Lecture on Cavitation

Cavitation is the formation of cavities or the vaporization of liquid at the suction side of a
pump. Cavitation is a phenomenon that occurs when the absolute pressure of the liquid is
reduced to a value equal to or lower than the vapor pressure at the given temperature causing
the liquid to boil and create small bubbles of vapor. Cavitation is usually due to high velocity, high
liquid temperature, low suction pressure, and low atmospheric pressure.
As the liquid moves to a higher pressure, the bubbles of vapor suddenly condense
causing a vacuum in the pump casing, pitting in the impeller, corrosion of parts, noise, vibration,
slowdown in pump operation and drop in efficiency.
Generally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types: Vapor bubbles or Gas
bubbles.
Vapor bubbles are formed due to the vaporization of a process liquid that is being
pumped. The cavitation condition induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is
commonly referred to as Vaporous Cavitation. Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of
cavitation found in process plants. It generally manifests itself in the form of reduced pump
performance, excessive noise and vibrations and wear of pump parts. The extent of the cavitation
damage can range from a relatively minor amount of pitting after years of service to catastrophic
failure in a relatively short period of time.
Gas bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid that is being
pumped (generally air but may be any gas in the system). The cavitation condition induced by the
formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred to as Gaseous Cavitation or Air
Binding. It seldom causes damage to the impeller or casing. The main effect of gaseous
cavitation is loss of capacity.

Net Positive Suction Head, NPSH

It is the difference between the total energy at the inlet flange of the pump and the vapor
energy of the liquid. It is the energy available to the pump at the suction side, all expressed in
linear measurement.
p s v s2 pv
NPSH = +
γ 2g [ −
γ ] (5–1)

If the pressure, velocity, and elevation of any point in the supply line is given, the
Bernoulli’s equation we can be applied to rewrite the NPSH as

(5–2)

p 1 v 12 pv
NPSH = [ + +( z1 − zs ) − H L
γ 2g 1− S ] −
γ

If the pump suction is placed at a height Zs below a reservoir whose free surface is at an
absolute pressure p1, the above equation may be rewritten as

p1 pv
NPSH = [ γ
+( z1 − zs ) − H L 1− S ] −
γ
(5–3)

5-1
 Since vapor pressure is always expressed on the absolute scale, the suction pressure
must also be expressed in absolute terms, where it is standard to express both pressures in
kPaa.

The NPSH Required is the minimum pressure required at the suction port of the pump to
keep it from cavitating. The pump curves in the pump catalog which is generally provided by the
pump manufacturer give the NPSH required at each volume flow of the pump. For good pump
operation
NPSHAVAILABLE > NPSHREQUIRED

ΔZ 1

ΔZ

Available NPSHA – If the Pump is above the Tank

If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - ΔZ - is positive. As the elevation
of the pump is increased the NPSH A decreases. If the pump is continually lifted, at some level the
NPSHA will be reduced to zero and the fluid will start to evaporate.

Available NPSHA – If the Pump is below the Tank

If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - ΔZ - is negative and the NPSHA
increases when the elevation of the pump decreases (lowering the pump).
It is always possible to increase the NPSH A by lowering the pump (as long as the major
and minor head loss due to a longer pipe does not increase substantially. 

Cavitation Coefficient, σ (sigma)

For a pump head Hp, no more than the NPSH part of it should be used at the suction side
to prevent cavitation. The ratio of the net positive suction head and the total dynamic head of the
pump is defined as the Thoma cavitation coefficient .

NPSH
σ= ; Thoma Coefficient
Hp

5-2
5-3
Suction Specific Speed, Nss
Suction Specific Speed is an index that can be used to determine impeller design. It
describes the relationship between the rotating speed of the impeller and the NPSH R of the
impeller.
It is that speed in rpm at which a pump impeller would operate so as to deliver one unit
volume against a net positive suction head of one unit.
1
2
51 .655 N Q
N ss = 3
( NPSH ) 4

1 4 1 4

NPSH = [ 51. 655 N Q

N ss
4
] [
2 3
; H p=
51 .655 N Q
Ns ]
2 3

NPSH Ns
σ=
HP
=
N ss [ ] 3

Parameters:
ps → Suction pressure HP → Pump Head
pv → Vapor pressure v s → Suction velocity

