 521-530.
T
P
N
Group.
Publishing.
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Lecture 42: 3D Printing of Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Material Testing and Load Testing

E L
P T
N
Ø Finite element simulation and Initial Verification
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Metal 3D printing is slowly getting prominence in the

construction industry.
• Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a method of

metal 3D printing that enables large components to be built
E L
with reasonable geometric accuracy, costs and build times.
•
P T
This technology was used to create the world's first metal 3D
N
printed bridge by Gardner et al. (2020).
• The bridge was constructed by the Dutch company MX3D, in a

series of layers of weld material in two nominal thicknesses
(3.5 mm for the handrails and 8.0 mm for the sub-structure) that
ran transversely to the longitudinal axis of the bridge elements.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The bridge was printed in four main pieces, plus the four
corner swirls, which were then manually welded together.
• The manual welds of the main bridge pieces were located at

approximately the midspan and quarter points of the bridge.
•
E L
Printing was carried out using a 6-axis ABB industrial robot,
P T
fitted with a MIG welding machine, as shown in Fig. 3, and
controlled using MX3D's software.N
• The robot was mounted on the bridge for demonstration
purposes, though the majority of printing was performed with
the robot ground-mounted and a vertical build direction.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
E L
P T
N
Overall view of MX3D metal 3D printed footbridge
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
E L
P T
N
Plan view of MX3D metal 3D printed footbridge
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
E L
P T
N
Printing of MX3D bridge, with robot mounted

on bridge for demonstration
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The feedstock material for the printing was Grade 308LSi

austenitic stainless steel wire, with over 1100 km of wire used.
• The current and arc voltage employed during the deposition

process were 100–140 A and 18–21 V respectively.
•
E L
The deposition rate was generally 0.5–2.0 kg/h. For the bridge
P T
elements of 3.5 mm nominal thickness, wire of 1.0 mm diameter
N
was deposited with a welding speed of 15–30mm/s and a wire
feed rate of 4–8m/min.
• For the bridge elements of 8.0 mm nominal thickness, wire of

1.2 mm diameter was used with a welding speed and wire feed
rate of 13 mm/s and 5.7 m/min respectively.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• The bridge has an overall mass of 7.8 t, of which,

approximately 4.6 t was printed.
• The non-printed components comprise cold-formed stainless

steel (grade 304 L) rectangular hollow sections (RHS), forming
E L
the end beams, hot-rolled stainless steel (grade 316 L) plate,
T
forming the deck, both of which were manually welded to the
P
•
N
3D printed substructure and a non-slip deck coating.
The bridge has an overall length of 12.5 m, a span of 10.5 m

and an average width of 2.5 m.
• Printing was spread over a period of about six months.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Material Testing and Load Testing
• In order to determine the material stress-strain characteristics

of the bridge, a comprehensive series of tensile material tests
performed on coupons cut from flat plates printed using the
same feedstock material and printing parameters as the bridge,
was undertaken.
E L
•
T
Two types of tensile coupon were prepared – ‘undulating’
P
N
coupons with the as-built geometry and ‘smoothed’ coupons
with a machined uniform prismatic cross-section within the
reduced region; as-built and smoothed surfaces of a typical
WAAM plate.
Bridge Engineering
• The load cell within an Instron 8802 testing machine measured

the applied tensile load.
• A four camera LaVision digital image correlation (DIC) system

was used to measure the surface strain field on both sides of
the coupons.
E L
•
P T
A random paint speckle pattern was applied, and the strains
N
were calculated using a virtual strain gauge placed over the full
area of the parallel length.
• The DIC system acquired images at a frequency of 1 Hz.
• Six typical stress-strain curves from the machined coupon

tests on the nominally 8 mm thick material are plotted in Fig. 4.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Measured stress-strain curves from typical fully machined

WAAM tensile coupon tests.
Bridge Engineering
• The stub column test setup for the CHS specimens is shown in
Fig. 5. An Instron 3500kN-SPL testing machine was used.
• The instrumentation for the CHS tests consisted of three

electrical resistance strain gauges (affixed to a flat surface
E L
formed from PS adhesive) equally spaced around the
T
circumference of the specimens at mid-height, three equally
P
N
spaced linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT) to
measure the vertical movement of the top platen of the testing
machine and a load cell within the machine to measure the
applied load.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Test setup for the CHS stub columns
Bridge Engineering
• A self locking spherical head was used to ensure full contact

between the stub column ends and the end plates.
• A similar setup was employed for the SHS tests, but with four
strain gauges attached to the specimens at mid-height on
E L
opposite faces and four LVDTs used to measure the top plate
movement.
P T
• N
Non-contact digital image correlation (DIC) measurements were
also taken using a two camera LaVision DIC system, allowing
surface deformations to be recorded and strains computed.
Bridge Engineering
• The testing machine displacement (imposed at a rate between

0.2 and 0.5 mm/min) and applied load were recorded
simultaneously with the image acquisition through an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) convertor.
•
E L
The tests were continued beyond the ultimate load to observe
the initial unloading behaviour.
P T
• N
The DIC system acquired data at 0.1 Hz, while the datalogger
for the strain gauges, LVDTs and load cell was recording at 2
Hz.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Finite element simulation and Initial Verification
• Finite element (FE) modelling of the full bridge was undertaken

in parallel with the testing program.
• The developed numerical model enabled further insight to be

gained into the structural response and load-bearing capacity of
the bridge.
E L
•
P T
The developed numerical model was also used to inform the
N
location of instrumentation for the testing and subsequent long-
term structural health monitoring.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Exploded view of the FE model showing the constituent structural

components
Bridge Engineering
• Owing both to its complex undulating geometry and non-

standardized material properties, the bridge lies outside the
scope of current structural design codes.
• This placed greater reliance on the physical testing and
E L
advanced nonlinear finite element modelling to verify the
structural performance of the bridge.
P T
• N
At the same time, by making suitable simplifications and
assumptions, a more traditional analysis and design approach
was also possible.
Bridge Engineering
• The results from the component tests confirmed that the general
response of the 3D printed elements is similar to that exhibited
by conventional structural steelwork.
• This involved creating a beam finite element model of the bridge
E L
that captured the key features of the structural behaviour,
P T
followed by structural design checks where the bridge was
•
considered as a U-frame.
N
The beam finite element model, developed by Arup,
corroborated the shell finite element results obtained by
Gardner et al. (2020).
Bridge Engineering
• The physical testing to date has shown that the bridge can
sustain its full serviceability limit state design load.
• The nonlinear finite element simulations and simplified design

checks indicated that further reserves in load-carrying capacity
are also available.
E L
•
P T
This initial verification enabled to the bridge to be unveiled to
the public, with controlled access. N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v L. Gardner, P. Kyvelou, G. Herbert and C. Buchanan. Testing and initial verification of
L
the world's first metal 3D printed bridge. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
Volume 172, September 2020, 106233.
T E
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Group.
Publishing.
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Lecture 43: High Speed Railway Bridges
Ø Introduction
Ø Literature Review
E L
P T
N
Ø Selection of Superstructure
Ø Dynamic Response Characterization

Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• With an increasing demand in transportation, trains are made

longer and faster.
• Over the last decade, speeds of trains have been increasing

steadily, bringing up new challenges in bridge conception.
•
E L
Entry of the train on the bridge creates a free vibration
P T
resulting from the inertia of the span that cannot instantly
N
accelerate to the deflection corresponding to the position of
the force.
• At high train speeds, the regularly spaced axles may build an

excitation frequency matching the natural frequency of the
bridge leading to resonance.
Bridge Engineering
Introduction
• Track irregularities create additional dynamic effects in high

