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INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
SECOND EDITION

Ronald L. Panton
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Texas
Austin

A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New York • Chichester • Brisbane • Toronto • Singapore
 CONTENTS

Preface v

Preface to the First Edition vii

1. Continuum Mechanics 1
1.1 The Continuum Assumption 3
1.2 Fundamental Concepts, Definitions, and Laws 4
1.3 Space and Time 6
1.4 Density, Velocity, and Internal Energy 8
1.5 The Interface between Phases 12
1.6 Conclusions 14
Problems 16

'hermlodynamics 18
2.1 Systems, Properties, and Processes 18
2.2 The Independent Variables 19
2.3 Temperature and Entropy 20
2.4 Fundamental Equations of Thermodynamics 22
2.5 Euler's Equation for Homogeneous Functions 23
2.6 The Gibbs-Duhem Equation 24
2.7 Intensive Forms of Basic Equations 24
2.8 Dimensions of Temperature and Entropy 25
2.9 Working Equations 26
2.10 The Ideal Gas 27
2.11 The Incompressible Substance 30
2.12 Conclusion 31
Problems 31
r
3. ector' Calculus and Index Notation 33
3.1 Index Notation Rules 34
3.2 Definition of Vectors and Tensors 36
3.3 Special Symbols and Isotropic Tensors 37
3.4 Direction Cosines and the Law of Cosines 39
ix
K CONTENTS

3.5 Algebra with Vectors 41

3.6 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Tensors 42
3.7 Algebra with Tensors 45
3.8 Vector Cross-Product 47
3.9 Alternative Definitions of Vectors and Tensors 48
*3.10 Principal Axes and Values 50
3.11 Derivative Operations on Vector Fields 52
3.12 Integral Formulas of Gauss and Stokes 55
3.13 Leibnitz's Theorem 58
3.14 Conclusion 60
Problems 60

4. Kinematics of Local Fluid Motion 63

4.1 Lagrangian Viewpoint 63
4.2 Eulerian Viewpoint 67
4.3 Substantial Derivative 69
4.4 Decomposition of Motion 70
4.5 Elementary Motions in a Linear Shear Flow 75
*4.6 Proof of Vorticity Characteristics 77
*4.7 Rate-of-Strain Characteristics 79
4.8 Rate of Expansion 81
*4.9 Streamline Coordinates 82
4.10 Conclusion 84
Problems 84

5. Basic Laws 87
5.1 Continuity Equation 87
5.2 Momentum Equation 91
5.3 Surface Forces 93
5.4 Stress-Tensor Derivation 94
5.5 Interpretation of the Stress-Tensor Components 96
5.6 Pressure and Viscous Stress Tensor 97
5.7 Differential Momentum Equation 99
*5.8 Angular-Momentum Equation and Symmetry of Ttj 105
5.9 Energy Equation 106
5.10 Mechanical-and Thermal-Energy Equations 110
5.11 Energy Equation with Temperature as Dependent
Variable 111
*5.12 Second Law of Thermodynamics 112
5.13 Integral Form of the Continuity Equation 113
5.14 Integral Form of the Momentum Equation 115
*5.15 Momentum Equation for a Deformable Particle of •
Variable Mass 118
*5.16 Other Laws in Integral Form: Energy Equation 122
 CONTENTS Xi

5.17 Jump Equations at Interfaces 123

5.18 Conclusion 125
Problems 125

6. Newtonian Fluids and the Navier-Stokes Equations 129

6.1 Newton's Viscosity Law 129
6.2 Molecular Model of Viscous Effects 133
6.3 Non-Newtonian Liquids 137
*6.4 The No-Slip Condition 140
6.5 Fourier's Heat-Conduction Law 143
6.6 Navier-Stokes Equations 145
6.7 Conclusion 146
Problems 146