Dynamic Vis. Kinematic Vis. Vapor

t, OC Density, kg/m3 Sp.Wt. kN/m3 , N.s/m2 x10-3 , m2/s x10-6 Pressure pv
,kPaa
0 999.9 9.806 1.792 1.792 0.61129
5 1000 9.807 1.519 1.519 0.87226
10 999.7 9.804 1.308 1.308 1.2281
15 999.1 9.798 1.140 1.141 1.7056
20 998.2 9.789 1.005 1.007 2.388
25 997.1 9.778 0.894 0.897 3.1690
30 995.7 9.765 0.801 0.804 4.2455
35 994.1 9.749 0.723 0.727 5.6267
40 992.2 9.731 0.656 0.661 7.3814
45 990.2 9.711 0.599 0.605 9.5898
50 988.1 9.690 0.549 0.556 12.344
55 985.7 9.667 0.506 0.513 15.752
60 983.2 9.642 0.469 0.477 19.932
65 980.6 9.617 0.436 0.444 25.022
70 977.8 9.589 0.406 0.415 31.176
75 974.9 9.561 0.380 0.390 38.563
80 971.8 9.530 0.357 0.367 47.373
85 968.6 9.499 0.336 0.347 57.815
90 965.3 9.467 0.317 2.328 70.117
95 961.9 9.433 0.299 0.311 84.529
100 954.8 9.399 0.284 0.296 101.32

5-4
Problem No.1
Suppose a pump were to pump water at a head of 40 m, the water temperature being
38°C and the barometric pressure being 98.6 kPaa. At intake, the pressure is a vacuum of 430
mmHg and the velocity is 3.66 m/s. What are the values of NPSH and σ?

Given: HP = 40 m Req’d: NPSH = ?

t = 38°C σ=?
Patm = 98.6 kPaa
Ps = -430 mmHg
vs = 3.66 m/s

Solution:

From Tables at 38°C:

Pv =6.6795 kPaa
kN
γ =9.7382
m3

Ps =( − 430mmHg ) ( 101.325 kPa

760 mmHg )
+ 98.6 kPaa

Ps =41.27 kPaa

P s v 2s 2
Pv
NPSH = [ +
γ 2g ]
− =
γ [
41.27 kPa
+
( 3.66 m/ s )
−
]
6.6795 kPa
9.7382 kN / m 2 ( 9.807 m/ s ) 9.7382 kN /m3
3 2

NPSH =4 . 235 m

NPSH 4.235 m
σ= =
Hp 40 m
σ =0 . 1059

Problem No.2
A plant located at an altitude of 1000 meters has an open feedwater heater located 3.0
m above the pump intake. The water in the heater has a temperature of 80°C. If the head loss in
the suction line is 0.3 m, determine the available suction head of the pump.

Given: Plant elevation = 1000 m Req’d: NPSH = ?

z1 – zs = 3.0 m
t = 80°C
HL 1-S = 0.3 m

5-5
Solution:

From Tables at 80°C:

pv = 47.37 kPaa
kN
γ =9.53
m3

Note: Barometric reading decreases by 83.312 mmHg per 1000 m (1 inHg/1000ft) rise in
elevation.
83.312 mmHg 101.325 kPa
{
patm = 760 mmHg− [ 1000 m ]
(1000 m ) }(
760 mmHg )
patm =90.22 Kpa
Consider 1-S:
P 1 v 21 P s v 2s
+ + z = + + z + H L ; V 1=0
γ 2g 1 γ 2g s 1 −S

P s v 2s P1
+ = +( z ¿ ¿ 1− z s )− H L ¿
γ 2g γ 1 −S

P s V 2s 90.22 kPa
+ = +3.0 m −0.3 m=12.17 m
γ 2 g 9.53 kN /m 3

P s v 2s P
NPSH = [
+
γ 2g ]
− v =12.17 m −
γ
47.37 kPa
9.53 kN /m 3
NPSH =7 .2 m

Problem No.3
A pump with a critical value of σ = 0.10 is to pump against a head of 135 m. The
barometric pressure is 98.7 kPaa and the vapor pressure of water is 3.40 kPaa. Assume the
friction losses in the intake piping are 1.52 m. Find the maximum allowable height of the pump
relative to the water surface at intake.

Given: σ = 0.10 Req’d: zs – z1

Hp = 135 m
Patm = 98.7 kPaa
Pv = 3.40 kPaa
HL = 1.52 m

Solution:

NPS H c
σ=
Hp

5-6
NPS H c =σ c H p=0.10 ( 135 m )
NPS H c =13.5 m

kN
From Tables at Pv = 3.40 kPaa ; γ =9.7752
m3
P s v 2s Pv
NPS H c = [+
γ 2g
−
γ ]
Consider 1-S:
P1 + K 1 + z1 =Ps + K s + z s + H L 1 −s

P s V 2s P1
+ = + ( z 1 − z s ) − H L1− s
γ 2g γ
P s v 2s Pv P1 Pv
NPS H c = [+
γ 2g
− =
γ γ ] [
+ ( z 1 − z s ) − H L1 − s −
γ ]
Pv P1 ( 3.40 −98.7 ) kPa
z 1 − z s=NPS H c + ( γ
−
γ )
+ H L =13.5 m+
9.7752 kN /m
1−2 3
+1.52 m

z 1 − z s=5.27 m
z s − z 1=−5.27 m
Note: The pump must be placed at least 5.27m below the liquid surface.