speed railway bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bullet Train in Fujikawa Bridge (Japan)
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Literature Review
Author Major Findings
• Predicted the vulnerability of railway bridges subjected to high-speed trains of speeds above
Björklund 200 km/h loading by means of dynamic analysis.
(2004) • Discussed about dynamic amplification factors, damping coefficients, mass and stiffness of
railway bridges for case studies on high-speed rail in Sweden.
• Utilized capacity design methods for seismic resistant design of 185 m long 5 span bridge
across the Tuntzuchiao active faults under Taiwan High-Speed Rail Project.
Empelmann
• Considered amplified near fault shaking effects and fault rupture inclusive of 1.5 m horizontal
L
et al. (2004)
and 0.5 m vertical ground offsets for seismic design of the bridge at no catastrophic damage
E
or span failure.
P T
• Deduced that bearings of the high-speed railway bridges are required to experience minimum
deformation during load transfer to avoid buckling and misalignment of rails.
Marioni
(2005)
unless combined with rigid restraints.
N
• Concluded that elastomeric bearings can not be considered for high-speed railway bridges,
• Fixed and sliding guided pot bearings are commonly adopted in high-speed railway bridges
while spherical bearings were utilized in Italian high speed railway network to provide higher
rotation.
• Assessed the effectiveness of tuned mass dampers (TMD) in high-speed railway bridges in
Henriques reducing the train-induced vibrations by means of the auxiliary energy dissipation.
(2007) • Investigated the possibility of resonance between structure and the running train under
repeated passage of high-speed trains over the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
Literature Review
• Performed full span precast launching method (FPLM) analysis with dynamic simulation for
Taiwan High Speed Rail Project (THSR).
Pan et
• Adopted a dynamic simulation software SIMPROCESS for creating dynamic models of five
al.
different sections of THSR project for implementing FPLM as case studies.
(2008)
• Performed cross-tabulation and sensitivity analysis to identify the critical factors in the operating
process of FPLM for enhancing the performance of the project execution.
• Optimized the cross-sectional parameters of single and double track concrete and composite
L
Mellier
high-speed railway bridges under ten HSLM-A trains running at speeds between 150-350 km/h,
E
(2010)
based on first natural frequency and maximum vertical bridge deck acceleration criteria.
P T
• Investigated the high-speed train-track-bridge dynamic interactions through theoretical model
development, numerical simulation using the proposed train–track–bridge interaction simulation
N
software (TTBSIM) and experimental validations.
Zhai et • Coupled the vehicle subsystem with the track subsystem through a spatially interacted wheel-rail
al. model and the track subsystem with the bridge subsystem by a track–bridge dynamic interaction
(2015) model.
• Validated the numerical simulation results successfully with the on-site experimental results of
Yangcun Bridge of Beijing-Tianjin high-speed railway and Jinan Yellow River Bridge on the
Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway.
Ding et • Performed a full-scale test, reduced scale test and numerical simulations to correlate
al. aerodynamic design principle, aerodynamic performance indexes and design variables for
(2016) aerodynamic design optimization of the streamlined head of high-speed trains.
Bridge Engineering
Literature Review
• Proposed dynamic load factors (DLF) for a high-speed railway truss arch bridge in China based
Youliang on dynamic strain responses measured by field monitoring systems and finite element
and simulations for the bridge and the train.
Gaoxin • Correlated of DLF with the train speed and location of the train lane from parametric study.
(2016) • Predicted probability characteristics of DLF using Generalized Extreme Value Distribution based
on which standard values of DLF for 50 years return period could be evaluated.
• Explored the design of the abutment pad foundations which are semi-integral with the viaduct
Ashworth
and expansion/contraction and traction and braking forces.
E L
superstructure. The pad foundation soil-structure interaction was expected to resist the viaduct
T
Young • Decided dimensions of the viaduct substructure to ensure minimum deck longitudinal
P
(2017) movements to allow rail expansion joints to be installed at each end of the bridge with 100 mm
N
allowable gap.
• Performed experimental investigation on a prestressed concrete (four box-girder) beam bridge
Brunetti Cave’s viaduct of the Italian high-speed network for evaluation of damping.
et al.
• Obtained 2.76% damping ratio from the experimental results, which was higher than the
(2017)
damping ratio prescribed by the Eurocode design guidelines.
• Highlighted the key technologies for China’s elevated high-speed railway (HSR) bridges with
small settlement requirement criterion.
He et al.
• Performed a comparative study between the Chinese technical standards and the Japanese and
(2017)
International Union of Railway (UIC) standards for HSR bridges on the dynamic coefficients,
limiting rotations at the beam ends for various train speeds, etc.
Bridge Engineering
Literature Review
• Conducted experimental dynamic analysis of Sesia viaduct under Turin-Milan high-speed rail
line for train passages with speed up to 374 km/h.
• Installed accelerometers at the steel box girder bridge and concrete deck to determine local
Somaschini
vibration modes for structural safety of the composite bridge as well as stability of the ballast
et al. (2017)
on the bridge deck.
• Assessed the influences of bridge vibration modes and adjacent span on the maximum
acceleration and the resonance train speed.
decades.
E L
• Presented a review of the high-speed railway bridges constructed in Germany in the past few
Kang et al.
(2018) T
• Simply supported box girder bridges were built on the first HSR lines, Hanover–Würzburg and
P
Mannheim–Stuttgart while continuous box girder bridges were preferred for subsequently built
N
HSR lines, Hanover–Berlin and Cologne–Rhine/Main.
• Latest HSR lines, Ebensfeld–Erfurt and Erfurt–Leipzig contained 3.05 km of simply supported
box girder bridges and more than 10 km of continuous box girder bridges.
• Developed a frequency domain vehicle-track-viaduct coupling model for China railways track
system-III type damping track system to mitigate the vibration and structure-borne noise of
Liu et al. the viaduct.
(2019)
• The high acoustic contribution rate for the top plate of the viaduct can be reduced by damping
track system up to 8.15 dB and 8.36 Db for near-field and far-field noise, respectively.
Bridge Engineering
Literature Review
• Evaluated the static and dynamic stiffnesses of the Itz valley railway viaduct by using a static
diagnostic load test and a braking test, respectively.
• Equivalent longitudinal stiffness of piers and abutments with fixed bearings, commonly
Wenner et
calculated using a pile group model, play a pivotal role in Track–bridge interaction of long
al. (2019)
railway bridges.
• Deduced from subsoil numerical simulation that the traditional pile group method
underestimates the measured stiffnesses up to 3-5 times.
railway bridges by performing dynamic analysis.
E L
• Assessed the effects of substructure flexibility on the relative displacements of high-speed
Pugasap
(2020) T
• Developed 36 different numerical models of a 20-span viaduct supported by substructures
P
with natural frequencies of 0.566–3.706 Hz with column height, span length, bearing plan and
N
depth to span length ratio as four varying parameters.
• Found resonance phenomenon plausible for viaducts with flexible substructures contributing
to the response amplification.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Selection of Superstructure
• The material of construction must be selected, such as a

prestressed concrete bridge, reinforced concrete bridge, or
steel bridge.
• Concrete is used mainly because of the high cost of

constructing steel bridges.
E L
•
P T
Steel is used as construction material for long span and light
N
weight bridge with low girder height and fast erection even at
uneven terrain.
Bridge Engineering
• Together with classical concrete solutions, new steel–concrete

composite typologies have been developed, giving light and
cheap structures.
• Steel-concrete four-parallel-girder, twin-plate girder and box-
E L
girder may be the possible options for the superstructure.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Most steel bridges for high-speed rail are composite box

girders, truss bridges, and arch bridges. In selecting the
structural type, one considers the following types, which are
described in order of priority.
• Composite Box Girder Bridge

E L
• Truss Bridge
P T
• Arch Bridge N
Bridge Engineering
• Composite Box Girder Bridge: Box girders are the least costly in
the applicable range of steel bridges. The applicable span is
about 85 m or less for simple girders and 100 m or less for
continuous girders.
•
E L
Truss Bridge: For spans longer than the applicable length of
P T
box girders, truss bridges are selected. Truss bridges are less
•
costly than arch bridges.
N
Arch Bridge: Arch bridges are also selected for longer spans.
The arch type is selected in urban areas where landscaping is
required.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Steel Truss type HSR Bridge (Hirokawa Bridge, Japan)
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Steel Arch type HSR Bridge (Kitaoka Bridge, Japan)
Bridge Engineering
• Composite steel-concrete viaduct superstructure, composed of

a concrete slab interacting with a steel structure, is gradually
increasing in several countries.
• The combined use of steel and concrete in bridge decks aims to
E L
take advantage of the best features of each material. This means
P T
combining the high compressive strength of concrete and the
good tensile performance of steel.
N
Bridge Engineering
• The choice between a pre-stressed concrete deck or a

composite steel concrete deck is influenced by factors such as
spans, the building process, geotechnical conditions, economic
aspects (construction and maintenance costs), construction
period, aesthetics and landscaping.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Composite Steel-Concrete HSR Bridge (Arroyo Las Piedras Viaduct, Spain)
Bridge Engineering
• The concept of double composite action is the addition of a

second concrete slab at the bottom flange of the deck cross
section near the supports, working with the bottom steel flange
to resist the negative bending moments.
•
E L
The lower concrete slab gives the required stability to the
bottom flange.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
Ø Introduction

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Dynamic Response Characterization
• The impact factor/ dynamic augmentation factor for a high-

speed railway bridge can be proposed based on finite element
simulations for the bridge and the train.
• The impact factor/ dynamic augmentation factor to incorporate
E L
dynamic effects on high-speed railway bridges can be
P T
determined by correlating it with the train speed and location of
•
the train lane.
N
Subsequently, calculation of deck acceleration, allowable
vertical, horizontal and rotational displacements of HSR
viaducts would be performed.
Bridge Engineering
• Bearings of the high-speed railway bridges are required to

experience minimum deformation during load transfer to avoid
buckling and misalignment of rails.
• Elastomeric bearings can not be considered for high-speed
E L
railway bridges, unless combined with rigid restraints.
•
P T
Fixed and sliding guided pot bearings may be adopted in high-
speed railway bridges. N
• Numerical simulation approach can be adopted to determine the
right type of bearing applicable for high speed railway bridges.
Bridge Engineering
• Multiple Tuned Mass Dampers (MTMD) may be designed for

high-speed railway viaduct to control train-induced vibrations
by providing auxiliary energy dissipation when resonance
occurs between the external train excitation and the structure.
•
E L
TMD consists in a simple device composed by a mass attached
P T
to the structure through spring and damper elements, tuned to a
•
N
particular structural frequency of the bridge.
Numerical simulation scheme can be adopted to deduce an

optimum design parameters of MTMD applicable for high speed
railway viaduct.
Bridge Engineering
• Subsequently, the effectiveness of the MTMD in vibration