7. Some Incompressible-Flow Patterns 148

7.1 Pressure-Driven Flow in a Slot 148
7.2 Mechanical Energy and Bernoulli Equations 154
7.3 Plane Couette Flow 158
7.4 Pressure-Driven Flow in a Slot with a Moving Wall 160
7.5 Double Falling Film on a Wall 161
7.6 Rotary Viscous Coupling; Outer Solution 164
7.7 The Rayleigh Problem 166
7.8 Conclusion 172
Problems 172

8. Dimensional Analysis 175

8.1 Measurement and Dimensions 175
8.2 Variables and Functions 178
8.3 The Pi Theorem 181
8.4 Pump or Blower Analysis 185
8.5 Number of Primary Dimensions 189
*8.6 Proof of Bridgman's Equation 192
*8.7 Proof of the Pi Theorem 194
8.8 Dynamic Similarity 198
8.9 Similarity with Geometric Distortion 199
8.10 Nondimensional Formulation of Physical Problems 203
8.11 Conclusion 209
Problems 209

9. Compressible Flow 212

9.1 Compressible Couette Flow: Adiabatic Wall 212
9.2 Flow with Power-Law Transport Properties 216
9.3 Compressible Waves 218
Xii CONTENTS

9.4 Conclusion 226

Problems 226

10. Incompressible Flow 228

10.1 Characterization 228
10.2 Incompressible Flow as a Low Mach Number Flow
with Adiabatic Walls 230
10.3 Nondimensional Problem Statement 231
10.4 Characteristics of Incompressible Flow 236
10.5 Splitting the Pressure into Kinetic and Hydrostatic
Parts 239
*10.6 Mathematical Aspects of the Limit Process M2 —>0 242
*10.7 Invariance of Incompressible-Flow Equations under
Unsteady Motion 243
*10.8 Low-Mach-Number Flows with Constant-Temperature
Walls 246
*10.9 The Energy-Equation Paradox 250
10.10 Conclusion 252
Problems 253

11. Some Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations 254

11.1 Pressure-Driven Flow in Tubes of Various Cross
Sections: An Elliptical Tube
11.2 Flow in a Rectangular Tube
11.3 A Channel with Longitudinal Ribs
11.4 Stokes Oscillating Plate
11.5 Wall Under an Oscillating Free Stream
*11.6 Transient for Stokes Oscillating Plate
11.7 Flow in a Slot with an Oscillating Pressure Gradient
11.8 Decay of Line Vortices (Oseen Vortex)
11.9 Plane Stagnation-Point Flow (Hiemenz Flow)
11.10 Burgers Vortex
11.11 Complete Solution for the Rotary Coupling
11.12 von Karman Viscous "Pump"
11.13 Conclusion
Problems

12. Streamfunctions and the Velocity Potential

12.1 Streamlines
12.2 Streamfunction for Plane Flows
12.3 Flow in a Slot with Porous Walls
*12.4 Streamlines and Streamsurfaces for a Three-
Dimensional Flow
 CONTENTS xiH

12.5 Velocity Potential and Unsteady Bernoulli Equation 317

12.6 Flow Caused by a Sphere with Variable Radius 319
12.7 Conclusion 321
Problems 322

13. Vorticity Dynamics 324

13.1 Vorticity 324
13.2 Kinematic Results Concerning Vorticity 326
13.3 Vorticity Equation 328
13.4 Vorticity Diffusion 330
13.5 Vorticity Intensification by Straining Vortex Lines 331
13.6 Hill's Spherical Vortex 333
13.7 Production of Vorticity at a Stationary Wall 335
13.8 Production of Vorticity at a Translating Wall 338
13.9 Helmholtz's Laws for Inviscid Flow 339
13.10 Kelvin's Theorem 341
13.11 Inviscid Motion of Point Vortices 342
13.12 Reconnection of Vortex Lines 344
13.13 Development of Typical Vorticity Distributions 346
13.14 Vortex Breakdown 352
13.15 Conclusion 356
Problems 357