Problem No.4
A plant located 900 meters above sea level has a closed gasoline tank having a pressure
of 69 kPag and a temperature of 40°C. The gasoline level in the tank is 2.5 m above the pump
centerline. The suction line friction and turbulence losses amount to 0.6 meters. With the vapor
pressure equal to 48 kPaa and a relative density of 0.72. Determine: (a) The available suction
head of the system, (b) With a flow rate of 400 L/s and a Thoma coefficient of 0.10, what driver
motor is needed, use motor-pump efficiency equal to 75%.

Given: Elevation = 900 m Req’d: NPSH

P1 = 69 kPag PWRB if Q = 0.4 m3/s, σ = 0.10 and ηpηm = 75%
t = 40°C
z1 – zs = 2.5 m
HL 1-S = 0.6 m
Pv = 48 kPaa
SG = 0.72

Solution:
83.312 mmHg 101.325 kPa
{
Patm = 760 mmHg− [ 1000 m
( 900 m ) ]760 mmHg}( )
Patm =91.33 kPaa

5-7
P1=( 69+ 91.33 ) kPaa
P1=160.33 kPaa

Consider 1-S:
P 1 v 21 P s v 2s
+ + z 1= + + z s + H L ; v 1=0
γ 2g γ 2g 1 −s

¿ P s v 2s P1
+ = +( z1 − zs ) − H L
γ 2g γ 1− s

P s v 2s 160.33 kPa
+ = +2.5 m− 0.6 m
γ 2 g 0.72 ( 9.807 ) kN /m3

P s v 2s
+ =24.6 m
γ 2g

Pv 48 kPa
= =6.8 m
γ 0.72 ( 9.807 ) kN /m3

Ps v 2s P
NPSH = (
γ 2g
+
γ)
− v =( 24.6 −6.8 ) m

NPSH =17 . 8 m

NPSH 17.8 m
H p= =
σ 0.10
H p=178 m

kN ( m3
(
P P=γH p Q=( 0.72 ) 9.807
m3 ) 178 m )(0.4
s )( kNkJ. m )( kWkJ. s )
P P=502.75 kW
Pp 502.75 kW
Pm = =
ηmη p 0.75
Pm =670 kW

Problem No.5
Calculate the NPSHA for a pump that receives 75°C water at the rate of 85 Lps through a
pipe whose ID is 25cm. A suction gauge located 6m below the pump centerline indicates a
pressure of 530kPag.The pump is located at an elevation where the barometer indicates a
pressure of 716 mm Hg. Ans.55.54m

Solve for patm in kPaa

Consider 1-S

5-8
 p1 v 1 2 pv
[
NPSHA = [pS/γ + vS2/2g] – pV/γ = + + ( z1 − z s ) − H L
γ 2g 1 −S ] −
γ

Problem No.6
A pump draws 20 L/s of water (37°C) from reservoir A (El.10m) to reservoir B (El.60m) the
suction pipe is 200mm x 500m and the discharge pipe is 150mmx1200m. Assuming f = 0.02 and
N= 3600 rpm, find: (a) NPSH, (b) σ, and (c) NSS.

Given: Q = 20 L/s
t = 37°C
f = 0.02
N = 3600 rpm

Req’d: NPSH = ?
σ=?
Nss = ?
Solution:
(a) From Tables at 37°C:
kN
Pv =6.281kPaa ; γ =9.7417
m3
From A to S:

P A v 2A PS v 2S
+ + z A = + + z S + H L ; v A=0
γ 2g 2g 2g A− S

P S v 2S P A 0.0826 f L A Q 2
+ = + ( zA − zS ) −
γ 2g γ D 5A

s2 ( m3 2
2 0.0826 0.02 )( 500 m ) (0.02 )
PS v 101.325 kPa
S m s
+ = + 10 m−
γ 2 g 9.7417 kN /m 3 ( 0.2 m ) 5

P S v 2S
+ =19.3573 m
γ 2g

Ps v 2s P
NPSH = ( +
γ 2g
− v
γ )
6.281 kPaa
NPSH =19.3573 m− =18 . 7125 m
9.7417 kN /m3