control can be determined by various realistic case studies.
• A railway bridge can be modeled as an Euler-Bernoulli beam

and a train can be simulated as a series of moving forces,
moving masses, or moving suspension masses.
E L
•
P T
According to the train load frequency analysis, resonant effects
N
will occur as the modal frequencies of a bridge are close to the
multiple of the impact frequency of the train load to the bridge.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
A railway bridge with train without MTMD (left) and with MTMD (right)
Bridge Engineering
• The entire system consists of three subsystems namely vehicle

subsystem, track subsystem and bridge subsystem, which are
coupled through the wheel–rail interaction and the track–bridge
interaction, respectively.
• Assumptions:
E L
P T
• The car bodies, bogie frames and wheelsets are all rigid bodies
with no elasticity. N
• The train moves at a constant speed along the track without
consideration of the stretching vibration of the vehicle and the
longitudinal dynamic interaction between neighbouring
vehicles.
Bridge Engineering
• The car body is symmetrical about its centre of mass at x-, y-

and z-directions.
E L
P T
N
Three-dimensional high-speed vehicle model: side elevation
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
High-speed railway double-block non-ballasted track
model: (a) side elevation; (b) end view
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Slab track–bridge dynamic interaction model
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
v Björklund, L. (2004) Dynamic Analysis of a Railway Bridge subjected to High Speed
L
Trains, MS Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm: 134 pp.
E
v Empelmann, M., Whittaker, D., Los, E., and Dorgarten, H-W. (2004) Taiwan High Speed
T
P
Rail Project-Seismic Design of Bridges across the TUNTZUCHIAO active fault, 13th
N
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
v Marioni, A. (2006) Bearing systems for high speed railway bridges, Sixth World
Congress on Joints, Bearings and Seismic Systems for Concrete Structures, Canada,
17-21 September 2006: 1-22.
v Henriques, J.F.C.S. (2007) Dynamic Behaviour and Vibration Control of High-Speed
Railway Bridges through Tuned Mass Dampers, MS Thesis, Instituto Superior
Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa: 226 pp.
v Mellier, C. (2010) Optimal Design of Bridges for High-Speed Trains: Single and Double
L
span bridges, MS thesis, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden.
E
v Zhai, W., He Xia, Chengbiao Cai, Mangmang Gao , Xiaozhen Li , Xiangrong Guo, Nan
T
P
Zhang & Kaiyun Wang (2013) High-speed train–track–bridge dynamic interactions –
N
Part I: theoretical model and numerical simulation, International Journal of Rail
Transportation, 1:1-2, 3-24.
v Wanming Zhai , Shaolin Wang , Nan Zhang , Mangmang Gao , He Xia , Chengbiao Cai
& Chunfa Zhao (2013) High-speed train–track–bridge dynamic interactions – Part II:
experimental validation and engineering application, International Journal of Rail
Transportation, 1:1-2, 25-41.
v Ding, S.S., Li, Q., Tian, A.Q., Du, J. and Liu, J.L. (2016) Aerodynamic design on high-
speed trains, Acta Mechanica Sinica; 32 (2): 215-232.
v Youliang, D., and Gaoxin, W. (2016) Evaluation of Dynamic Load Factors for a High-
L
Speed Railway Truss Arch Bridge, Shock and Vibration, 1-15.
E
v Brunetti, M., Ciambella, J., Evangelista, L., Lofrano, E., Paolone, A., and Vittozzi, A.
T
P
(2017) Experimental results in damping evaluation of a high-speed railway bridge,
Procedia Engineering, 199, 3-15-3020.
N
v Somaschini, C., Matsuoka, K., Collina, A. (2017) Experimental analysis of a composite
bridge under high-speed train passages, Procedia Engineering, 199, 3071-3076.
v Ashworth, T. and Young, C. (2018) Design and construction of Loughor railway
viaduct with semi-integral abutments, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers: Bridge Engineering; 171 (3): 191-200.
v Kang, C., Schneider, S., Wenner, M. and Marx, S. (2018) Development of design and
L
construction of high-speed railway bridges in Germany, Engineering Structures; 163:
184-196.
T E
P
v Liu, L., Song, R., Zhou, Y-L and Qin, J. (2019) Noise and Vibration Mitigation
N
Performance of Damping Pad under CRTS-III Ballastless Track in High-Speed Rail
Viaduct, KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 23(8), 3525-3534.
v Wenner M, Meier T, Wedel F, Schacht G and Marx S (2019) Experimental Determination
of the Longitudinal Pier Stiffness of a Long Railway Viaduct. Frontiers in Built
Environment 5 (45), 1-13.
v Pugasap, K. (2020) Dynamic responses of bridge substructures subjected to high-
speed trains, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Bridge Engineering;
173 (3): 143-157.
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T
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Group.
Publishing.
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NPTEL ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
COURSE NAME: BRIDGE ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT - WEEK 1
Number of Questions: 10 Total Marks: 10 × 2 = 20
1. Which may be the main span length of a minor bridge?
A. 5m
B. 50 m
C. 90 m
D. 150 m
Right Answer: B. 50 m
Detailed Solution: Minor Bridges has span length between 6-60 m.
2. Traffic projection in bridge sites is done considering
A. Existing mode of transport

B. Socio-economic conditions
C. Upcoming developments
D. All of the above
Right Answer: D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Traffic projection in bridge sites is done through traffic survey considering
existing mode of transport, socio-economic conditions and upcoming developments in the
regions.
3. The arch rib of arch bridges carries load in
A. Tension
B. Compression
C. None of the above
D. All of the above
Right Answer: B. Compression

Detailed Solution: The arch rib of arch bridges carries load in compression.
4. The cables of cable stayed bridges carry load in
A. Tension
B. Compression
C. None of the above
D. All of the above
Right Answer: A. Tension
Detailed Solution: The cables of cable stayed bridges carry load in tension.
5. Soil profile is determined by
A. Contour Survey
B. Sub-soil Exploration
C. Catchment Area Map
D. All of the above
Right Answer: B. Sub-soil Exploration
Detailed Solution: Soil profile is determined by sub-soil exploration.
6. Which is not a method to determine design discharge?
A. Dicken’s Formula
B. Ryve’s Formula
C. Unit Hydrograph Method
D. Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method
Right Answer: D. Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method
Detailed Solution: Pigeaud’s Coefficient Method is not a method to determine design

discharge.
7. For 4 m3/s discharge per metre width, calculate the maximum scour depth below HFL near
abutments when the bed material is medium sand of particle size 0.50 mm.
A. 2.35 m
B. 3.15 m
C. 3.95 m
D. 4.75 m
Right Answer: C. 3.95 m
Detailed Solution: Silt factor Ksf = 1.76 × square root of the particle size in mm = 1.76 × √0.5
= 1.244
Mean depth of scour below HFL in metres dsm =1.34 × (Db2/ Ksf)0.33 = 1.34 × (42/ 1.244)0.33 =
3.113 m
Maximum Scour Depth below HFL near abutments, D = 1.27 × dsm = 1.27 × 3.113 m = 3.953
m
8. For the most economical span length of bridge, Cost of superstructure equals to
A. Cost of deck slab

B. Cost of approaches
C. Cost of substructure
D. Cost of railing and parapet wall
Right Answer: C. Cost of substructure
Detailed Solution: For the most economical span length, cost of superstructure equals cost of
substructure.
9. The minimum carriageway width for 2 lane highway bridge is
A. 3.5 m
B. 4.25 m
C. 7m
D. 7.5 m
Right Answer: D. 7.5 m
Detailed Solution: The minimum carriageway width for 2 lane highway bridge is 7.5 m.
10. Gauge length of Broad Gauge in Indian Railways is
A. 1767 mm
B. 1676 mm
C. 767 mm
D. 672 mm
Right Answer: B. 1676 mm
Detailed Solution: Gauge length of Broad Gauge in Indian Railways is 1676 mm

ASSIGNMENT - WEEK 2
1. The limiting value of yield strain in Fe250 grade steel is
A. 0.0015
B. 0.0025
C. 0.0031
D. 0.0035
Right Answer: C. 0.0031
Detailed Solution: The limiting value of yield strain in Fe250 grade steel is taken as 0.0031
regardless of the grade of concrete.
2. Limiting Moment of Resistance of a concrete section of width b, effective depth d for

characteristic strength of concrete fck and Fe 500 steel is
A. 0.138×fckbd2
B. 0.133×fckbd2
C. 0.128×fckbd2
D. 0.121×fckbd2
Right Answer: B. 0.133×fckbd2
Detailed Solution: Limiting Moment of Resistance of a concrete section of width b, effective

depth d for characteristic strength of concrete fck and Fe 500 steel is 0.133 × fck bd2.
3. What is the maximum depth of neutral axis of a section with reinforcement made of Fe415
steel?
A. 0.46 times effective depth of section