14. Flows at Moderate Reynolds Numbers 359

14.1 Some Unusual Flow Patterns 360
14.2 Entrance Flows 363
14.3 Entrance Flow into a Cascade of Plates: Computer
Solution by the Streamfunction-Vorticity Method 364
14.4 Entrance Flow into a Cascade of Plates: Pressure
Solution 376
14.5 Entrance Flow into a Cascade of Plates: Results 378
14.6 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder 384
14.7 Conclusion 400
Problems 400

15. Asymptotic Analysis Methods 402

15.1 Oscillation of a Gas Bubble in a Liquid 402
15.2 Order Symbols, Gauge Functions, and Asymptotic
Expansions 405
15.3 Inviscid Flow over, a Wavy Wall 409
*15.4 Nonuniform Expansions: Friedrich's Problem 413
*15.5 The Matching Process 416
15.6 Composite Expansions: Accuracy 421
XIV CONTENTS

15.7 Characteristics of Overlap Regions 424

15.8 Lagerstrom's Problems 430
15.9 Conclusion 434
Problems 435

16. Characteristics of High Reynolds Number Flow 437

16.1 Physical Motivation 437
16.2 Inviscid Main Flows: Euler Equations 439
16.3 Pressure Changes in Steady Flows: Bernoulli Equations 443
16.4 Boundary Layers 447
16.5 Conclusion 458
Problems 459

17. Kinematic Decomposition of Flow Fields 460

*17.1 General Approach 460
*17.2 Helmholtz's Decomposition 461
*17.3 Line Vortex and Vortex Sheet 463
*17.4 Complex-Lamellar Decomposition 466
*17.5 Conclusion 469
Problems 469

18. Ideal Flows in a Plane 471

18.1 Problem Formulation for Plane Ideal Flows 472
18.2 Simple Plane Flows 476
18.3 Line Source and Line Vortex 479
18.4 Flow over a Nose or a Cliff 482
18.5 Doublets 489
18.6 Cylinder in a Stream 492
18.7 Cylinder with Circulation in a Uniform Stream 494
18.8 Lift and Drag on Two-Dimensional Shapes 497
18.9 Magnus Effect 500
18.10 Conformal Transformations 502
18.11 Joukowski Transformation, Airfoil Geometry 506
18.12 Kutta Condition 512
18.13 Flow over a Joukowski Airfoil: Airfoil Lift 514
18.14 A Numerical Method for Airfoils 522
18.15 Actual Airfoils 525
*18.16 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation 528
*18.17 Diffuser or Contraction Flow 530
*18.18 Gravity Waves in Liquids 536
18.19 Conclusion ' 542
Problems 542
 CONTENTS XV

19. Axisymmetric and Three-Dimensional Ideal Flows 546

19.1 General Equations and Characteristics of Three-
Dimensional Ideal Flows 546
19.2 Swirling Flow Turned into an Annulus 548
19.3 Flow over a Weir 550
19.4 Point Source 552
19.5 Rankine Nose Shape 554
19.6 Experiments on the Nose Drag of Slender Shapes 556
19.7 Flow from a Doublet 559
19.8 Flow over a Sphere 561
19.9 Kinetic Energy 564
19.10 Wake Drag of Bodies 565
*19.11 Induced Drag: Drag Due to Lift 567
*19.12 Lifting-Line Theory 572
*19.13 Added Mass of Accelerating Bodies 573
19.14 Conclusion 579
Problems 579

20. Boundary Layers 581

20.1 Blasius Flow over a Flat Plate 581
20.2 Displacement Thickness 587
20.3 von Karman Momentum Integral 589
20.4 von Karman-Pohlhausen Approximate Method 591
20.5 Falkner-Skan Similarity Solutions 593
20.6 Arbitrary Two-Dimensional Layers: Crank-Nicolson
Difference Method 599
*20.7 Vertical Velocity 609
20.8 Joukowski-Airfoil Boundary Layer 612
20.9 Boundary Layer on a Bridge Piling 616
20.10 Plane Boundary-Layer Separation 619
20.11 Axisymmetric Boundary Layers 622
20.12 Jets 625
20.13 Far Wake of Nonlifting Bodies 628
20.14 Free Shear Layers 632
20.15 Unsteady and Erupting Boundary Layers 634
*20.16 Entrance Flow into a Cascade 638
*20.17 Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 641
*20.18 Boundary Layer with a Constant Transverse Pressure
Gradient 645
*20.19 Howarth's Stagnation Point 650
*20.20 Three-Dimensional Separation 653
20.21 Conclusion 657
Problems ' 657
XVi CONTENTS