(b) From A to B:
P A v 2A P B v 2B
+ + z + H p= + + z B + H L + H L ; v A =v B =0 ; P A=P B
γ 2g A γ 2g A −S S− B

5-9
 0.0826 f L A Q2 0.0826 f LB Q 2
z A + H p= z B + 5
+ 5
DA DB
L A LB
H P=( z B − z A ) +0.0826 f Q 2
( +
D 5A D 5B )
2
m3
H P=( 60 −10 ) m+0.0826 ( 0.02 ) 0.02 ( s ) [ ( 500 m 1200 m
0.2 m) ( 0.15 m ) ]
5
+ 5

H p=61.4748m
NPSH 18.7125 m
σ= =
HP 61.4748 m
σ =0 . 3044
1 1
51.655 N Q 2
51.655 ( 3600 rpm ) (0.02 m3 /s)2
( c ) N ss = 3
= 3
4 4
( NPSH ) ( 18.7125 )
N ss =2920.97 rpm

Problem No.7
A pump delivers 3500L/min of water (50°C) from reservoir A (El. 10m) to reservoir B (El.
40m). The suction line is 300mmx180m and the discharge line is 250mmx 50m. Assuming the
coefficient of friction for the pipe to be 0.025 and the cavitation parameter as 0.2, find the reading
of the pressure gage (mm Hg) at the pump suction.
Solve for HP from A to B
NPSH = σ x HP
vS = Q / AS
NPSH = pS/γ + vS2/2g – pV/γ
Solve for pS in gage pressure

5-10
Problem No.8
Calculate the Net Positive Suction Head for a pump handling 100,000 kg/hr flow of water
coming from an atmospheric storage tank. The water temperature can be taken as 25 OC. The
suction pipe is galvanized iron (ε=0.15) with a diameter of 150mm and a length of 20m. The
pump suction is 0.4 m above ground level. The tank is elevated on a 1 m high platform. The
minimum water level in the tank is 300 mm.

kg 1 ℎr m3
(
Q= 100 000
ℎr ) 997.1 kg (
( ) 3600 s )
=0.0279
s
3
m
3
m
0.0279
Q s m
v= = =1.58
A π( 2 s
0.15 m )
4

m3
ℜ=
vD 4 Q
= =
(
4 0.0279
=264 016.23
s )
∴ flow is turbulent
❑ πD π ( 0.15 m) ( 0.897 x 10 m /s )
−6 2

Using Colebrook equation

❑
1
√f
=−2 log (
D 2.51
+
3.7 ℜ √ f )
1 0.001 2.51
√f
=−2 log (
3.7
+
264 016.23 √ f )
f =0.021
2
s2 ( m3
H L=
0.0826 fLQ 2
=
0.0826 ( 0.021 )
m
20 m ) ( )
0.0279
s
=0.356 m
( )
5 5
D ( 0.15 m )

p 1− p v 101.325 − 3.169
NPSH = [ γ
+( z1 − zs ) − H L 1− S ][
=
9.778 ]
+0.9 − 0.356 m

NPSH =10 .58 m

Problem No.9
A pump receives water from an open tank whose minimum water level is 1.5m below the
centerline of the pump. The water is at 16°C and the friction loss in the pipe is 1.2m. for a water
velocity of 1.02m/s. Determine NPSHA.

GIVEN:
 z 1 − z s=−1.5 m

5-11
  t=16 ° C
 H L=1.2 m
m
 v1 =1.02
s
REQUIRED:
 NPSH A
SOLUTION:

p1 v 1 2 pv
NPSH A = [ + +( z1 − zs ) − H L −
γ 2g γ
1 −s ]
Let p1=101.325 kPaa ( open tank )
kN
γ @16 ° C=9.7962 3
m
pv @16 ° C=1.84208 kPaa
kN kN

NPSH A =
[
101.325 kPaa(
kN
9.7962 3

NPSH A =7.5083 m
m
m 2

1kPaa
) (1.02 )
+
m
s
m
2

2(9.807 2 )
s
+ ( − 1.5 m) −1.2 m −
]
1.84208 kPaa(
kN
9.7962 3
m
m2
1 kPaa
)

Problem No.10
A boiler feedpump draws water from a hotwell at 95°C. The suction pipe loss is 0.6m. If
the cavitation parameter is 0.1 and the barometric pressure is 737 mm Hg, determine how high
can the water surface be relative to the pump centerline. TDH is 75m.