B. 0.48 times effective depth of section
C. 0.50 times effective depth of section
D. 0.52 times effective depth of section
Right Answer: B. 0.48 times effective depth of section
Detailed Solution: The maximum depth of neutral axis of a section with reinforcement made
of Fe415 steel is 0.48 times effective depth of section.
4. What is maximum permissible crack width in reinforced concrete members under severe
exposure condition?
A. 0.1 mm
B. 0.15 mm
C. 0.2 mm
D. 0.3 mm
Right Answer: D. 0.3 mm
Detailed Solution: Maximum permissible crack width in reinforced concrete members under
severe exposure condition is 0.3 mm.
5. The deflection limit in deck slab under vehicular and pedestrian live load is
A. Span/300
B. Span/500
C. Span/800`
D. Span/1000
Right Answer: D. Span/1000
Detailed Solution: The deflection limit in deck slab under vehicular and pedestrian live load
is Span/1000.
6. For a simply supported slab culvert of L = 6 m, B = 9.5 m, wearing coat thickness 80 mm, how
much is the effective width under a wheel load of 62.5 kN when it is placed at the centre of
span? Wheel contact dimension perpendicular to span = 200 mm
A. 2.67 m
B. 3.67 m
C. 4.67 m
D. 5.67 m
Detailed Solution: Effective Width of Slab perpendicular to Span be = Kx (1 ‒ x/L) + bw

bw = Wheel Contact Dimension in a direction perpendicular to Span of Slab plus 2 times of the
thickness of the wearing coat = 0.2 + 2 × 0.08 = 0.36 m
x = 6/2 = 3 m, L = 6 m, B = 9.5 m and B/L = 1.583
For B/L = 1.583, K = 2.873
Effective Width be = 2.873 × 3 × (1 ‒ 3/6) + 0.36 = 4.67 m
7. For a simply supported slab culvert of L = 6 m, B = 9.5 m, slab thickness 500 mm and wearing
coat thickness 80 mm, how much is the effective length under a wheel load of 62.5 kN when
it is placed at the centre of span? Wheel contact dimension along the span = 400 mm
A. 1.56 m
B. 1.86 m
C. 2.16 m
D. 2.46 m
Right Answer: A. 1.56 m
Detailed Solution: Effective Length of Load v = x + 2 × (D+H)

x = Wheel load contact area along the span = 0.4 m
D = Depth of the wearing coat = 0.08 m
H = Depth of the slab = 0.5 m
Effective Length of Load v = 0.4 + 2 × (0.08 + 0.5) = 1.56 m
8. Courbon’s Method is applicable for which of the following range of span (L) to Width (B)
ratio of deck?
A. 2 < L/B < 4

B. 2 > L/B
C. L/B > 4
D. None of the above
Right Answer: A. 2 < L/B < 4
Detailed Solution: Courbon’s method is applicable when Ratio of span (L) to width (B) of deck
is greater than 2 but less than 4.
9. For a T-beam bridge deck having wearing coat thickness 80 mm, what are wheel load
dispersions along short span and long span under a wheel load of 62.5 kN? Wheel contact
dimensions = 400 mm (along long span) × 200 mm (along short span)
A. 410 mm (along long span) and 210 mm (along short span)

B. 460 mm (along long span) and 260 mm (along short span)
C. 510 mm (along long span) and 310 mm (along short span)
D. 560 mm (along long span) and 360 mm (along short span)
Right Answer: D. 560 mm (along long span) × 360 mm (along short span)
Detailed Solution: Wheel Load Dispersion along the Short Span u = Wheel contact dimension
along short span + 2 × wearing coat thickness = 0.2 + 2 × 0.08 = 0.36 m
Wheel Load Dispersion along the Long Span v = Wheel contact dimension along long span +
2 × wearing coat thickness = 0.4 + 2 × 0.08 = 0.56 m
10. A T-beam bridge deck has short span length B = 2.5 m and long span length L = 5 m. Under a
wheel load of 100 kN, m1 = 0.2, m2 = 0.1 and μ = 0.15. Impact factor = 1.5. What are the live
load moments along short span and long span as per Pigeaud’s Coefficient method?
A. 32.25 kN-m (along short span) and 19.5 kN-m (along long span)
B. 22.25 kN-m (along short span) and 14.5 kN-m (along long span)
C. 12.25 kN-m (along short span) and 9.5 kN-m (along long span)
D. 2.25 kN-m (along short span) and 4.5 kN-m (along long span)
Right Answer: A. 32.25 kN-m (along short span) and 19.5 kN-m (along long span)
Detailed Solution: m1 = 0.2, m2 = 0.1 and μ = 0.15

Live Load W = 100 kN; Impact factor = 1.5
Moment in Short Span M1 due to Live Load including impact factor = I.F. × W × (m1 + μm2)
= 1.5 × 100 × (0.2 + 0.15 × 0.1) = 32.25 kN-m
Moment in Long Span M2 due to Live Load including impact factor = I.F. × W × (m2 + μm1)
= 1.5 × 100 × (0.1 + 0.15 × 0.2) = 19.5 kN-m
ASSIGNMENT - WEEK 3
1. A RC box culvert has a clear vent way of height h =3 m and length l = 3 m, slab thickness ts =
300 mm and wall thickness tw = 350 mm. What is the magnitude of K?
A. 0.98
B. 0.87
C. 0.75
D. 0.62
Right Answer: D. 0.62
Detailed Solution: Clear Span of vent l = 3000 mm, Height of vent h = 3000 mm
Slab thickness ts = 300 mm, Wall thickness tw = 350 mm
Effective Span L = l + tw = 3350 mm,
Effective Height H = h + ts = 3300 mm
K = H/L × (ts/tw)3 = (3300/3350) × (300/350)3 = 0.62
2. A RC box culvert has effective span L = 3250 mm, effective height H = 3350 mm. If it is filled
with water, what is the maximum water pressure intensity?
A. 16.5 kN/m2
B. 23 kN/m2
C. 26.5 kN/m2
D. 33.5 kN/m2
Right Answer: D. 33.5 kN/m2
Detailed Solution: Water pressure p = γw H = 10 × 3.35 = 33.5 kN/m2

γw is density of water = 10 kN/m3
3.
A RC box culvert has effective span L = 3250 mm, effective height H = 3350 mm. The density
of soil γsoil at bridge site = 18 kN/m3. Angle of repose φ = 30°. What is the soil pressure?
A. 29.7 kN/m2
B. 23.8 kN/m2
C. 20.1 kN/m2
D. 18.0 kN/m2
Right Answer: C. 20.1 kN/m2
Detailed Solution: Soil pressure p = [γsoil × H × (1 – sin φ)/ (1 + sin φ)] = [18 × 3.35 × (1 – sin
30°)/ (1 + sin 30°)] = 20.1 kN/m2
4. A RC box culvert has effective span L = 3250 mm, effective height H = 3350 mm. slab
thickness ts = 300 mm and wall thickness tw = 350 mm. What is self-weight of each vertical
side wall per metre run? Unit weight of reinforced concrete γ = 24 kN/m3
A. 20.74 kN
B. 22.34 kN
C. 25.44 kN
D. 28.14 kN
Right Answer: D. 28.14 kN
Detailed Solution: Weight of each vertical side wall per metre run = (H × tw × γ) = (3.35 × 0.35
× 24) = 28.14 kN
5. A RC box culvert has effective span L = 3000 mm and K = 0.5. What are fixed end moments
in kN-m due to the equivalent concentrated wheel load W of 700 kN?
A. − 183.33 kN-m and − 108.33 kN-m

B. − 153.33 kN-m and − 78.33 kN-m
C. − 123.33 kN-m and − 38.33 kN-m
D. − 83.33 kN-m and − 8.33 kN-m
Right Answer: A. − 183.33 kN-m and − 108.33 kN-m
Detailed Solution: Fixed end moment MA in box culvert due to wheel load W = − (WL/12) ×
(2K + 4.5)/ [(K + 3) × (K + 1)] = − (700 × 3/12) × (2 × 0.5 + 4.5)/ [(0.5 + 3) × (0.5 + 1)] = −
183.33 kN-m
Fixed end moment MB in box culvert due to wheel load W = − (WL/24) × (K + 6)/ [(K + 3) ×
(K + 1)] = − (700 × 3/24) × (0.5 + 6)/ [(0.5 + 3) × (0.5 + 1)] = − 108.33 kN-m
6.
Which of the following is an unreinforced concrete non-pressure pipe?
A. NP-1
B. NP-2
C. NP-3
D. All of the above
Right Answer: A. NP-1
Detailed Solution: NP-1 is an unreinforced concrete non-pressure pipe.
7. Discharge through pipe culvert Q = 1.5 m3/s. Velocity of flow through pipe v = 2 m/s. What is
internal diameter d of the pipe?
A. 0.87 m
B. 0.92 m
C. 0.98 m
D. 1.15 m
Detailed Solution: Internal diameter of pipe d = √ (4Q/ πv) = √ [(4×1.5)/ (π×2)] = 0.98 m
8. What is the vertical external loading on a pipe of 1.1 m external diameter due to an embankment
of height 1 m above the pipe?
A. 24.2 kN/m
B. 28.3 kN/m
C. 29.6 kN/m
D. 33.4 kN/m
Right Answer: B. 28.3 kN/m
Detailed Solution: The vertical external loading on a pipe of 1.1 m external diameter due to an
embankment of height 1 m above the pipe = 28.3 kN/m
9. If IRC Class AA Tracked vehicle wheel load of 350 kN is placed directly above the pipe
culvert, what is the loading on pipe? The pipe has 1.1 m external diameter and the vertical
depth of top of pipe below the surface is 1 m. Impact factor is 1.5.
A. 187 kN/m
B. 141 kN/m
C. 93 kN/m
D. 47 kN/m
Right Answer: A. 187 kN/m
Detailed Solution: Loading on pipe 𝑾 = 𝟒𝑪𝒔 × 𝑰 × 𝑷