21. Low Reynolds Number Flows 660

21.1 General Relations for Re—»0: Stokes Equations 661
21.2 Global Equations for Stokes Flow 664
21.3 Flow in Tubes and Channels with Varying Cross
Sections 666
21.4 Reynolds Equations for Lubrication Theory 669
21.5 Slipper-Pad Bearing 672
*21.6 Squeeze Film Lubrication; Viscous Adhesion 675
21.7 Plane Corner Flows: Mpffatt Vortices 676
21.8 Axisymmetric Flow: Cones, Orifices, and Tubes 682
21.9 Flow over a Sphere 686
*21.10 Nonuniformity of Stokes Flow on Infinite Domains 690
21.11 Asymptotic Analysis of Flow over a Sphere 691
21.12 Stokes Flow Near a Circular Cylinder 693
*21.13 Oseen's Equations 695
*21.14 Bubble or Droplet in an Infinite Fluid 696
*21.15 Stokes Flow over Particles of Arbitrary Shape 700
*21.16 Interference Effects 702
21.17 Conclusion 703
Problems 704

22. Introduction to Stability and Transition 706

22.1 Linear Stability and Normal Modes as Perturbations 707
22.2 Kelvin-Helmholtz Inviscid Shear-Layer Instability 709
22.3 Stability Problem for Nearly Parallel Viscous Flows 714
22.4 Orr-Sommerfeld Equation 717
22.5 Inviscid Stability of Nearly Parallel Flows 718
22.6 Viscous Stability of Nearly Parallel Flows 720
22.7 Experiments on Blasius Boundary Layers 723
22.8 Transition; Secondary Instability; Bypass 727
22.9 Spatially Developing Open Flows 730
22.10 Transition in Free Shear Flows 732
22.11 Poiseuille and Plane Couette Flows 732
22.12 Inviscid Instability of Flows with Curved Streamlines 734
22.13 Taylor Instability of Couette Flow 737
22.14 Stability of Regions of Concentrated Vorticity 739
22.15 Some Other Instabilities: Taylor; Curved Pipe;
Capillary Jets; Gortler 741
22.16 Conclusion 744

23. Introduction to Turbulent Flows 745

23.1 Types of Turbulent Flows 745
23.2 Characteristics of Turbulent Flows 746
 CONTENTS XVii

23.3 Reynolds Decomposition 749

23.4 Reynolds Stress 751
23.5 Free Turbulence: Plane Shear Layers 754
23.6 Free Turbulence: The Turbulent Jet 759
23.7 Bifurcating and Blooming Jets 762
*23.8 Correlations of Fluctuations 763
*23.9 Mean and Turbulent Kinetic Energy 765
23.10 Energy Cascade: Kolmogorov Scales; Taylor
Microscale 768
23.11 Wall Turbulence; Channel Flow 773
23.12 Wall Layers; Experiments and Empirical Correlation 783
23.13 Turbulent Structures 788
23.14 Conclusion 792

Appendix A Properties of Fluids 793

Appendix B Differential Operations in Cylindrical and Spherical

Coordinates 794

Appendix C Basic Equations in Rectangular, Cylindrical, and

Spherical Coordinates 799

Appendix D Streamfunction Relations in Rectangular, Cylindrical,

and Spherical Coordinates 805

Appendix E Computer Code for Runge-Kutta Integration 809

Appendix F Computer Code for Entrance Flow into a Cascade 812

Appendix G Computer Code for Boundary-Layer Analysis 815

Supplemental Reading List 818

References 819

Index 831