GIVEN:
 t=95 ° C
 H L=0.6 m
 σ =0.10

 patm =737 mm Hg ( 101.325 Kpaa

760mm Hg )
=98.25858553 kPaa
ab

 TDH =H P =75 m
REQUIRED:
z1− zs
SOLUTION:
p1 v 1 2 pv
NPSH A = [+ +( z1 − zs ) − H L
γ 2g 1 −s ] −
γ
pv p1 v 12
[
( z 1 − z s )=NPSH A + γ − γ + 2 g − H L 1 −s ] →eq .1

For NPSH A :
NPSH A =σ H P=0.10 ( 75 m )=7.5 m

5-12
pv @95 ° C=84.529 kPaa
kN
γ @95 ° C=9.433 3
m
Assume v 1=0 ( negligible )
From eq. 1:
kN kN

z − z
( 1 s) =7.5 m+
84.529 kPaa(

( z 1 − z s )=6.645 m
kN
9.433 3
m
m2

1 kPaa
[
) 98.25858553 kPaa(
−
kN
9.433 3
m
m2
1 kPaa
)
−0.6 m
]

5-13
Problem No.11
If a pump requires a minimum of 2.75m of NPSH, how high can the pump suction be
located above the bottom of an open tank that supplies 27°C water to the pump? The barometer
varies from 686 mm Hg to 732 mm Hg throughout the year. The water level in the tank is 1.82m
high, the pipe friction loss is 0.7m, and the velocity is 1.22 m/s.

GIVEN:
 NPSH =2.75 m
 t=27 ° C
 patm =686 mm Hg ¿732 mm Hg=91.45914474 kPaa¿ 97.59197368 kPaa
 z 1 − z2=1.82m
 H L=0.7 m
m
 v1 =1.22
s
REQUIRED:
zs − z2
SOLUTION :
From point 1 (water surface) to point 2 (bottom of the tank):
p 1 v 12 p 2 v 22
+ +z = + +z − H L
γ 2g 1 γ 2g 2 1 −2

v1 =v 2 ; H L =0
1 −2

Therefore:
p 2 p1
= +(z ¿ ¿ 1− z 2 )¿
γ γ
¿ point 2 ( bottom of tℎe tank ) ¿ point s ( pump suction ) :
p 2 v2 2 p s v s2
+ +z = + +z − H L
γ 2g 2 γ 2g s 2 −s

p s v s 2 p2 v 2 2
+ = + +( z ¿ ¿ 2 − z s )− H L ¿
γ 2g γ 2 g 2 −s

p s v s p1 v 22
+ = +( z ¿ ¿ 1− z 2)+ +(z ¿ ¿ 2 − z s )− H L ¿ ¿
γ 2g γ 2g 2− s

p s v s2 pv
NPSH = + [
γ 2g
−
γ]
NPSH =¿
NPSH =¿
kN
γ @27 ° C=9.7728 3
m
pv @27 ° C=3.5996 kPaa

For patm =686 mm Hg∨91.45914474 kPaa:

5-14
 2.75=

kN kN

[ 91.45914474 kPaa(
kN
9.7728 3

z s − z 2=7.4361 m
m
m2

1 kPaa
)
+1.82 m+
m
(1.22 )
s
m
2

2(9.807 2 )
s
]
− ( z s − z 2) − 0.7 m −
3.5996 kPaa(

9.7728 3
m
m2
1 kPaa
kN
)

For 732 mm Hg or 97.59197368 kPaa :

2.75=

kN kN

[ 97.59197368 kPaa(
kN
9.7728 3
m
m 2

1 kPaa
)
+1.82m+
m
(1.22 )
s
m
2

2(9.807 2 )
s
]
− ( z s − z 2 ) −0.7 m −
3.5996 kPaa(
kN
9.7728 3
m
m2
1 kPaa
)

z s − z 2=8.0636 m

Since the water tank is below the pump suction centerline, it is advisable to have
shorter distance between the bottom of the tank and the pump suction. Therefore the
recommended location for the pump suction is 7.4361m above the bottom of the tank.

References:

 Douglas, J. F./ Gasiorek, J. M./ Swaffield, J. A. Fluid Mechanics, 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall
 Streeter, V. L./ Wylie, E. B./ Bedford, K. W. Fluid Mechanics, 9 th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co.
 White, F. M. Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
 http://udel.edu/~inamdar/EGTE215/Laminar_turbulent.
 http://pessoal.utfpr.edu.br/mannich/arquivos/whi38447_appA
 http://www.metropumps.com/ResourcesFrictionLossData.
 http://www.sugartech.co.za/piping/npsh/index.php

5-15
5-16