Where, 𝑪𝒔 = Influence coefficient dependent on D and H = 0.089
𝑷 = Concentrated wheel load = 350 kN; 𝑰 = Impact factor = 1.5 for highways
Loading on pipe 𝑾 = 𝟒𝑪𝒔 × 𝑰 × 𝑷 = 4 × 0.089 × 1.5 × 350 = 186.9 kN/m ≈ 187 kN/m
10. What is the weight of 8 mm spiral reinforcement per meter length of pipe? The average
diameter of spiral is 1.1 m. Spacing between spirals is 60 mm.
A. 14.7 kg/m
B. 17.1 kg/m
C. 20.4 kg/m
D. 23.2 kg/m
Right Answer: D. 23.2 kg/m
Detailed Solution: Average diameter of spiral = 1.1 m

Weight of one spiral of 8 mm diameter per metre length = (π/4 × 0.0082 × 7850) = 0.395 kg/m
Weight of one spiral of 8 mm diameter with average spiral diameter of 1.1 m = (π × 1.1 ×
0.395) = 1.365 kg
Number of spirals in 1 m length of pipe considering spacing between spirals as 60 mm = (1000/
60) = 16.667 ≈ 17
Weight of spiral reinforcement per meter length of pipe = (1.365 × 17) = 23.205 kg/m
ASSIGNMENT – WEEK 4
1. Steel truss bridges are generally found economical in the span range of
A. 1-50 m
B. 50-100 m
C. 100-200 m
D. 200-300 m
Right Answer: C. 100-200 m
Detailed Solution: Steel truss bridges are generally found economical in the span range of 100
to 200 m.
2. The depth of the truss for railway bridges generally ranges between
A. 1/5 to 1/10 times span length

B. 1/10 to 1/15 times span length
C. 1/15 to 1/20 times span length
D. 1/20 to 1/25 times span length
Right Answer: A. 1/5 to 1/10 times span length
Detailed Solution: The depth of the truss for railway bridges generally ranges between 1/5 to
1/10 times span length.
3. The depth of the truss for a high-way bridge is generally
A. 1/40 to 1/55 times span length

B. 1/25 to 1/40 times span length
C. 1/10 to 1/25 times span length
D. 1/6 to 1/20 times span length
Right Answer: D. 1/6 to 1/20 times span length

Detailed Solution: The depth of the truss for a high-way bridge is generally in the range of 1/6
to 1/20 times span length.
4. The most common type of steel truss used for bridges is
A. Warren truss
B. Howe Truss
C. Fink Truss
Right Answer: A. Warren truss
Detailed Solution: The most common type of steel truss used for bridges is the Warren truss.
5. If ISWB 450 is adopted for stringer beams of steel truss bridge, what is its shear area?
A. 2700 mm2
B. 3450 mm2
C. 4140 mm2
D. 4950 mm2
Right Answer: C. 4140 mm2
Detailed Solution: ISWB 450 has overall depth h = 450 mm and thickness of web tw = 9.2 mm
Shear Area for hot rolled sections Av = (h × tw) = (450 × 9.2) = 4140 mm2.
6. If ISWB 500 is adopted for stringer beams of steel truss bridge, what is its design shear
strength?
A. 443 kN
B. 649 kN
C. 882 kN
D. 1100 kN
Right Answer: B. 649 kN
Detailed Solution: ISWB 500 has overall depth h = 500 mm and thickness of web tw = 9.9
mm
Shear Area for hot rolled sections Av = (h × tw) = (500 × 9.9) = 4950 mm2.
Nominal Shear Resistance of Section Vn = Av fyw/√3 = 4950 × 250/√3 = 714470.958 N = 714.47
kN.
Design Shear Strength Vd = Vn/ γm0 = (714.47/1.1) = 649.518 kN ≈ 649 kN
7. If 4 angles of 100 × 100 × 10 is adopted for a tension member of a steel truss bridge, design
strength of the member under axial tension due to yielding of gross section is
A. 3164 kN
B. 2728 kN
C. 2293 kN
D. 1727 kN
Right Answer: D. 1727 kN
Detailed Solution: 4 angles of 100 × 100 × 10 has a total cross sectional area Ag = 7600 mm2
Design strength of the member under axial tension due to yielding of gross section, Tdg = (Ag
× fy)/ γm0
Tdg = (Ag × fy)/ γm0 = (7600 × 250)/ 1.1 = 1727272.727 N = 1727.27 kN ≈ 1727 kN
8. Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio λ is a function of
A. Young’s Modulus E
B. Effective Length KL
C. Radius of Gyration r
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio λ = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E]
9. Imperfection factor α is dependent on
A. buckling class and flange width

B. buckling class and web depth
C. buckling class and web thickness
D. buckling class and flange thickness
Right Answer: D. buckling class and flange thickness
Detailed Solution: Imperfection factor α is dependent on buckling class and flange thickness.
10.
11.
What is the magnitude of φ of an axially loaded compression member of a steel truss bridge?
Effective slenderness ratio KL/r = 40 and imperfection factor α = 0.34.
A. 0.48
B. 0.64
C. 0.72
D. 0.85
Right Answer: B. 0.64
Detailed Solution: Effective slenderness ratio (KL/r) = 40

Non-dimensional effective slenderness ratio λ = √[fy × (KL/r)2/π2E] = √[(250 × 402)/(π2 × 2 ×
105)] = 0.45
Imperfection factor α = 0.34
φ = 0.5 × [1 + α × (λ – 0.2) + λ2] = 0.5 × [1 + 0.34 × (0.45 – 0.2) + 0.452] = 0.64
1. Plate girder bridges are economical for a span range of
A. 10-15 m
B. 15-40 m
C. 40-100 m
D. 100-200 m
Right Answer: B. 15-40 m
Detailed Solution: Plate girder bridges are economical for a span range of 15-40 m.
2. The failure modes of a plate girder are
A. By yielding of the tension flange

B. By buckling of the compression flange
C. Yielding of the tension flange and buckling of the compression flange
Right Answer: C. Yielding of the tension flange and buckling of the compression
flange
Detailed Solution: The modes of failure of a plate girder are by yielding of the tension flange
and by buckling of the compression flange.
3. The stress distributions in plate girder are
A. Flanges carry a major portion of the flexural load while web carries most of the shear force
B. Flanges and web carry the flexural load only
C. Flanges and web carry the shear force only
Right Answer: A. Flanges carry a major portion of the flexural load while web
carries most of the shear load
Detailed Solution: Based on the stress distribution diagrams, the flanges carry a major portion
of the flexural load while the web carries most of the shear load in the plate girder.
4. Load carrying and bearing stiffeners are provided to
A. Prevent local buckling of the web and flanges due to concentrated loading
B. Prevent local crushing of the web and flanges due to concentrated loading
C. Provide torsional restraint to beams and girders at the supports
D. Prevent local buckling and local crushing of web respectively due to concentrated loading
Right Answer: D. Prevent local buckling and local crushing of web respectively
due to concentrated loading
Detailed Solution: The functions of load carrying and bearing stiffeners are to prevent local
buckling and local crushing of web respectively due to concentrated loading.
5. A plate girder of depth d, web thickness tw is sustaining a moment Mz. If d/tw = k, optimum
web thickness of plate girder is
A. ((Mz/fy k2)
B. (Mz/fy k)0.33
C. (Mz/fy k2)0.33
D. Mz/(fy k2)0.33
Right Answer: C. (Mz/fy k2)0.33
Detailed Solution: Optimum web thickness of plate girder is (Mz/fy k2)0.33.
6. A plate girder of depth d, web thickness tw is sustaining a moment Mz. If d/tw = k, optimum
web depth of plate girder is
A. (Mz/fy k)0.33
B. (Mz/fy k2)0.33
C. (Mz k2/ fy)0.33
D. (Mzk/ fy)0.33
Right Answer: D. (Mz k/ fy)0.33
Detailed Solution: Optimum web thickness of plate girder is (Mz k/ fy)0.33.
7.
For simply supported condition, critical elastic shear stress τcr,e of plate girder bridge is
A. Kvπ2/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]

B. Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
C. Kvπ2/ [24× (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
D. Kvπ2E/ [24 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
Right Answer: B. Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2]
Detailed Solution: For simply supported condition, critical elastic shear stress τcr,e of plate
girder bridge is Kvπ2E/ [12 × (1 − μ2) × (d/ tw)2].
8. For a web stiffener with thickness tq made of Fe 415 steel, outstand from the face of the web
can be up to
A. 16 tq
B. 20 tq
C. 24 tq
D. 28 tq
Right Answer: A. 16 tq
Detailed Solution: Outstand of web stiffener from the face of the web should not exceed 20 tqε
where tq is thickness of the stiffener and ε is yield stress ratio = √(250/fy). For Fe415 steel, ε =
0.78 and maximum outstand of web stiffener from the face of the web = 16 tq
9. The stiff bearing length of any element is determined considering load dispersion through solid
elements at an angle of
A. 90°
B. 60°
C. 45°
D. 30°
Right Answer: C. 45°
Detailed Solution: The stiff bearing length of any element is determined considering load
dispersion through solid elements at an angle of 45°.
10.
When only transverse stiffeners are provided in the plate girder at a spacing c = 0.5 times web
depth d, the maximum value of d/tw, as per serviceability criteria is
A. 300εw
B. 270εw
C. 250εw
D. 200εw
Right Answer: B. 270εw
Detailed Solution: When only transverse stiffeners are provided in the plate girder at a spacing
c = 0.5 times web depth d, the maximum value of d/tw, as per serviceability criteria is 270 εw
1. A semi-circular masonry arch bridge has a span length S of 12 m. The rise and radius of the
arch are
A. 5 m and 7 m
B. 7 m and 5 m
C. 4 m and 8 m
D. 6 m and 6 m
Right Answer: D. 6 m and 6 m
Detailed Solution: Span of the Arch S = 12 m

Rise of the Arch Intrados r = Span/ 2 = 12/2 = 6 m (Semi-circular)
Radius of the Arch Intrados R = (S2 + 4r2)/8r = (122 + 4 × 62)/ (8 × 6) = 6 m.
2. A masonry arch bridge has a span length S of 12 m, rise r of 4 m, radius R of 6.5 m. Thickness
of arch ring is
A. 0.545 m
B. 0.565 m
C. 0.585 m
D. 0.625 m
Right Answer: B. 0.565 m
Detailed Solution: Thickness of the Arch by Trautwyne’s formula t = [√(R + 0.5S)]/7 + 0.06 =
[√(6.5 + 0.5 × 12)]/7 + 0.06 = 0.565 m.
3.
Relationship between rise r, radius R and span L of circular arch is
A. L = 2r √(2R/r – 1)
B. L = 2r √(R/r – 1)
C. L = r √(2R/r – 1)
D. L = r √(R/r – 1)
Right Answer: A. L = 2r √(2R/r – 1)
Detailed Solution: Relationship between radius R, rise r and span L of circular arch is R = L2/8r
+ r/2. We can re-write it as L2/8r = R − r/2. Or, L2 = 8rR − 4r2. Or, L2 = 4r2(2R/r – 1).
Or, L = 2r √(2R/r – 1).
4. A two hinged parabolic arch has 16 m span length and 4 m rise. Equation of arch rib is
A. y = (x − x2/10)
B. y = (x − x2/12)
C. y = (x − x2/16)
D. y = (x − x2/20)
Right Answer: C. y = (x − x2/16)
Detailed Solution: Equation of parabolic arch rib is y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x) = 4 × 4x/ 162 × (16 ‒ x)
= x/ 16 × (16 ‒ x) = (x ‒ x2/16).
5. A two hinged parabolic arch has 20 m span length and 5 m rise. It has 100 kN vertical load
applied at crown. ∫ (Mydx for the entire arch can be determined as
A. 2083 kNm2
B. 20833 kNm3
C. 2083 kNm3
D. 20833 kNm2
Right Answer: B. 20833 kNm3
Detailed Solution: Equation of parabolic arch rib is y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x) = 4 × 5x/ 202 × (20
‒ x) = x/ 20 × (20 ‒ x) = (x ‒ x2/20).
Vertical support reaction VA = VB = 100/ 2 = 50 kN
For 0 < x < 10 m, Moment from A to C = 50x kN-m
For 0 < x < 20 m, Moment from C to B = 50x ‒ 100(x ‒ 10) = (‒ 50x + 1000) kN-m
∫010 (Mydx) = ∫01050x × (x ‒ x2/20) dx = ∫010(50x2 ‒ 5x3/2) dx = (50x3 /3‒ 5x4/8) 010 = 10416.67
kN-m3
∫1020 (Mydx) = ∫1020(‒ 50x + 1000) × (x ‒ x2/20) dx = ∫1020(‒50x2 + 5x3/2+1000x ‒50x2) dx=
∫1020(5x3/2+1000x ‒100x2) dx = (5x4 /8 +500x2‒ 100x3/3) 1020 = 10416.67 kN-m3
∫020 (Mydx) = 2 × 10416.67 = 20833.34 kN-m3
6. Ratio of side span to main span in suspension bridge vary between
A. 0.17-0.50
B. 0.25-0.60
C. 0.35-0.70
D. 0.45-0.85
Right Answer: A. 0.17-0.50
Detailed Solution: The ratio of side span to main span in suspension bridge generally varies
from 0.17 to 0.50.
7. Arrangements for passing the cables over the towers from the main span to the side span
A. Guide Pulley Support

B. Roller Support
C. Guide Pulley Support and Roller Support
Right Answer: C. Guide Pulley Support and Roller Support
Detailed Solution: There are two arrangements generally made for passing the cables over the
towers from the main span to the side span.
a) Guide Pulley Support b) Roller Support.
8. For reduced girder deflections, cable inclination must vary between
A. 40-80 degrees
B. 35-55 degrees
C. 30-60 degrees
D. 25-65 degrees
Right Answer: D. 25-65 degrees
Detailed Solution: For reduced girder deflections, cable inclination may vary in the reasonable
limits of 25°-65°
9.
Central span of a balanced cantilever bridge can be up to
A. 30 m
B. 40 m
C. 50 m
D. 60 m
Right Answer: A. 30 m
Detailed Solution: Central span of a balanced cantilever bridge can be up to 30 m.
10. Articulation is connection between
A. simply supported span and cantilever span

B. suspended span and cantilever span
C. suspended span and simply supported span
Right Answer: B. suspended span and cantilever span
Detailed Solution: Articulation is connection between suspended span and cantilever span.
1. Prestressed concrete is applicable for bridges in the span range of
A. 20-100 m
B. 20-200 m
C. 20-500 m
D. 20-1000 m
Detailed Solution: Prestressed concrete is applicable for bridges in the span range of 20-500
m.
2. Prestressed Concrete is a concrete which has
A. Internal stresses introduced to counteract external forces

B. Prestress introduced by tendons
C. Both A and B
Right Answer: C. Both A and B
Detailed Solution: Prestressed Concrete is a concrete which has Internal stresses introduced to
counteract external forces. It also has prestress introduced by tensons.
3. Prestressed Concrete has distinct advantages as
A. Aesthetically and economically superior slender sections

B. Construction of crack-free structure
C. Low maintenance Cost
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Prestressed Concrete has distinct advantages as aesthetically and

economically superior slender sections, construction of crack-free structure and low
maintenance cost.
4. Pre-tensioning involves
A. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
bearing
B. Tensioning the tendons before placing the concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
bond between steel and concrete
C. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
elongation
D. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
separation
Right Answer: B. Tensioning the tendons before placing the concrete and
imparting prestress to concrete by bond between steel and concrete.
Detailed Solution: Pre-tensioning involves tensioning the tendons before placing the concrete
and imparting prestress to concrete by bond between steel and concrete.
5. Post-tensioning involves
A. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
bearing
B. Tensioning the tendons before placing the concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
bond between steel and concrete
C. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
crushing
D. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting prestress to concrete by
separation
Right Answer: A. Tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete and imparting
prestress to concrete by bearing.
Detailed Solution: Post-tensioning involves tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete
and imparting prestress to concrete by bearing.
6. If 2500 kN is the minimum prestressing force, the spacing of Freyssinet cables containing 12
wires of 7 mm diameter stressed to 1200 N/mm2 is
A. 222 mm
B. 255 mm
C. 277 mm
D. 300 mm
Right Answer: A. 222 mm
Detailed Solution: Using Freyssinet cables containing 12 wires of 7 mm diameter stressed

to 1200 N/mm , force in each cable = (𝟏𝟐×𝝅/𝟒×𝟕2×𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎)/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟓𝟒 𝒌𝑵
2
2000 kN is the minimum prestressing force

Spacing of cables = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎×𝟓𝟓𝟒)/(2500)=222 𝒎𝒎
7. Composite bridge decks comprising reinforced concrete decks supported by steel girders are
adapted in the span range of
A. 10-20 m
B. 30-40 m
C. 40-50 m
D. 50-60 m
Right Answer: A. 10-20 m
Detailed Solution: Composite bridge decks are applicable in the span range of 10-20 m.
8. The shear strength of shear connectors depends upon
A. type of steel
B. cross-sectional dimensions of the connector
C. compressive strength of concrete in slab
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: The shear strength of shear connectors depends upon the type of steel, the
cross-sectional dimensions of the connector and compressive strength of concrete in slab.
9.
Which of the following is not a type of shear connector?
A. Rigid Shear Connector

B. Flexible Shear Connector
C. Grillage Shear Connector
D. Anchorage Shear Connector
Right Answer: C. Grillage Shear Connector
Detailed Solution: Shear connectors are of three types, flexible type, rigid type and
anchorage type.
10.
The ratio of flexural stiffnesses of a composite beam and a steel beam is
A. 2-4
B. 5-6
C. 8-10
D. 12-15
Right Answer: A. 2-4
Detailed Solution: The ratio of flexural stiffnesses of a composite beam and a steel beam is 2-
4.
1. Spacer beams or ribs are added in rigid frame bridge for span ranges
A. 5-10 m
B. 10-20 m
C. 20-30 m
D. 30-50 m
Detailed Solution: Beam and Slab type Rigid Frame Bridge is applicable for span ranges 20-
30 m.
2. Horizontal member of the rigid frame bridge is
A. Flange
B. Transom
C. Web
Right Answer: B. Transom
Detailed Solution: Horizontal member of the rigid frame bridge is Transom.
3. Rigid frame bridges do not require separate abutments as
A. Vertical columns of rigid frame serve as retaining walls and transfers load to ground
B. Cost of construction of abutments and associated foundations are too high
C. Transom serve the function of separate abutments
Right Answer: A. Vertical columns of rigid frame serve as retaining walls and
transfers load to ground
Detailed Solution: Rigid frame bridges do not require separate abutments since the vertical
columns retain the earth and serve as retaining walls thus eliminating the construction of
abutments and their foundations.
4. Crown of a rigid frame bridge has a dimension of
A. Span Length/10
B. Span Length/15
C. Span Length/25
D. Span Length/35
Right Answer: D. Span Length/35
Detailed Solution: Crown of a rigid frame bridge has a dimension of Span Length/35.
5. Junction of horizontal and vertical members of rigid frame bridge has a dimension of
A. Span Length/10
B. Span Length/15
C. Span Length/20
D. Span Length/30
Right Answer: B. Span Length/15
Detailed Solution: Junction of horizontal and vertical members of a rigid frame bridge has a
dimension of Span Length/15.
6. Tee beam and slab type continuous bridge decks are applicable for span range of
A. 5-10 m
B. 10-20 m
C. 10-35 m
D. 20-50 m
Detailed Solution: Tee beam and slab type continuous solid slab bridge decks are applicable
for span range of 10-35 m.
7.
For spans exceeding 40 m, the configuration of continuous bridge is
A. Single or multi-cell box girder type

B. Tee-beam and slab type
C. Solid slab type
Right Answer: A. Single or multi-cell box girder type
Detailed Solution: For spans exceeding 40 m, the configuration of continuous bridge is

single or multi-cell box girder type.
8. The ratio of slab thicknesses of the support section to mid span section of a continuous slab
deck bridge is
A. 1-1.2
B. 1.2-1.4
C. 1.3-1.8
D. 1.4-2.0
Right Answer: C. 1.3-1.8
Detailed Solution: The ratio of slab thicknesses of the support section to mid span section of a
continuous slab deck bridge is 1.3-1.8.
9. The length of haunches of a continuous slab deck bridge is
A. 0.1-0.2 times span length

B. 0.2-0.25 times span length
C. 0.25-0.3 times span length
D. 0.3-0.5 times span length
Right Answer: B. 0.2-0.25 times span length
Detailed Solution: The length of haunches of a continuous slab deck bridge is 0.2-0.25 times
span length.
10. The ratio of the end span length to intermediate span length of a continuous bridge is
A. 0.30-0.50
B. 0.50-0.60
C. 0.60-0.80
D. 0.80-0.84
Right Answer: D. 0.80-0.84
Detailed Solution: The ratio of the end span length to intermediate span length of a continuous
bridge is 0.80-0.84. Generally, the end spans are made about 16 to 20 percent smaller than the
intermediate spans.
1. Bridge substructure consists of
A. Deck slab and girders

B. Piers and abutments
C. Foundations
D. All of the above
Right Answer: B. Piers and abutments
Detailed Solution: Substructures of a bridge typically comprises the piers and abutments which
are located below the level of the bearings and rest above the foundations.
2. Which of the following is not a type of pier
A. Solid type pier

B. Trestle type pier
C. Frame type pier
D. Axle type Pier
Right Answer: D. Axle type Pier.
Detailed Solution: Types of pier include solid type pier, trestle type pier, hammer-head type
pier, cellular type pier and framed type pier.
3. Pier side batter is in the range of
A. 1 in 5 to 1 in 10
B. 1 in 10 to 1 in 20
C. 1 in 12 to 1 in 24
D. 1 in 15 to 1 in 30
Right Answer: C. 1 in 12 to 1 in 24
Detailed Solution: The sides of pier are provided with a batter of 1 in 12 to 1 in 24.
4. Bed block is generally cast with
A. M10 Concrete
B. M15 Concrete
C. M20 Concrete
D. M30 Concrete
Right Answer: B. M15 Concrete
Detailed Solution: The bed block is generally cast with M15 grade concrete.
5. Which of the following is not a component of bridge abutment?
A. Top wall
B. Wing wall
C. Back wall
D. Breast wall
Right Answer: A. Top wall
Detailed Solution: An abutment comprises three distinct structural components, breast

wall, wing wall and back wall.
6. Top level of pier and abutment is fixed at
A. 0-1 m above HFL

B. 0.5-1 m above HFL
C. 1-1.5 m above HFL
D. 1.5-2 m above HFL
Right Answer: C. 1-1.5 m above HFL
Detailed Solution: Top level of pier and abutment is fixed at 1-1.5 m above HFL.
7. Wing walls are designed as
A. Deck Slab
B. Longitudinal Girder
C. Transverse Girder
D. Retaining Wall
Right Answer: D. Retaining Wall

Detailed Solution: Wing walls are designed as retaining walls.
8. Minimum straight length of approach on either side of the bridge is
A. 15 m
B. 20 m
C. 25 m
D. 30 m
Detailed Solution: the approaches should have a minimum straight length of 15 m on either
side of the bridge.
9. Which of the following is not a type of deep foundations
A. Pile Foundations
B. Well Foundations
C. Framed Foundations
D. Pneumatic Caissons
Right Answer: C. Framed Foundations
Detailed Solution: Deep foundations are classified as

10. Which of the following is not a component of well foundations
A. Well Strains
B. Well Curb
C. Well Cap
D. Well Plugs
Right Answer: A. Well Strains
Detailed Solution: A typical well foundation comprises of Steining, Well Curb, Bottom and
Top Plugs, Well Cap, Sand filling and Cutting Edge.
1. Which of the following is not a function of bearing
A. To transmit end reactions to piers and abutments

B. To allow overturning of piers and abutments under torsional rotations
C. To allow longitudinal movement due to temperature change and other stresses
D. To allow end rotations from bridge girder deflections
Right Answer: B. To allow overturning of piers and abutments under torsional

rotations
Detailed Solution: Primary functions of bridge bearings are to transmit the end reaction to the
abutment and/or piers and to distribute it uniformly, to allow free movement in the longitudinal
direction (expansion and contraction) due to change in temperature and stresses and to allow
rotations at the ends when the bridge girders are loaded and deflections take place.
2. Which of the following is not a type of bearing
A. Expansion Bearings
B. Fixed Bearings
C. Contraction Bearings
Right Answer: C. Contraction Bearings
Detailed Solution: Types of bearings are Fixed and Expansion Bearings.
3. For major bridges, ratio of cost of bearings and the total cost of bridge construction is
A. 0.10-0.15
B. 0.15-0.20
C. 0.20-0.25
D. 0.25-0.30
Right Answer: A. 0.10-0.15.
Detailed Solution: For major bridges, cost of bearings are in the range of 10 to 15 percent of
the total cost of the bridge.
4. Preferable roller diameter for steel roller cum rocker bearing is
A. 20 to 50 mm
B. 50 to 80 mm
C. 80 to 100 mm
D. 100 to 150 mm
Right Answer: D. 100 to 150 mm
Detailed Solution: Preferable roller diameter for steel roller cum rocker bearing is 100 to
150 mm.
5. Sliding Plate Bearing is used for girder bridges of spans up to
A. 20 m
B. 30 m
C. 40 m
D. 50 m
Detailed Solution: Sliding Plate Bearing is used for girder bridges of spans up to 20 m.
6. Steel rocker fixed bearings are generally used for longer spans exceeding
A. 10 m
B. 15 m
C. 20 m
D. 30 m
Right Answer: B. 15 m
Detailed Solution: Steel rocker fixed bearings are generally used for longer spans
exceeding 15 m.
7.
Elastomeric bearings are preferable over Metallic Bearings as
A. Metallic bearings are expensive in terms of initial cost as well as maintenance cost
B. Elastomeric bearings occupy a smaller space
C. Elastomeric bearings are easy to maintain and to replace when damaged
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Elastomeric bearings are preferable over Metallic Bearings as metallic
bearings are expensive in terms of initial cost as well as maintenance cost, elastomeric bearings
occupy a smaller space, elastomeric bearings are easy to maintain and to replace when
damaged.
8. The width of footpath should be at least
A. 1m
B. 1.5 m
C. 2m
D. 2.5 m
Right Answer: B. 1.5 m
Detailed Solution: The width of footpath should be at least 1.5 m.
9. Joints in bridges are generally classified as
A. Expansion and Contraction Joints

B. Construction Joints and Contraction Joints
C. Construction Joints and Expansion and Contraction Joints
Right Answer: C. Construction Joints and Expansion and Contraction Joints
Detailed Solution: Joints in bridges are generally classified as Construction Joints and
Expansion and Contraction Joints.
10. Expansion and Contraction Joints are provided due to
A. Differential shrinkage of concrete

B. Thermal expansion and contraction
C. Creep and Elastic shortening of concrete due to prestress
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Expansion and Contraction Joints are provided due to differential shrinkage
of concrete, thermal expansion and contraction, creep and elastic shortening of concrete due to
prestress.
1. Which of the following is a construction method for bridges?
A. Cantilever Method
B. Progressive Placement Method
C. Staging Method
D. All of the Above
Right Answer: D. All of the Above
Detailed Solution: Construction methods for bridges are Cantilever Method, Progressive
Placement Method, Incremental Launching Method and Staging Method.
2. “4-Cs” associated with quality assurance of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
bridges are
A. Constituents, Compaction, Control and Curing

B. Constituents, Compaction, Cover and Curing
C. Concrete, Compaction, Control and Curing
D. Concrete, Compaction, Cover and Curing
Right Answer: B. Constituents, Compaction, Cover and Curing
Detailed Solution: “4-Cs” associated with quality assurance of reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete bridges are Constituents, Compaction, Cover and Curing.
3. Falsework is
A. the temporary structural system required to support concrete construction for the permanent
structure
B. required until the structure becomes self-supporting
C. the total temporary structural system including formwork
D. All of the above
Right Answer: D. All of the above.
Detailed Solution: Falsework is the total temporary structural system including formwork
required to support concrete construction for the permanent structure until the structure
becomes self-supporting.
4. Bridge structures are generally designed for a service life of
A. 100 years
B. 150 years
C. 200 years
D. 250 years
Right Answer: A. 100 years
Detailed Solution: Bridge structures are generally designed for a service life of 100 years.
5. Formwork is
A. mould required to cast concrete to a desired shape

B. used to retain plastic concrete until the concrete has hardened
C. designed to resist the fluid pressure of plastic concrete and additional pressure caused by
vibrators
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Formwork is mould required to cast concrete to a desired shape, used to
retain plastic concrete until the concrete has hardened and designed to resist the fluid pressure
of plastic concrete and additional pressure caused by vibrators.
6. Pachometer is used to measure the diameter of steel bars embedded in concrete along with
the cover at an accuracy of
A. ±1 mm
B. ±2 mm
C. ±3 mm
D. ±5 mm
Right Answer: C. ±3 mm
Detailed Solution: Pachometer is used to measure the diameter of steel reinforcements

embedded in concrete along with the cover to an accuracy of ±3 mm.
7. Instruments for inspection in structures under distress are
A. Electronic strain gauges

B. Ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus
C. Rebound hammer
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Instruments for inspection in structures under distress are Electronic
strain gauges, Ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus, Rebound hammer, etc.
8. Repair and rehabilitation of articulation joints can be effectively done by
A. pre tensioning
B. post tensioning
C. epoxy mortaring
D. metal jacketing
Right Answer: B. post tensioning
Detailed Solution: Repair and rehabilitation of articulation joints can be effectively done
by using post tensioning techniques.
9. The functional obsolescence of the bridge is frequently encountered due to
A. grade separation
B. change in the pattern of traffic
C. Both A and B
Detailed Solution: The functional obsolescence of the structure is frequently encountered due
to grade separation or change in the pattern of traffic passing over the railway or highway using
the bridge.
10.
To study vibration characteristics of bridges, natural frequency and vibration amplitude can be
related using
A. Pigeaud’s Criteria
B. Lehman’s Criteria
C. Lenzen’s Criteria
D. Rowe’s Criteria
Right Answer: C. Lenzen’s Criteria
Detailed Solution: To study vibration characteristics of bridges, natural frequency and vibration
amplitude can be related using Lenzen’s Criteria.
1. Sources of fatigue are
A. load-induced and distortion-induced fatigue

B. load-induced and displacement-induced fatigue
C. rotation-induced and distortion-induced fatigue
D. displacement-induced and distortion-induced fatigue
Right Answer: A. load-induced and distortion-induced fatigue
Detailed Solution: Two different sources of fatigue are identified: load-induced and distortion-
induced fatigue.
2. Distinct regimes of crack growth are
A. Initiation of crack
B. steady-state propagation of crack
C. unstable fracture
D. All of the above
Right Answer: D. All of the above.
Detailed Solution: Crack growth can be delineated into three distinct regimes: initiation,
steady-state propagation, and unstable fracture.
3. Crack growth in steel bridges requires
A. existing discontinuities
B. tensile stresses normal to the discontinuities
C. Both A and B

Detailed Solution: Crack growth in steel bridges requires two conditions to occur: existing
discontinuities and tensile stresses normal to the discontinuities.
4. Distinct properties of shape memory alloys are
A. ability to recover plastic strain upon heating

B. ability to recover plastic strain upon load removal
C. ability to recover plastic strain upon cooling and upon load removal
D. ability to recover plastic strain upon heating and upon load removal
Right Answer: D. ability to recover plastic strain upon heating and upon load
removal
Detailed Solution: Two distinct properties of SMA are:

Shape memory Effect (SME): It is the ability to recover plastic strain upon heating.
Superelasticity (SE): It is the ability to recover plastic strain upon load removal.
5. The factors restricting the large-scale applications of Ni-Ti SMAs are
A. High Cost and Poor deformability

B. High Cost and Poor machinability
C. Low Cost and Poor machinability
Right Answer: B. High Cost and Poor machinability
Detailed Solution: Although Ni-Ti SMAs show large recoverable strains, good
superelasticity, and exceptional resistance to corrosion, the high cost of Ni-Ti SMAs and their
machinability restrict their large-scale applications.
6. The methodology adopted by sound concrete in prevention of corrosion is
A. to provide a highly alkaline environment

B. to form a protective passive oxide layer around the steel rebars
C. to prevent further oxidation of iron leading to corrosion
D. All of the above
Detailed Solution: Sound (uncracked) concrete provides a highly alkaline environment, which
facilitates the formation of a protective passive oxide layer around the steel rebars, preventing
further oxidation of iron leading to corrosion.
7.
Which of the following is not a feature of Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC)
A. Corrosion resistance
B. Low tensile ductility
C. Self-healing of micro cracks
D. High tensile ductility
Right Answer: B. Low tensile ductility
Detailed Solution: Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) possesses high tensile

ductility, corrosion resistance and self-healing of micro cracks.
8. Which of the following is a method of metal 3D printing
A. Wire and arc additive manufacturing

B. Wire and plug additive manufacturing
C. Wear and tear additive manufacturing
D. Wear and smear additive manufacturing
Right Answer: A. Wire and arc additive manufacturing
Detailed Solution: Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a method of metal 3D
printing that enables large components to be built with reasonable geometric accuracy, costs
and build times.
9. With an increasing demand in transportation, trains are made
A. longer
B. faster
C. Both A and B
Detailed Solution: With an increasing demand in transportation, trains are made longer and
faster.
10. Which of the bearing cannot be adopted for high-speed railway bridge?
A. Fixed bearings
B. Elastomeric bearing without rigid restraint
C. Pot bearing
D. Elastomeric bearing with rigid restraint
Right Answer: B. Elastomeric bearing without rigid restraint
Detailed Solution: Elastomeric bearings cannot be considered for high-speed railway bridges,
unless combined with rigid restraints.

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Bridge Engineering

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BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Prof. Piyali Sengupta

Module 01: Introduction to Bridges

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

Howrah Bridge/ Rabindra Setu, West Bengal, India

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

• Decking consisting of deck slab, girders, trusses, etc.

• Bearings for Decking

• Abutments and Piers

• Foundations for the Abutments and Piers

• River training works like revetment for slopes for

• Approaches to the bridges for connecting the bridge to the

• Handrails, parapets and guard stones

• Sub-Structure: The components below the bearing level and

• Foundation: The components below the bed level are termed

Components of a Typical Bridge

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

• Loads acting on Bridges are required to be safely transferred

• These interconnected structural members define the

• In general, load paths can be identified by understanding the

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

• Cable stayed Bridges

Beam Bridges carry vertical loads by flexure.

Schematic Diagram of Beam Bridge

Truss Bridges of simple span behaves like a beam as it carries

Schematic Diagram of Truss Bridge

Arch Bridges carry loads in compression with the reactions at

Schematic Diagram of Arch Bridge

Cantilever Bridges consist of three or more spans of which the

Schematic Diagram of Cantilever Bridge

Suspension Bridges carry vertical loads from the deck through

Schematic Diagram of Suspension Bridge

In Cable stayed Bridges, vertical loads on deck are carried by

Schematic Diagram of Cable stayed Bridge

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

• Timber bridges: short span, light load and temporary usage

• Masonry bridges: short span, economy depends on availability of

• Iron and Steel bridges: Applicable to long span bridges

• Reinforced Concrete bridges: suitable for different spans and

• Prestressed Concrete bridges: suitable for fast construction of

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

 Load Transfer Mechanisms

 Basic Forms of Bridges

 Historical Evolution of Bridges

• According to function, Aqueduct (canal over a river), Viaduct

• According to material of construction of superstructure,

• According to form or type of superstructure, Beam, Truss,

• According to inter-span relation, Simply Supported,

• According to position of bridge floor relative to superstructure